INDIAN CONTRIBUTION TO THE WORLD OF SCIENCE

Vedic Science Research Centre Plot No:32, C.V.Kovil Street, R.K.Nagar, Alwarthirunagar, Chennai-87,

Phone:+ 91-44-24862832 e-mail:gauthaman@lycos.com

Mathematics Mathematics has its roots in Vedic

literature which is nearly 4000 years old.

Between 1000 B.C. and 1000 A.D. various treatises on mathematics were authored by Indian mathematicians in which were set forth for the first time, the concept of zero, the techniques of algebra, square root and cube root.

Geometry is called Rekha-Ganita Even the technique of calculation,

called algorithm, which is today widely used in designing soft ware programs (instructions) for computers was also derived from Indian mathematics.

This method of graduated calculation was documented in the Pancha-Siddhantika (Five Principles) in the 5th Century But the technique is said to be dating from Vedic times circa 2000 B.C.

ALGEBRA

In ancient India conventional mathematics termed Ganitam was known before the development of algebra. This is borne out by the name - Bijaganitam, which was given to the algebraic form of computation. Bijaganitam means 'the other mathematics' (Bija means 'another' or 'second' and Ganitam means mathematics).

GEOMETRY In the area of Geometry, Indian

mathematicians had their contribution. There was an area of mathematical applications called Rekha Ganita (Line Computation). The Sulva Sutras, which literally mean 'Rule of the Chord' give geometrical methods of constructing altars and temples. The temples layouts were called Mandalas. Some of important works in this field are by Apastamba, Baudhayana, Hiranyakesin, Manava, Varaha and Vadhula.

Many motifs in Hindu temples and Palaces display a mix of floral and Geometric patterns.

The Buddhist Pagodas borrowed their plan of construction from the geometric grid of the Mandala used

for constructing temples in India

(A majestic Pagoda at Bangkok)

Zero

In ancient India the terms used to describe zero included Pujyam, Shunyam, Bindu the concept of a void or blank was termed as Shukla and Shubra. The Arabs refer to the zero as Siphra or Sifr from which we have the English terms Cipher or Cypher. In English the term Cipher connotes zero or any Arabic numeral. Thus it is evident that the term Cipher is derived from the Arabic Sifr which in turn is quite close to the Sanskrit term Shubra.

The concept of Shunyata, influenced South-east asian culture through the Buddhist concept of Nirvana 'attaining salvation by merging into the void of eternity'

(Ornate Entrance of a Buddhist temple in Laos)

The Vedas contain 16 sutras (formulae) and 13 sub sutras (corollaries)

Solving equations, Factorization, Highest common factor, quadratic equations, bi - quadratic equations, multiple simultaneous equations, partial fractions, calculus, Apollonius theorem, Analytical conics etc are some of the striking examples of our mathematical wisdom.

The Hindus Several Centuries before pythogorous knew the theorem, which postulates that the sum of the square of two sides of a right angled triangle will be equal to the square of the hypotenuse of the right-angled triangle.

Aryabhatta related the diameter of a circle to the circumference and the area by a constant value 3.142857143

r sin is known as ajya during those times. A sin table for various angles is available and they're used for calculations in Astronomy. This shows the Hindu knowledge on trigonometry.

Astronomy

In India the first references to astronomy are to be found in the Rig Veda

In Indian languages, the science of Astronomy is today called Khagola-shastra.

Khagola perhaps is derived from the famous astronomical observatory at the University of Nalanda which was called Khagola. It was at Khagola that the famous 5th century Indian Astronomer Aryabhatta studied and extended the subject.

The Nalanda University once housed 9 million books. It was the center of education for scholars from all over Asia. Many Greek, Persian and Chinese students studied here. The university was burnt down by pillaging invaders who overran India in the 11th century

The Calculation of Eclipses And The Earth's

Circumference Indian astronomers also propounded the

theory that the earth was a sphere. Aryabhatta was the first one to have propounded this theory in the 5th century. Another Indian astronomer, Brahmagupta estimated in the 7th century that the circumference of the earth was 5000 yojanas. A yojana is around 7.2 kms. Calculating on this basis we see that the estimate of 36,000 kms as the earth's circumference comes quite close to the actual circumference known today

This facsimile is from thePancha-siddhantika (Five Principles)dated around the 5th century. This text graphically shows how eclipses are to be calculated. Thus this text foreshadows what Western Astronomers propounded nearly one thousand years later

THE HELIOCENTERIC THEORY OF GRAVITATION

The Sanskrit term for gravity is Gurutvakarshan which is an amalgam of Guru-tva-akarshan. Akarshan means to be attracted. Thus the fact that the character of this force was of attraction was also recognised. This apart, it seems that the function of attracting heavenly bodies was attributed to the sun.

Many ancient Indian astronomers have also referred to the concept of heliocentrism. Aryabhata has suggested it in his treatise Aryabhattiya. Bhaskaracharya has also made references to it in his Magnum Opus Siddhanta-Shiromani

The Sun is referred to as the 'centre of spheres' alongwith the term Guru-tva-akarshan which seemingly refers to the sun. The Vedas are dated around 6500 B.C. Thus the heliocentric idea could have existed in a rudimentary form in the days of the Rig Veda and was refined further by astronomers of a later age.

Brahmagupta, in the 7th century had said about gravity that "Bodies fall towards the earth as it is in the nature of the earth to attract bodies, just as it is in the nature of water to flow".

"Sarva Dishanaam, Suryaha, Suryaha, Suryaha."

This couplet means that there are suns in all directions. This couplet which describes the night sky as full of suns, indicates that in ancient times Indian astronomers had arrived at the important discovery that the stars visible at night are similar to the Sun visible during day time.

This temple was dedicated to Surya - the sun god Surya was referred to, in Vedic literature as the creator who himself revolves causing existence.

MEDICAL SCIENCE Medical Science was one area

were surprising advances had been made in ancient times in India. Specifically these advances were in the areas of plastic surgery, extraction of cataracts, dental surgery, etc., These are not just tall claims. There is documentary evidence to prove the existence of these practices.

An artist's impression of an operation being performedin ancient India. In spite ofthe absence of anesthesia, complex operations were performed

SHASTRAKARMA-THE ART OF SURGERY

The practice of surgery has been recorded in India around 800 B.C. This need not come as a surprise because surgery (Shastrakarma) is one of the eight branches of Ayurveda the ancient Indian system of medicine. The oldest treatise dealing with surgery is the Shushruta-Samahita (Shushruta's compendium). Shusruta who lived in Kasi was one of the many Indian medical practitioners who included Atraya and Charaka.

Shushruta was one of the first to study the human anatomy. In the ShusrutaSamahita he has described in detail the study of anatomy with the aid of a dead body. Shusruta's forte was rhinoplasty (Plastic surgery) and ophthalmialogy (ejection of cataracts). Shushruta has described surgery under eight heads Chedya (excision), Lekhya (scarification), Vedhya (puncturing), Esya (exploration), Ahrya (extraction), Vsraya (evacuation) and Sivya (Suturing).

Shushruta -8th Century B.C.

Surgical tools used in ancient India

AYURVEDA-THE SCIENCE OF LONGEVITY

This is the indigenous system of medicine in India. Ayurveda literally means 'the science of living' (longevity). Ayu means life and Veda means knowledge.

The medical system of Ayurveda draws heavily from the doctrines developed in the Charaka-Samahita. The main quality which Ayurveda has borrowed from Charaka is its aim of removing the cause for illness and not just curing the disease itself

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY It would be surprising for many Indians today to know that the

concepts of atom (Anu, Parmanu) and relativity (Sapekshavada) were explicitly stated by an Indian philosopher nearly 600 years before the birth of Christ.

The first Indian philosopher who formulated ideas about the atom in a systematic manner was Kanada who lived in the 6th century B.C. Another Indian philosopher, Pakudha Katyayana who also lived in the 6th century B.C. and was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha, had also propounded ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world.

CHEMISTRY

Indian ideas about chemistry grew by experimentation. The areas of application of the principle of chemistry were the smelting of metals, the distillation of perfumes and fragrant ointments, the making of dyes and pigments, the extraction of sugar, etc.

In ancient India, chemistry was caled Rasayan Shastra, Rasa-Vidya, Rasatantra and Rasakriya all of which roughly mean 'Science of liquids'. There also existed chemical laboratories and chemicals works, which were called Rasakriya-nagaram and Rasakriya-shala which literally mean 'School where liquids are activated'.

A chemist was referred to as a Rasadnya and Rasa-tantra-vid which mean 'Person having knowledge about liquids. Apart from the term Rasa which means liquid, another word, Dravya which means slurry, was also used to refer to chemicals. Thus, in ancient India, chemistry was evidently developed to a significant level.

Nagarjuna was one such practitioner of the technique of combining various metals in order to invent a superior metal

This image of Nataraja the God of Dance is made of five metals (Pancha-Dhatu) This technology of mixing two or more metals is to derive superior alloys

This exquisite mirror work is inlaid on a base of gold and brass. This dates back to the 12th century.

The Makara (Spire) over Hindu temples were always adorned with brass or gold toppings (Kamandals).

The Iron Pillar at Delhi The Iron Pillar at Delhi is one such instance. This Pillar,

located near the Kutab Minar, is estimated to have been cast in the Gupta period i.e. about 1500 years ago. The Pillar is 7.32 meters in length, tapering from a diameter of 40 cms at the base to 30 cms, at the top and it weights about 6 tonnes. It has been standing in open for more than a millennium in the heat, dust and rain, but except for the natural erosion it has not caught rust. This kind of a rust-proof iron had not been smelted anywhere else in the world, till we invented the stainless steel a few decades ago.

ARCHITECTURE AND CIVIL ENGINEERING

The Science of Architecture and Civil Construction was known in Ancient India as Sthapatya-Shastra. The word Sthapatya is derived from the root word Sthapana i.e. 'to establish'. The technique of architecture was both a science and an art, hence it is also known as Sthapatya-kala, the word Kala means an art.

Panel at Khajuraho created in the 10th century in Madhya Pradesh in Central India

Boddhisattvas (huge Buddha Statues) at Bamiyan in Afghanistan These statues were carved out of this hillside in the 1st Century under the patronage of the Kushana emperor Kanishka (These are the statues which the Taliban has blown up)

Another panel from Khajuraho Note the intricate and fine outline of the figurines carved.The temples were completed over a period of 200 years

The Mandala was a blueprint for any Vastu (edifice) Vastu-Shastra was an amalgam of architecture and theology

A finely sculpted panel from Rajasthan ( Indian Pierced Marble work)

This pagoda complex at Phnom Phnem in Cambodia displays Indian influences in its central spires.

This magnificent Pagoda at Bongkok

has its own unique style which is an amalgam of Indian and Chinese styles

The majesty of this grand temple complex at Khajuraho has to be seen to be believed

The inter-locking dome of the Stupa was to be the prototype for the domes (over Mosques and churches) that were built later by Romans and Arabs

Panel at Borobudur in Indonesia Note that the carving looks exactly Indian.

Borobudur in Indonesia is a temple complex devoted to Buddha This complex was built in the the 7th CenturyBorobud means "Big Buddha"

SHIPBUILDING AND NAVIGATION Sanskrit and Pali literature has

innumerable references to the maritime activity of Indians in ancient times. There is also one treatise in Sanskrit, named Yukti Kalpa Taru

The Yukti Kalpa Taru gives sufficient information and date to prove that in ancient times, Indian shipbuilders had a good knowledge of the materials which were used in building ships. Apart from describing the qualities of the different types of wood and their suitability in shipbuilding, the Yukti Kalpa Taru also gives an elaborate classification of ships based on their size

The depiction of a ship in the Ajanta murals Sea-faring was respected occupation in ancient times in India

A panel found at Mohenjodaro, depicting a sailing craft.

MACCHA-YANTRA - THE ANCIENT INDIAN

MARINER'S COMPASS

The early Hindu astrologers are said to have used the magnet, in fixing the North and East, in laying foundations, and other religious ceremonies. The Hindu compass was an iron fish that floated in a vessel of oil and pointed to the North. The fact of this older Hindu compass seems placed beyond doubt by the Sanskrit word Maccha Yantra, or fish machine, which Molesworth gives as a name for the mariner's compass".

A model of how a ship constructed in ancient times could have looked. Some of the coins in the background depict sea-faring vessels

Space Science The samara sutradhara is a scientific treatise

dealing with every possible angle of air travel in a vimana. There are 230 stanzas dealing with the construction, take-off, cruising for thousands of miles, normal and forced landings and even possible collusion with birds.

In 1875 the vimanika sastra, a fourth century B.C. text written by Bharathvaja the wise, using even older texts as his source, was rediscovered in a temple in India.

It dealt with the operation of vimanas and included information on the steering, precautions for long flights, protection of the air ships from storm and lightning and how to switch the drive to solar energy from a free energy source which sounds like anti gravity.

The vimanika sastra has eight chapters with diagrams, describing three types of aircrafts, including apparatuses that could neither catch on fire nor break. It also mentions 31 essential parts of these vehicles and 16 materials from which they are constructed, which absorb light and heat; for which reasons they were considered suitable for the construction of vimanas.

THE FINE ARTS In the area of the fine arts too

the Indian psyche has proved itself to be quite fertile. An Indian is generally familiar with the different classical dance styles that today exist in India, like Bharat Natyam, Kathak, Manipuri, Odissi, Kuchipudi, Mohini Attam apart from the folk dance like karakam, oyilattam, Bhangra and Garba.

These dancers from Bali in Indonesia show clearIndian influences.

MUSIC Emphasis on recitation, correct pronunciation

lead to studies in phonetics and sound manupulation. This was the birthplace of Indian Musical Raga (metre) and Swaras (rhymes).

The oldest text of the world “vedas” are presented in a musical form

Indian vocal music is broadly divided into two schools viz. the Hindustani or north Indian school and the Carnatic or South Indian school.

The main Indian musical instruments are the Sarod, the Veena, the Sarangi, the Tambora, the Harmonium, the Ghata, the Tabla, the Tanpura, the Satar, etc

An artiste with his Tambora. The English word Tambour is derived from the term "Tambora".

PAINTING The very first works of visual art

created in the Indian sub-continent were primitive cave or rock paintings

The largest number of discoveries are in Central India, on sandstone rock shelters within a hundred mile radius around Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh. these paintings are dated at around 5500 B.C.

paintings on stone surfaces found at Ajanta and Ellora which are said to have been done in around 400 A.D

This painting at Ajanta in Western India, was done in the 5th Century It was done using vegetable colours and has survived for 1,500 years.

SPORTS AND GAMES

In the area of recreation and sports India had evolved a number of games. One would be surprised to know today that games like, Chess, Snakes and Ladders, Playing Cards, Polo, the martial arts of Judo and Karate had originated in India and it was from here that these games were transmitted to foreign countries, where they were further developed

Kalaripayat from Kerala was transmitted to China by a sage named Boddhidharmain the 5th century

PHILOSOPHY "In religion, India is the only millionaire ....

The One land that all men desire to see and having seen once, by even a glimpse, would not give that glimpse for all the shows of all the rest of the globe combined". - Mark Twain ( American Author 1835-1910)

"It is already becoming clearer that a chapter which has a western beginning will have to have an Indian ending if it is not to end in the self-destruction of the human race... At this supremely dangerous moment in history the only way of salvation for mankind is the Indian Way. "

- Dr. Arnold Toynbee British Historian 1889-1975