index [fisheries.org] · See periphyton colonization, 90 definition, 276 die-offs, 316 epilithic, 98 epiphytic, 98 management techniques, 282–286 planktonic, 74, 276. See also phytoplankton

421

Index

A

acid blue 9+ acid yellow 23, 283, 284, 286, 290acidity, of pond bottoms, 77acid-sulfate soils, 77, 117adenosine triphosphate (ADP), 86aeration, 134–137 of community fishing ponds, 365–366 emergency, 135, 257–259 excessive, 139 of fee-fishing ponds, 332, 334 hypolimnetic, 130 before stocking, 260 in supersaturated waters, 136 of well water, 26 whole-lake, 130 for winterkill prevention, 139, 259aerators diffused-air, 74, 75, 136–137, 260, 334 for fee-fishing ponds, 334 for ice-covered ponds, 75, 319 paddlewheel, 135, 136, 137, 257, 334 propeller-aspirator-pump, 136, 137, 334 solar, 137, 138 surface, for winterkill prevention, 139 for thermal destratification control, 260 tractor power takeoff (PTO)-driven, 257 vertical pump, 136, 138, 334 wind-driven, 137, 138AERF Best Management Practices, 302aerial photographs, use in pond site selection, 28–29, 30AFS Rotenone SOP Manual (American Fisheries Society), 238, 244age-at-maturity, as stunting factor, 220–221aging, of ponds, sedimentation during, 80

agricultural watersheds, turbidity control in, 310agriculture as nutrient input source, 89 as water pollutant source, 115air temperature, 68, 263Alabama, 28, 54, 57–58, 71, 246Alabama Polytechnic Institute, 11algae adverse effects on ponds, 276–277 attached. See periphyton colonization, 90 definition, 276 die-offs, 316 epilithic, 98 epiphytic, 98 management techniques, 282–286 planktonic, 74, 276. See also phytoplankton propagules, 90algaecides, 283, 284–285algal blooms. See also phytoplankton blooms adverse effect on ponds, 282 in eutrophic ponds, 276 for macrophyte control, 297algal scum, 74, 128, 139algal toxins, 127, 129, 143, 276 management, 132–133alkalinity in algaecide use, 283 alum’s effect on, 311 in aquaculture ponds, 65 in fee-fishing ponds, 333 liming-based increase in, 117–118 low, 61, 117 relationship to water hardness, 65 total, 62–65, 311, 314, 333 turbidity treatment effects on, 311, 314alleopathic effects, of plants, 398alligatorweed, control, 287, 288, 292alligatorweed flea beetles, 287, 288allochthonous production, 106

422 Small Impoundment Management in North America

alternative stable state theory, 105–106alum for algae management, 286 application rates, 311, 312 for clay turbidity management, 311, 312 for phosphorus inactivation, 130–131 for pH reduction, 134, 261 for phytoplankton bloom control, 259, 297 water chemistry effects, 286aluminum, 77, 130, 261aluminum phosphate compounds, 117aluminum sulfate. See alumAmerican burreed, 102American Fish-Cultural Association, 10American Fish Culturists’ Association, 9–10American Fisheries Society (AFS), 10 AFS Rotenone SOP Manual, 238, 244 Fish Management Chemicals Subcommittee, 238 largemouth bass subspecies recognition by, 160American Life Project, 381American lotus, 102, 104American Sportfishing Association, 329ammonia in fee-fishing ponds, 333, 334 from fertilizers, 120 in hauling tanks, 172–173 sources, 261 toxicity levels, 261–262 un-ionized (UIA), 120, 261–262 in watershed runoff, 115ammonia nitrogen, toxicity, 133amoebic meningoencephalitis, 324amphibians basking logs, 393, 410 management, 392–393, 408–409 as predatory fish prey, 394 wetland habitat, 391Anderson, Richard O., 12, 14–16, 193, 196anesthetization, during fish transport, 174angler-catch data, 183, 208–209angler pressure, on community fishing ponds, 362anglers attitudes toward trophy fishing, 339 at community fishing ponds, 358, 360, 362–363, 366

handicapped, 330, 366 noncompliance with fishing regulations, 362–363 number of, in United States, 329 photographs of, 337angler satisfaction, 352, 355, 357–358angling economic importance, 8, 329 fish population effects, 222–223, 246 stunting and, 222–223angling exploitation, of predator populations, 15animal waste. See also manure as nutrient input source, 89 as water contaminant, 401antimycin, 237anti-seepage collars, 41, 42, 307aquaculture, 116, 281aquaculture ponds, 65, 136, 140Aquatic Ecosystem Restoration Foundation, 298, 302aquatic plant(s), 104–106. See also macrophytes, aquatic; specific types and species of plants categorization, 89 diverse communities, 103 growth requirements, 86, 87, 89 as habitat, 140 as primary producers, 89–104 problems associated with, 275–279 undesirable or invasive, 99–100 zonation, 73–74Aquatic Plant Control Research Program, 298, 302Aquatic Plant Information System, 302aquatic plant management, 317 alternative stable state theory, 105 biological control, 286–288 example, 299–301 information sources, 298, 302 integrated pest management (IPM), 298 mechanical control, 282, 295–296 physical control, 282, 296–297 planning stage, 279–282 techniques, 282–298aquifers, 53Arctic char, stunting in, 216, 219area, of ponds. See also volume, of ponds measurement, 279

423Index

areal air-flow rate criterion, for destratification, 139arid regions, 65, 397Arkansas, 355, 356, 362arrowhead (aquatic plant), 73arrowleaf, 103artificial structures, as habitat, 140–141, 361, 402–403assumption-of-the-risk agreements, 346AT ratio, 11, 15Auburn University, 10, 11, 50, 52, 215 Fisheries Research Unit, 80autotrophic production, 106auxin plant hormones, 290

B

bacteria biomass, 108 carbon production, 123 zooplankton predation, 123bacterial amendments, 133bacterial contamination, of livestock watering ponds, 401bacterial infections, 263bacterioplankton, 108badgers, effect on dams, 321bait live, prohibition of, 336, 345 sold at fee-fishing ponds, 336bait species, in community fishing ponds, 353balance, in ponds and fish communities, 11, 12, 182bald eagle, 393–394, 408basin runoff, 53basins, of ponds dry, 237 maintenance, 317–318 renovation, 236–237 soil suitability, 31 volume development index, 50, 52basking logs, for reptiles and amphibians, 393, 410bat houses, 403bathymetric maps, 239bats, 403, 411Bayluscide, 237beavers, 323, 393–394, 410–411

beetles, zonation, 73behavior, of fish of diseased fish, 263 in oxygen depletion, 256–257behavioral ecology, of early sexual maturation, 220belted kingfisher, 393–394, 395Bennett, George W., 12–14benthic barriers, for aquatic plant control, 296, 297benthic organisms copper toxicity, 262–263 rotenone toxicity, 238benthic zone, 73–74bentonite clay, for seepage control, 75Better Business Bureau, 386bicarbonate, 61, 63, 88“bicycle-accessible” fishing ponds, 353, 354bighorn sheep, watering sites, 411biodiversity, 115biological control, of aquatic plants, 286–288biological oxygen demand, in hypolimnetic ponds, 252biological productivity, 83–111. See also primary productivity; secondary productivity of aquatic food webs, 84–86biomass bacterial, 108 diatoms, 107 dinoflagellates, 107 periphyton, 99 phytoplankton, 94–98, 107 relationship to productivity, 96–98 submersed plants, 101, 277 turnover periods, 108–109biomass indices, 15biomass studies, 10–11bioturbulence, sediment effects of, 79bird houses, 403birds. See also waterfowl; individual species diets, 395 pond habitats, 392–394 rotenone toxicity, 238bird watching, near wildlife ponds, 395bispyribac, 284, 290–291black bass, 141, 156blackbirds, 394black crappie, 115, 158, 164


blogs, 356, 383blue catfish, 331, 339bluegill. See also largemouth bass-bluegill combination angling effects on, 222 characteristics, 161 as community fishing pond species, 357–358, 363, 364 coppernose, stocking, 160, 162 density-related stunting, 218 diet, 160 as egg predators, 160 feeding, 203 fire ant ingestion, 265 first pond ecological study, 10 food sources, 202 gravel substrates, 141 habitat structures, 140 hauling tank conditions, 174 largemouth bass recruitment effects, 160 minimum lengths, 189 negative characteristics, 160 parasite or disease-related die-offs, 264 pond fertilization effects, 121, 125 positive characteristics, 160 predation vulnerability, 160 relative weight (Wr) value, 196 rotenone toxicity, 241 as self-sustaining species, 160 socially-mediated sexual maturation, 220, 223, 224 spawning, 160 species competitive with, 166 stocking, 157, 162 strain-specific characteristics, 160, 162 stunted, 219, 222, 228 sustainability, 160 time to first harvest, 175 trophy-size, 202–203bluegill-redear sunfish combination, 181bluegill x green sunfish hybrid, 170blue-green algae accessory pigments, 91 adverse effects on ponds, 276 atmospheric nitrogen utilization, 122 buoyancy, 74

carbon dioxide assimilation in, 92 characteristics, 89 control, 122, 132–133, 259 decomposition, 257 excessive accumulations, 127 as fish off-flavor cause, 134 gas vacuoles, 139 grazing resistance, 93–94 growth in low light, 91 ichthyotoxins, 97, 122 mechanical circulation, 139 nitrogen-fixing ability, 92 pH effects, 130 photo-oxidation-related die-offs, 254 toxins, 97, 122, 132 water temperature requirements, 93boating, safety practices, 319boat ramps, 45, 366boats, prohibition from community fishing ponds, 366body size variation, 215. See also stunted fishboron, as micronutrient, 87borrow pits, 25bottom, of ponds. See also bottom soils; seepage acidity, 77 air-diffuser systems for, 74 effect on wildlife use, 392–393 oxygenation, 130 pH, 77 structural habitats, 44bottom-feeding fish, as turbidity cause, 309bottom sampling, 317bottom soils, 75–80 anaerobic, 79, 130 liming, 117–118 organic matter content, 77–78, 79, 133 oxygenation, 138 pH, 317–318 sedimentation, 79–80 soil profile, 77–78 soil triangles, 75, 76 soil-water substrate exchange in, 78–79bottom-up control, of ecosystems, 85–86botulism, 315bowfin, rotenone toxicity, 241

425Index

bridges, 45brown bullhead, stocking, 158brush piles, 44, 410bubble diffusers, for winterkill prevention, 139buckwheat, 402buffering capacity, of water, 117buffers, vegetative, 45–46, 129, 394–395, 401, 409bullfrogs, 401, 409bullheads as community fishing pond species, 357–358, 363, 364 rotenone tolerance, 237 rotenone toxicity, 239, 240, 241 stocking, 158, 164 as turbidity cause, 309bulrush, hardstem, 279burreed, 279, 402burrowing animals, effects on dams, 308, 320–321, 322, 410–411burrowing sites, in embankments, 393butterfly valves, 396

C

calcite, 66calcium liming as source of, 117 as nutrient, 66, 87 in total dissolved solids, 61 as water hardness cause, 65–66calcium carbonate, 62–65, 63–65, 64, 117calcium hydroxide, 311calcium nitrite, 131calcium phosphate, 78–79calcium silicate, 62–63calcium sulfate, hydrated. See gypsum, agricultural gradeCanada geese, 403, 404, 406carbamate insecticides, LC50 toxicity, 69carbon balance with nitrogen and phosphorus, 88 as limiting nutrient, 88 as macronutrient, 87 in photosynthesis, 61carbonate, 61, 64, 65, 88carbon dioxide in fee-fishing ponds, 333, 334

in hauling tanks, 172, 174 ionic equilibrium in water column, 88 in primary productivity, 65, 88, 92 relationship with alkalinity, 62–65carbonic acid, equilibrium with carbon, 88carbon sinks, 8, 115carbon storage, in ponds, 8career opportunities, in small impoundment management, 373carfentrazone-ethyl, 284, 290, 291carotene, 87carp, 9, 240, 331. See also common carp; grass carpcatch-and-release, 14, 362, 364catchments, 49, 58, 89catfish. See also blue catfish; bullheads; channel catfish; hybrid catfish in bacterial-amended ponds, 133 as community fishing pond species, 357–358, 362 stocking, 163–164, 169–170catfish feed, commercial, 126catfish “only” stocking, 169–170catfish ponds, aeration, 136cattails, 73, 101, 102 as late successional species, 397 as nuisance plants, 398 in wildlife ponds, 279, 394, 398, 407Center for Invasive and Aquatic Plants, 298, 302Central States Pond Management Work Group, 14–15, 197Central States Small Impoundment Work Group, 15centrarchid fishes, gravel substrates, 141CFT Legumine™, 239chaining, as aquatic plant control technique, 300channel catfish characteristics, 159 commercial feeding, 126 as community fishing pond species, 358, 363, 364 density-related stunting, 218 as fee-fishing pond species, 28, 331 hauling tank conditions, 174 as recreational fishing pond species, 339 rotenone toxicity, 237, 241


as self-sustaining species, 159 stocking, 157, 159, 163–164channel catfish x blue catfish hybrid, 163, 169Chara, 276–277chemical contamination, of fish, 323chemical energy, 86chemical environment, of ponds, 59, 61–68chemical renovation, of ponds, 236, 237–244chemicals. See also herbicides; insecticides; pesticides; piscicides application to ponds, 116chemical toxicants, as fish kill cause, 262–263children drowning prevention, 319 on recreational sports fishing properties, 346 swimmer’s itch prevention in, 323children-and-seniors only ponds, 365children-only ponds, 365China, fish culture practices, 9chironomid midge larvae, 107chloramines, 360chloride, 61, 87, 115, 334chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides, LC50 toxicity, 69chlorine, 360chlorophyll a, phytoplankton content, 94chlorophylls, light wave absorption in, 87circulation, of water, 137–139clay liners, for pond leak repair, 308clay particles flocculation and precipitation, 65, 310 as turbidity cause, 309, 310, 311–315clay soil, 30 classification, 76 in dams, 39 as percentage of pond soil, 75, 76 sedimentation, 79 soil triangles, 76 transport to pond site, 31Clean Water Act, 33, 34, 114, 116, 358cloudy weather, 87, 253, 254, 255clupeids, as prey species, 166coal mine drainage, 261cobalt, as micronutrient, 87cockleburs, 398cod, hatchery-raised, 9Code of Federal Regulations, 116

coffeeweed, 398coldwater fish, 67, 209coldwater ponds, as rainbow trout habitat, 45colonization, 90Columnaris infections, 263common carp as community fishing pond species, 363 effect on wildlife pond use, 394 as fee-fishing pond species, 331 rotenone toxicity, 238, 241 stocking, 158 as turbidity cause, 309common (northern) bluegill, stocking, 160, 162common reed, 398community fishing ponds, 351–372 accessibility, 353, 354 amenities, 366 angler pressure on, 362 “bicycle-accessible,” 353, 354 catch rates, 355 characteristics, 352–354 as constituent-centric fisheries, 358, 360 fish assemblages, 353 fish habitats, 361 fish harvest, 362 fishing clinics and derbies, 354, 357–358, 367 fish population renovations, 363–364 habitat degradation, 352–353 habitat improvement, 365–366 ideal traits, 354–355 marketing programs, 355–357 as outdoor classrooms, 358, 359 outreach programs, 355–357 regulations, 362–363, 364–365 safety and security considerations, 355, 361, 366 special events, 367 stocking strategies, 355, 357–358, 362, 363–364, 365 water quality, 358, 359, 360–361 water quantity, 360compaction. See soil compactioncompensation point depth, of solar radiation, 73, 91competition, 85, 263

427Index

condition indices, 192–196construction, 23–48 adverse effects on watersheds, 316 community fishing ponds, 353 contractors, 35 costs, 35–36, 37–38 dams, 36–39, 307 depth considerations, 31–32 embankment ponds, 24, 26 equipment, 35 excavated ponds, 49–50 fee-fishing ponds, 330 fish habitat considerations, 43–45 goals and objectives, 27–28 land use practices considerations, 23 levee ponds, 24, 25 permits for, 32–33, 116 planning stage, 27–34 pond size, 30 process, 36 recreational fishing ponds, 28 recreational multiple-use ponds, 27 for seepage rate minimization, 57 site preparation and staking, 34 site selection, 28–31 soil suitability consideration, 30–31 storm even frequency design consideration, 43 water management structures, 39–43 water sources and water quality considerations, 26–27construction sites erosion, 310 turbid runoff, 68consultants government agency employees, 378 guidelines for selection, 386 liability issues, 388 personality, 385, 387 private sector, 375, 385–388 regional availability, 387 services provided, 387–388“cookie cutters,” for aquatic plant removal, 295, 296coolwater fish, dissolved oxygen requirements, 334

Cooperative Extension Service (CES), 116, 117, 129, 376–377 aquatic plant management information from, 298, 302 career opportunities, 373 cooperation with state fish and wildlife agencies, 377 fisheries specialists, 377 logic model approach, 378, 379Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Units, 376copper as algaecide/herbicide, 283, 284, 290, 291 from mine drainage, 261 as nutrient, 66, 87 toxicity, 262–263 in watershed runoff, 115coppernose bluegill, stocking, 160, 162copper sulfate, 129 for leech control, 324 for snail control, 323 toxicity, 262, 263core samplers, 317core trenches (keyways), 39Cornell University, 12cottonseed meal, as turbidity treatment, 315cover crops, 310crappie black, 115, 158, 164 characteristics, 159, 161 predators, 15 as recreational fishing pond species, 339 as self-sustaining species, 159 sterile triploid, 171 stocking, 159, 164, 171–172crayfish, 161, 168–169creek chubsucker, characteristics, 161creel limits, 364creel surveys, 360, 362creeping burhead, 102crops, as waterfowl food source, 402cutgrass, 102, 103cutting, as aquatic plant control technique, 295, 296, 300cyanobacteria. See blue-green algaeCyrtobagous salviniae, 287, 288


D

2,4-D, 284, 290dams. See also spillways construction, 36–39, 307 cost estimation, 37–38 downstream effects, 374 for embankment ponds, 26 erosion, 39, 74 failure, 319–321 freeboards, 41 general maintenance, 316–317 grass coverage, 39, 316 monitoring and maintenance, 319–321 mowing, 316 permits for, 34 placement, 28, 30 site preparation, 36, 38–39 site selection, 34 slopes, 39 soil suitability, 30–31 top widths, 39, 40 use as roads, 39 water seepage under/through, 307, 308, 319 weight, 38day length, effect on primary productivity, 86, 90–91decomposition aquatic plants, 84, 101 blue-green algae, 257 in food webs, 84 organic fertilizers, 120, 124 organic matter, 79, 108, 255, 260 as oxygen depletion cause, 259 phytoplankton blooms, 252–253 plankton, 71 woody debris, 140deer, watering sites, 411deer lease agreements, 343deforestation, 28, 30de-icing, 139. See also ice-covered pondsdense populations, disease transmission in, 263density-dependent growth, 218–219, 223 effect of protected slot length limits on, 225, 226–227, 228

depth, of ponds for aquatic vegetation control, 317 of bird and wildlife habitats, 392, 405, 406, 408 of community fishing ponds, 354, 355 compensation point, 73, 91 as construction consideration, 31–32 for emergent plant communities, 106 of fee-fishing ponds, 330 geographical factors, 114 measurement, 279–280 for periphyton, 98–99 phytoplankton photosynthesis relationship, 92 for rooted submersed plant communities, 106 slope, 31 thermal stratification effects, 71, 72 water temperature relationship, 318 water volume relationship, 52depth finders, 279–280, 317depth profiles, 317derbies, fishing, 354, 357–358, 367destratification. See also thermal stratification areal air-flow rate criterion, 139 circulation-based, 137–139 as oxygen depletion cause, 269 as phytoplankton increase cause, 107 rain-related, 74 types, 70–72detritivores, 84detritus, 84, 108, 392. See also organic matterdiatoms, 89–90, 92, 107diet. See also feeding, supplemental; fish feeds ontogenetic shifts, 219dilution, for water quality improvement, 131dinoflagellates, 89–90, 107dioxin contamination, of fish, 323dipnets, for electrofishing, 185diquat, 283, 284, 290, 291, 299disease. See also human health issues in fee-fishing pond fish, 332, 333 as fish kill cause, 263–265 livestock waste-related, 142–143 mosquito-borne, 321–322

429Index

parasitic, 263–265 prevention, 264 stress-related, 251disking, 397, 398, 407dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration daily fluctuations, 66–67 in fee-fishing ponds, 333, 334 in hauling tanks, 172–173 monitoring, 318dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration depletion, 97, 103–104 in anaerobic sediment, 79 in community fishing ponds, 365 destratification-related, 67 effects on warmwater fish, 67, 68 as fish kill cause, 134–136, 251–260 free-floating plants-related, 103–104 herbicide-related, 289 under ice cover, 74 phytoplankton bloom-related, 125, 253, 254, 276 prevention, 259–260 reduced sunlight-related, 255 remediation, 257–259 signs of, 134–136 thermal stratification effects, 71, 72 turnover-related, 114, 134, 252–253 in winterkill, 255dissolved oxygen meters, 258–259dissolved substances, separation from particulate matter, 59, 61diversion channels, 28dolomite, 66downstream waters, 243, 374drainage basin area, of ponds compared with reservoirs, 4draining algal colonization after, 90 for aquatic plant control, 296 liming after, 317–318 for organic matter removal, 317–318 pond refilling after, 237 as pond renovation method, 235–237 for sediment removal, 46, 80 for seepage control, 75 siphoning and siphon systems, 46, 235, 236drainpipes, leakage prevention near, 307

drawdowns, 296, 297, 300, 396, 406, 407dredges and dredging, 296, 297, 317drinking water, aquatic plant management implications, 281drop-board structures, 396, 397droughts, water levels during, 75drowning prevention, 319drugs, application to ponds, 116ducks brood habitat, 405 food sources, 394 migratory, 405–406 nesting habitat, 279, 404–405 plant food sources, 405–406 as swimmer’s itch vectors, 323 in wildlife impoundments, 403, 404, 405–406Ducks Unlimited, 397duckweed, 102, 278 control, 291 excessive nutrient loading-related growth, 282 as low dissolved oxygen concentration cause, 103–104 in low water flow ponds, 280 species, 103, 278 as sunlight reduction cause, 255 zonation, 73dyes, for aquatic plant control, 289, 290, 297

E

earthen impoundment structures. See damsearthmoving contractors, 35“easy to catch” fish species, 357–358ecological communities, zonation, 73–74ecological stoichiometry, 88ecological value, of ponds, 8economic value, of ponds and fishing, 8ecosystems. See also biological productivity bottom-up control, 85–86 creation and maintenance, 83 lentic, 89 top-down control, 85–86Ecosystems Mission Area, 376educational programs at community fishing ponds, 357–358, 359


of Cooperative Extension Service, 376–377 liability issues, 388 principles of, 378–385 products and activities for, 381–385 of state fish and wildlife management agencies, 377Edwards Lake, Texas, 340Egypt, ancient, fish culture practices, 9Ekman dredges, 317electrical conductivity, of water, 61–62electrofishing following fish kills, 271 largemouth bass catch rates, 207–208 for overabundant population reduction, 246 for proportional size distribution analysis, 185, 189, 196, 200, 208–209 in protected slot length limit simulation, 226–227 for relative abundance estimation, 189elevation contours, use in pond site selection, 28, 30embankment ponds construction, 24, 26 cost, 26 depth, 32 morphometry, 49–52 permits for, 34 shapes, 50, 51 site selection, 28 winterkill in, 25Embody, G.C., 12emergent plants, 89, 101–102 adverse effects on ponds, 279 benefits, 278 shoreline colonization, 106 water depth requirements, 106 for wildlife impoundments, 402, 405–406, 410, 411encephalitis, mosquito-borne, 321Endangered Species Act, 358endothall, 283, 284, 290, 291–292, 299epilimnion, 70, 71, 73, 252erosion from construction sites, 310

from dams, 39, 320, 321 from head-cuts, 29 logging-related, 316 sedimentation effects, 79 sources, 316 in watershed ponds, 80 wind-related, 74erosion control methods for eutrophication prevention, 129 sediment traps, 29, 31 for turbidity correction, 310 in watersheds, 59Escherichia coli O157:H7, 401esthetics of aquatic plants, 281 of community fishing ponds, 353, 361 of fee-fishing ponds, 330, 337, 338 of ponds, 8 of trees and vegetation, 46, 104 of urban ponds, 27euglenophytes, 89–90, 133Euhrychiopsis lecontei, 287, 288Eurasian milfoil, 100, 277–278 control, 286, 291, 295, 296European Pond Conservation Network, 115eutrophication of community fishing ponds, 365–366 cultural, 114 internal, 129–130, 131–132 in Midwestern states, 114 from nutrient-rich runoff, 115 in urban ponds, 365–366eutrophication control methods, 127–134 bottom withdrawal pipes, 41, 43 dilution methods, 131 hypolimnetic withdrawal, 131 nitrate use, 131 nutrient reduction, 129–130 sediment treatment or removal, 131–132eutrophic ponds, algal blooms, 276evaporation control, 140 measurement, 57–58 as phytoplankton bloom cause, 254 as pond water loss cause, 308 of precipitation, 28, 52–53evaporation pans, 57–58evapotranspiration, 53, 55, 58, 140

431Index

excavated ponds, 60 construction, 24–25, 59 cost, 24 depth contours, 24 from reclaimed excavations, 59 shorelines, 50 size, 24 water depth, 50 water sources, 59 winterkill in, 25excavation of pond basins, 236–237 for seepage repair, 308

F

Facebook, 356farm ponds. See also livestock watering ponds comparison with aquaculture ponds, 140 exemption from Clean Water Act, 116 rainfall as water source, 4 thermal stratification, 137–138fathead minnow characteristics, 161 rotenone toxicity, 241 stocking, 157, 167–168F/C ratio, 11federal agencies. See also specific agencies outreach functions, 374–376Federal Aid in Sport Fish and Wildlife Restoration programs, 375–376Federal Tort Claims Act, 388feeders, automatic, 127, 128feeding, supplemental, 125–127. See also fish feeds excessive, 253–254 in fee-fishing ponds, 331, 332 methods, 126–127 as oxygen depletion cause, 260 as phytoplankton bloom cause, 253–254, 255feeding rate, 125feeding rings, 127fee-fishing opportunities. See also fee- fishing ponds; recreational pond leasing economic importance, 329

fee-fishing ponds, 8, 329–333 for channel catfish, 28 characteristics, 330 construction, 330 economic analyses, 337–338 fish diseases and behavior, 332, 333 infrastructure, 334–336 liability insurance, 336 multiple, 330, 333 species selection and management, 331–333 theft prevention, 336 value-added amenities, 336–337fencing, around ponds, 45–46, 142, 345, 399, 400, 411ferns, zonation, 73fertility, of ponds and watersheds, 114, 119, 120, 125fertilization, of ponds, 10, 119–125. See also fertilizers as aquatic plant control technique, 297 benefits, 119–120 contraindications, 120 excessive, 253–254 geographic-specific recommendations, 114 as oxygen depletion cause, 259 purpose, 119 risks, 120 as winterkill risk factor, 74–75fertilized ponds, thermal stratification, 71, 72fertilizer materials, 122–123fertilizer platforms, 45fertilizers adverse effects on amphibians, 409 application methods, 123–124 determination of requirements, 121–122 food web effects, 84 granular, 121, 123 inorganic, 122, 123 on lawns, 89 liquid, 121, 124 organic, 122, 123 powder, 121, 124 rates per application, 121 time-release, 121 as water contaminants, 59


fetch, of wind, 70field days, 385field investigations, of fish kills, 265–266filamentous algae, 89, 99, 260 adverse effects on ponds, 127, 276 management techniques, 286filtration, for algae control, 286fingerling stocking, 377fire, prescribed, 398fire ants, 265, 330fish and wildlife agencies, 377 license sale databases, 357 marketing activities, 356–357fish-borne human diseases, 324Fish Commission, 9fish condition indices, 192–196fish consumption aquatic plant management implications, 281 from community fishing ponds, 360 contamination problem, 322–323 fish-borne disease transmission and, 324fish culture pond management and, 9–10 total dissolved solids concentrations in, 61Fish Culture on the Farm (Stranahan), 10fisheries management definition, 15–16 “rebirth,” 14fishes as amphibian predators, 409 “easy to catch” species, 357–358 as public trust resource, 374fish feeds, 126 decomposition, 255fish finders, depth measurement with, 280“fish handlers’ disease,” 324fishing. See also angling aquatic plant management implications, 281fishing clinics, 354, 357–358, 367fishing decks, 366fishing derbies, 354, 357–358, 367fishing piers. See piersfish kills. See also summerkill; winterkill algal toxins-related, 132, 133 bottom withdrawal pipes and, 41

chemical toxicants-related, 262–263 in deep sheltered ponds, 136 destratification-related, 318 disease-related, 263–264 investigations of, 265–267 in low-mineral waters, 117 massive, 257 mortality assessment, 267, 269–270, 271 organic matter decay-related, 255 oxygen depletion-related, 134–136, 251–260 parasitic disease-related, 263–264 phytoplankton die-off-related, 134, 253–254, 257, 276 population assessment, 267, 269, 271 recovery from, 267–271 in recreational ponds, 251–273 reduced sunlight-related, 255 rotenone-related, unintended, 243 surviving population assessment, 271 turnover-related, 252–253, 257 water chemistry-related, 260–262fish-out ponds, 329, 338fish processing services, as fee-fishing ponds, 336fish production in fertile versus infertile ponds, 119 food availability maximization for, 96–97 relationship to phytoplankton standing crops, 96–98fish suppliers, 172, 375flail choppers, for aquatic plant removal, 295, 296flannelmouth sucker, 196flathead catfish, 159, 164floating plants adverse effects on ponds, 278 control, 260 free-floating, 89, 101, 103–104 in low-flow ponds, 280 rooted, 89, 104 as sunlight reduction cause, 255 in wildlife impoundments, 402 zonation, 73

433Index

flood control, stream catchments in, 58flooding, for water-level management, 396–397flooding-tolerant trees, 402floods, spillways during, 43Florida Aquatic Plant Management Program, 302Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, 298flumioxazin, 284, 290, 291fluridone, 285, 289, 290, 292, 300, 398flushing, 75, 94, 107flushing time, 55–56Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 309food chains. See also food webs trophic levels, 119food plots, for wildlife impoundments, 401–402, 406food resources, relationship to density- dependent growth, 218, 219Food Security Act, Swampbuster provision, 33, 116food webs, 84–86 definition, 84 detrital, 108 established by stocking, 155 organic fertilizers’ effects on, 123 self-sustaining, 155 stocking-maintained, 155, 160freeboards, 41, 330Free Fishing Days, 363free-floating emergent plants, 101free-floating plants, 89, 103–104frogs, 393–394, 401, 409fungal infections, 263furan contamination, of fish, 323

G

gar, 237 spotted, 158gasping behavior, in fish, 333gate valves, 396Geer v. Connecticut, 374geographical factors, in pond management, 114Geographic Information Systems (GIS), 5–7

Georgia, 117Geosystems Research Institute, Invasive Species Program, 298, 302giant salvinia, 103, 278, 287gizzard shad, 224 as bluegill competitor, 166 characteristics, 161 cold tolerance, 245 as community fishing pond species, 364 handling-related stress, 175 rotenone management, 244, 245–246 stocking, 158, 166–167gleization, 309gley, 309Global Positioning Systems (GPS), 34, 279, 317glyphosate, 285, 290, 292golden algae, toxins, 132, 324golden-brown algae, 89–90golden shiners, 12, 161, 167, 241goldfish, 237, 241, 281, 283Google Earth, 279Google searches, on small impoundment management, 382government agencies. See also specific agencies consulting role, 378 as pond management information source, 374–375grain sorghum, 402grass carp, 280 as biological control agent, 286, 288, 298, 299grasses, 279, 316, 397, 402gravel, 76, 79gravel beds, 141, 237gravel pit ponds, 25gravel spawning beds, 44, 45grazing by livestock, 399–401, 409 by zooplankton, 93–94great blue heron, 393–394, 395green algae, 89–90greenhouse effect, 8green sunfish as community fishing pond species, 357–358, 363, 364


rotenone toxicity, 241 stocking, 158ground squirrels, 321groundwater, 24–25, 26, 54growth standardized data, 217 in stunted fish populations, 218–219growth rate estimation, 182 relationship to maturation, 220gulping behavior, in fish, 257gypsum agricultural grade, 64–65, 66, 311, 313–314 for calcium concentration increase, 64–65, 66, 133 for clay turbidity management, 311, 313–314 for fee-fishing ponds, 333

H

habitat, as pond construction consideration, 43–45habitat improvement, 140–142 of community fishing ponds, 365–366 during pond renovation, 237handicapped anglers, 330, 366handling, as stress cause, 175, 331–332harvesters, for filamentous algae removal, 286harvesting. See also largemouth bass- bluegill assessment and harvesting after stocking, 175 as aquatic plant control technique, 295, 296, 300 in community fishing ponds, 362hatcheries, history, 9–10hauling rates, 174hauling tanks, 172–174, 331–332hay, as turbidity treatment, 314–315head-cuts, 29hepatoxins, 276herbicide resistance, 290, 294–295herbicides, 129, 259–260 adjuvants, 294 contact, 288, 289 EPA-approved, 282, 288, 289 foliar application, 294 labels, 288, 292–294

registration, 289–292 regulations for use, 293–294 systemic, 288 toxicity, 69, 262, 293–294, 295, 409 toxicity testing, 293 use on wildlife impoundments, 398, 409herbivorous fish, 394hibernacula, for reptiles, 410hill ponds, 3hooking stress, 333hook-shy fish, 163, 332human health issues amoebic meningoencephalitis, 324 chemical and human waste contaminants, 322–323 drowning, 319 fish-borne diseases, 324 mosquito-borne diseases, 321–322 swimmer’s itch, 323hunting, 351, 395–396, 398hunting leases, 338hybrid catfish, as fee-fishing pond species, 331hybrid striped bass characteristics, 159 as community fishing pond species, 363, 364 hauling tank conditions, 174 prey population size structure, 227 as put-and-take species, 364 stocking, 159, 164–165, 171–172hybrid sunfish, 170, 363hydrants, dry, 9, 281hydraulic retention time (HRT), 54–55, 56, 75, 107hydrilla, 100, 277 control, 287, 291, 292hydrogen, 77, 87hydrogen sulfide, 262hydrologic cycle, 58hydrologic processes, in watersheds, 52–54hydromulching, 310hydrorakes, 286hypolimnetic water withdrawals, 131hypolimnion of anaerobic pond bottoms, 79 anoxic water, 260 bacterial biomass, 108

435Index

biological oxygen demand, 252 definition, 71 thermal stratification, 70, 71 as tropholytic zone, 73hypoxia, as mortality cause, 257

I

ice-covered ponds, 74–75 human rescues from, 319 ice melting in, 253 rotenone application, 243 thermal stratification, 253 winterkill, 78, 255–256ichthyotoxins, 97, 122Illinois, 12, 219Illinois Natural History Survey, 12–14, 338Illinois pondweed, 104imazamox, 285, 290–291imazapyr, 285, 290, 292immune response, in fish, 263Improvement of Lakes for Fishing (Hubbs and Eschmeyer), 10inflow, 54, 55, 75, 280insecticides, toxicity, 69, 409insects as biological control agents, 286, 287 zonation, 73integrated pest management (IPM), 298Internet, use in outreach programs, 356, 381–383invasive species. See also undesirable species largemouth bass, 156 plants, identification, 317 in pond water sources, 26–27invertebrates decomposed plant food sources, 84 habitats, 140, 392–394 rotenone toxicity, 238 as waterfowl and wildlife food source, 394, 405iron, 26, 61, 66, 87 ferrous, 79iron pyrite-containing soil, 77iron salts, for phosphorus removal, 131irrigation, 281islands, as waterfowl habitat, 393

J

jets, for destratification, 138–139

K

kingfishers, 408Kmag, 66Knox Pond, South Dakota, 226–227koi, 281, 283

L

lake(s) comparison to small impoundments, 4 types of thermal stratification in, 70Lake Buchanan, Texas, 362lake chubsucker, stocking, 168Lake Erie, 276Lake McConaughy, Nebraska, 362Lake Nieuwe Meer, Amsterdam, 139Lamprecid, 237lampricides, 237land-use practices as nutrient input cause, 89 for watersheds, 28–29largemouth bass all-female stocking protocol, 171 angling effects on, 222 as bluegill predator, 125 carrying capacity, 203–204 catch-and-release angling, 14 characteristics, 156, 159 as community fishing pond species, 358, 363, 364 as crappie predator, 15, 164 diet, 84 disadvantages as predator, 156 exploitation rate, 13–14 feed-trained, 126 first pond ecological study, 10 gender determination, 205 hauling tank conditions, 174 as invasive species, 156 littoral zone habitat preference, 156 minimum lengths, 189, 364 northern, 160


overharvesting, 15 pond construction for, 28 population density, 224–225 protected slot length limits, 225, 226–227, 228 as recreational fishing pond species, 339, 340–341 recruitment, 160 rotenone toxicity, 241 as self-sustaining species, 159 spawning, 156 standing stocks, 4 sterile, 171 stocking, 125, 156, 157, 159, 162, 171 strain-specific characteristics, 160 stunted, 219 time to first harvest, 175 trophy-size, 28, 169, 181, 204–205, 340–341, 364largemouth bass-bluegill assessment and harvesting, 181–213 balance in, 182 “bass crowded” populations, 198, 205 fish condition indices, 192–196 latitudinal variation, 205–207 panfish option, 202–203 predator option, 203–205 proportional size distribution (PSD) analysis, 197–202, 203–204 qualitative spawning and recruitment assessments, 183–184 relative abundance indices, 189, 192 relative weight/proportional size distribution measure, 201–202 relative weight (Wr) index, 192–196, 197 research needs, 207–209 seining-assessment method, 183–184 size structure analysis, 185–189largemouth bass-bluegill stocking combination, 12, 181 alternative stocking strategies, 12, 163–172, 227 balance in, 225 “bass crowded” populations, 198, 205 characteristics, 156, 160 daily feeding rates, 125 mortality assessment, 269, 271

in northern areas, 170–171 panfish option, 202–203, 225, 227 predator option, 203–205, 225 proportional size distribution analysis, 226–227 stocking, 156, 157, 159, 160–162 strain-specific stocking, 160, 162 stunted fish, 217, 225–228 sustainability, 156largemouth bass virus (LMBV), 263Larimore, Weldon, 13latitude, 114, 205–207, 208law enforcement, at community fishing ponds, 362–363lawns, 68, 89laws. See also regulations affecting pond management, 116lawsuits, 59, 388lead, 115, 261lead poisoning, in water birds, 396leaks, from ponds. See seepageleasing of fishing access, 8 hunting, 338 of recreational ponds. See recreational pond leasingleeches, 323–324legal issues, affecting pond management, 116. See also lawsuitslength-frequency data, for biomass assessment, 15length-frequency distribution, 185, 189. See also proportional size distribution (PSD)lentic ecosystems, 89lentic ponds, nutrient-rich runoff into, 115levee ponds, 24, 25, 59, 60levees, animal burrows in, 410–411liability, 388liability insurance, 336, 340, 347license sale databases, 357Liebig’s law of the minimum, 88light, 68–69 absorption/penetration in water, 68, 87 as biological productivity source, 83 compensation point depth, 73, 91 definition, 86 intensity, 86–87 limited, as fish kill cause, 255

437Index

phytoplankton response, 90–92, 105–106 as primary productivity requirement, 86–87, 90 range of tolerance to, 88 reflection, 87light attenuation, for aquatic plant control, 296, 297, 301light-dark oxygen method, for phytoplankton productivity estimation, 95–96light wavelengths, 86 absorption in water, 68, 87lime agricultural, 66, 77, 118, 119, 261, 317–318, 333 application, 118, 119 as clay turbidity treatment, 314 as gypsum substitute, 314 hydrated. See calcium hydroxide neutralizing efficiency (NE), 118 neutralizing value (NV), 118 slaked. See calcium hydroxidelimestone deposits, in watersheds, 58liming, 45, 117–118 for alkalinity increase, 65–66, 77 application rates, 314 of drained ponds, 317–318 of dry pond basins, 237 during pond renovation, 237liming materials, 118limiting factors, 88limnetic zone, 73littoral zone, 73, 98–99, 107, 156live bait, prohibition of, 336, 345livestock adverse effects on ponds, 29, 45, 316, 321, 401, 409 fencing, 45–46, 142, 399, 400, 407, 411livestock grazing, in wildlife impoundments, 399–401, 409livestock watering ponds, 46, 113, 142–143 algal toxins, 132 aquatic plant management, 282 wildlife impoundments as, 399–401loamy soil, in pond bottoms, 75logging, as erosion cause, 316logic model approach, to outreach and education, 379–381

longear sunfish, stunting in, 219Lyngbya, 276Lyngbya wollei, 276

M

macronutrients, 87macrophytes, aquatic decomposition, 255 as habitat, 140 largemouth bass population effects, 224–225 as oxygen depletion cause, 259 as periphyton substrate, 98 primary productivity effects, 84magnesium, 61, 65–66magnesium sulfate, 66maidencane, 102maintenance issues, in pond management clay turbidity, 309–315 general maintenance, 315–319 pond leaks, 307–309 safety and human health, 319–324maintenance logs, 315–319malaria, 321mallards, 404mammals. See also individual species impoundment management, 410–411 rotenone toxicity, 238Management of Lakes and Ponds (Bennett), 12manganese, 66, 79, 87manganous manganese, 79manure as pond contaminant, 29, 45, 142–143, 401 as pond fertilizer, 123 as pond sealant, 309 as turbidity treatment, 315marketing activities, 342–343, 355–357mass movement, in dams, 320, 322material safety data sheets (MSDS), 261mat-forming filamentous algae, 99maturation timing. See sexual maturation timingmechanical control, of aquatic plants, 282, 295–296mechanical mixers, for destratification, 138–139


membrane liners, for pond seepage repair, 308meningoencephalitis, amoebic, 324mercury, from mine drainage, 261mercury contamination, of fish, 323Microcystis, 276microcytins, 265micronutrients, 87Midwestern states bass proportional size distribution, 185 largemouth bass relative weight values, 196 oxygen-depleted ponds, 136 pond eutrophication, 114 trophy largemouth bass production, 205migratory waterfowl. See also specific individual of waterfowlwetland habitats, 391milfoil. See also Eurasian milfoil control, 290, 291millet, 402mine drainage, 261mineralization, measurement, 61–62mineral nutrients, 66minerals, solubility, 78–79minimum length regulations, 364mink, 410minnows. See also flathead minnow rotenone toxicity, 237Mississippi, 34, 114, 206, 207Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality, 34Mississippi Weed Control Guidelines, 298, 302Mississippi Weed Science Consortium, 298Missouri Cooperative Fishery Research Unit, 14mixers, mechanical, 138–139mixing, 139mold infections, 263molybdenum, as micronutrient, 87morphometry, of ponds, 49–52mortality assessment, in fish kills, 267, 269–270, 271 post-stocking, 175 size-specific, 221–223

mosquitoes, 321–322mosquito fern, 280mosquitofish, 161, 167, 322mounds, as pond habitat, 141, 142mourning doves, 407mowing, 316, 398, 407mudflats, 392, 406, 407multiple-use ponds, 9, 27, 83, 104–105muskrats, 321, 323, 410–411Mycoleptodiscus terrestris, 287, 288

N

Naegleria fowleri, 324National Fishing and Boating Week, 363National Hydrography Dataset, 5–7native plants, revegetation with, 287, 288Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), 23 career opportunities with, 373 cooperation with state fish and wildlife agencies, 377 as pond construction and management information source, 27, 28–29, 116, 129, 307, 375–376, 397Nebraska Department of Natural Resources, 34nematodes, 324nest boxes, 402–403, 405nesting platforms, 403, 404net present value (NPV), 341–342neutralizing efficiency (NE), 118New Hampshire, 28new ponds, 260, 307–308New York State, 12nighthawks, 408Nitella, 276–277nitrates, 131nitrite, 79, 333, 334nitrogen balance with carbon and phosphorus, 88 in fee-fishing ponds, 333 as limiting nutrient, 87, 88, 119–120 low concentrations, 66nitrogen fertilizers, 78, 119, 121nitrogen fixation, in blue-green algae, 92nitrogen-to-phosphorus (N:P) ratio, 122

439Index

North Carolina, 277North Carolina State Extension Service, 302North Carolina State University, 298, 302northern pike, 196, 219, 222, 241nuisance species, 398. See also invasive species; undesirable species elimination from wildlife impoundments, 401nutrient loading in community fishing ponds, 365 from livestock waste, 29, 45, 316 in suburban ponds, 68nutrient management, 129–131 biological productivity effect, 83nutrients. See also fertilizers allochthonous sources, 129 assimilation in plants, 87, 92, 100–101 availability, 88 bottom withdrawal pipe-based retention, 41, 42 as eutrophication cause, 127, 129–131 excessive, 253–254 flushing-related loss, 94 inorganic, 66 input sources, 89 macronutrients, 87 phytoplankton requirements, 105–106 in primary productivity, 87–89 water flow transport, 280nutrient sinks, 8

O

odors, algae-related, 276, 282off-flavor management, 134Ohio State University, 10oil fields, as pond pollution source, 316old fish, mortality causes, 263Omaha, Nebraska, 360, 362organic matter in bottom soil, 77–78, 79, 133 decomposition, 79, 108, 255, 260 for pH control, 134 photosynthetic production, 84, 86 in pond basins, 317 as pond sealant, 309

removal from pond basins, 236–237, 317–318 for turbidity control, 310organic particles, sedimentation, 79, 80organophosphate insecticides, toxicity, 69, 262osprey, 408outdoor classrooms, 358, 359outflow, 54, 55, 280outreach programs, 373–385 community fishing ponds, 355–357 Cooperative Extension Service (CES), 376–377 federal agencies, 374–376 liability issues, 388 logic model approach, 379–381 principles, 378–385 products and services, 381–385 public sector, 374–378overexploitation, 14over-fertilization, 134overharvesting, 15, 16overland flow, 53overtopping, of dams, 320, 322oxbow lakes, 5, 166oxidation-reduction (redox) potential, 87, 100, 131oxygen, 66–67, 86, 87oxygenation, 130. See also aeration definition, 136oxygen consumption, in sport fish ponds, 251oxygen depletion. See dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration depletionoxygen meters, 318

P

Pacific Northwest, Eurasian milfoil control, 295panfish option, 202–203 for stunted populations, 225, 227, 228parasitic diseases, as fish kill cause, 263–264parks, community fishing ponds in, 352, 353, 354, 360pathogens, as biological control agents, 287


Pawnee City, Nebraska, 359“pay lakes,” 329penoxsulam, 285, 290–291periphyton, 84, 89, 98–99permits dams, 34 herbicide application, 398 pond construction and operation, 32–33, 34, 116, 374 pond drainage, 236 pond renovation, 236 stocking, 172personal flotation devices, 319pesticide contamination, testing for, 261pesticides. See also algaecides adverse effects on amphibians, 409 LC50 concentrations, 68, 69 material safety data sheets (MSDS), 261 permits for, 116 as pond pollutants, 67–68 safety precautions, 323 use near fee-fishing ponds, 330pH alum-related decrease, 311 in blue-green algae blooms, 130 of bottom soil, 77, 317–318 effect on nutrient adsorption/ desorption, 87 equilibrium with calcium carbonate, 63–65 in fee-fishing ponds, 333, 334 in fish kills, 261 fluctuations, 64–65, 120, 133, 261 in herbicide use, 291 high, 133–134, 261 liming-related increase, 117 low, 261 in turbidity treatment, 311, 314phosphate fertilizers, 77phosphorus in acidic soils, 117 alum-based precipitation, 286 balance with carbon and nitrogen, 88 in fee-fishing ponds, 333 low concentrations, 66 as nutrient, 87, 88, 119

removal, 129, 130–131 uptake in submersed plants, 100 in watershed runoff, 115phosphorus dynamics, in ponds, 129–130phosphorus fertilizers, 61, 119–120, 121photographs of anglers, 337 use in pond and dam maintenance, 315, 319–320photosynthesis. See also primary productivity accessory plant pigments in, 87 carbon requirements, 61 effect on pH, 64–65, 261 photosystem I process, 291 in phytoplankton, 90–91, 92 in reduced sunlight, 255 relationship to respiration, 66–67, 73 in submersed plants, 100 in surface waters, 92photosynthetic quotient (PQ), 96Phragmites, control, 292Phragmites australis, 279phycobilin, 87physical control, of aquatic plants, 282, 296–297physical environment, of ponds, 68–75physiochemical characteristics, of ponds and watersheds, 49–81 bottom soils, 75–80 chemical environment, 59, 61–68 of excavated ponds, 59, 60 of levee ponds, 59, 60 physical environment, 68–75 water balance, 52–58phytoene desaturase, 292phytoplankton biomass, 94–98 biomass/productivity relationship, 96–98 biomass turnover, 109 characteristics, 89–90 colonization, 90 definition, 89 destratification-related increase, 107 eukaryotic, 89–90 factors affecting, 90–98

441Index

light intensity effects on, 90–92 mobility, 91 nutrient requirements, 66, 92, 105–106 primary productivity, 84, 90–91 primary productivity estimation, 94–98 prokaryotic, 89 requirements for growth, 105–106 resource competition, 107 seasonal variations, 90–91, 93, 107 self-shading process, 91 standing crops, 94–95, 97 suspension in water, 74 as turbidity cause, 127 undesirable density, 127 undesirable species, 90 washouts, 94 water circulation effects on, 139 water temperature requirements, 92–93phytoplankton bloom die-offs, 67, 252–253 as fish kill cause, 134, 253–254, 257phytoplankton blooms control, 297 dissolved oxygen concentration, 66–67 excessive, 253–254 fertilizer-induced, 120, 258 hydraulic retention time, 75 maintenance, 125 periphyton substrate in, 99 total dissolved solids concentration, 61 turnover effects, 252–253 water temperature effects, 68–69 water visibility in, 125phytoplankton communities, 90pickerel, 159, 165, 292pickerelweed, 280piers, 45 attraction of fish to, 128 of community fishing ponds, 354, 366, 367 of fee-fishing ponds, 330 habitat structures underneath, 141pike, 159, 165, 237piping behavior, of fish, 257, 333

piping (erosion), in dams, 320, 321piscicides. See also rotenone registered uses, 237, 238 use in wildlife impoundments, 401piscivores. See predatory fishPithophora, 276plankton. See also phytoplankton; zooplankton decomposition, 71 flushing from ponds, 75planktonic algae, 74, 276. See also phytoplanktonplant materials, as inorganic fertilizer, 123plants. See also aquatic plant(s); individual species of plants alleopathic effects, 398 elimination from dams, 321 growth requirements, 86, 87, 89 nuisance species, 398 nutrient assimilation, 87 primary productivity, 84, 85 tolerance ranges, 88 world’s smallest flowering, 278plant succession, 397–398pocket gophers, 321poikilothermic, definition, 127polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) contamination, of fish, 323pond(s) dimictic, 70 ecological studies, 3 “leaky,” 75 nonfisheries uses, 113 number of, in United States, 375 polymictic, 70 recreational and economic importance, 8–9 types, 24–26 uses, 280, 281–282 water balance, 54–58 water sources, 24–25, 26pond environment management, 113–152 aeration, 134–137 bacterial amendments, 133 circulation, 137–139 costs, 116 de-icing, 139 eutrophication control, 127–134 evaporation control, 140


feeding, 125–127 fertilization, 119–125 high pH control, 133–134 off-flavor management, 134 regulations and legal issues, 116 societal values affecting, 8, 114–115, 116pond maintenance. See maintenance issues, in pond managementpond management current status, 15–16 definition, 15–16 “father” of, 10–11 fish culture and, 9–10 geographical considerations, 114 goals and objectives, 16–17 history, 3, 9–15 priorities, 113 scientific, 1–15pond managers, role, 4pond outreach. See outreachpond resources, in United States, 4–8pondweed, 73, 100, 104, 402 control, 290population density, as growth determinant, 218–219, 223population renovations. See renovation, of pondspopulation size structure of high-density populations, 218–219 standardized data, 217population size structure analysis. See also proportional size distribution (PSD) of largemouth bass-bluegill ponds, 185–189potassium, 61, 87potassium magnesium sulfate fertilizers, 66potassium permanganate, for rotenone neutralization, 244poultry litter, as pond fertilizer, 123power generation, aquatic plant management implications, 281prawn ponds, 134precipitation. See also rainfall annual patterns, 32 direct, 534 evapotranspiration, 28, 52–53 as pond water source, 25 as watershed water source, 52–54

predation in food webs, 85 as “top-down” ecosystem control, 85predator bird species, 408predator guards, for nest boxes, 403predator option, 203–205, 228predator populations, angling exploitation, 15predator-prey combinations, 181predator-prey interactions, 15predators, top-level, 86predatory fish species in food chains, 119 food sources, 394 overharvesting, 16prey enhancement, through stocking, 165–169prey fish species macrophyte habitats, 140 in self-sustaining food webs, 155primary productivity, 89–104 allochthonous, 84 autochthonous, 84 definition, 84 diurnal changes, 91 in emergent plants, 101 factors affecting, 86–89 fertilizer application and, 125 in food chains, 119 nutrient requirements, 66, 87–89 relationship to secondary productivity, 84 in sport fish production, 85primrose, 103PRISM model, of precipitation, 32promotional activities, 337, 343, 355–357pronghorn sheep, watering sites, 411property laws, 374proportional size distribution index, 15proportional size distribution (PSD) confidence intervals, 189, 190–191 decision model, 197–201 density-dependent growth, 226–227 incremental values, 188 latitudinal variation, 205–207, 208 precision, 188 relative stock density measure, 187 research needs, 207–209

443Index

in stunted fish populations, 216, 226–227 variable recruitment values, 185, 189proportional stock density, 15. See also proportional size distribution (PSD)protected slot length limits, 225, 226–227, 228Prymnesium parvum, toxins, 132, 324publications, of outreach programs, 384–385public trust doctrine, 374pumped water, as levee pond water source, 25pumpkinseed (fish), 161, 163, 196, 219, 222pumps, 138–139, 235, 257–258put-and-take fisheries, 362, 365put-grow-and-take fisheries, 363pyrethrum insecticides, LC50 toxicity, 69pyrite soil, 77

R

raccoons, 410radioactive inorganic carbon method, for phytoplankton productivity estimation, 95, 96rainbow trout coldwater pond habitat, 45 as community fishing pond species, 357, 358, 363, 364 as fee-fishing pond species, 331 foraging behavior, 45 as largemouth bass prey, 169 as recreational fishing pond species, 339 rotenone toxicity, 241 stocking, 157, 169rainfall, 4, 26, 28, 74rakes, for algae control, 286recreational fishing ponds aquatic plant management, 281 construction, 27, 28 depth, 31 multiple-use, 9, 27, 83, 104–105 piscivores in, 85 stocking, 155–180recreational pond leasing, 338–346 economic analyses, 341–342 landowner’s liability, 346–347

lease agreements, 343–346 marketing, 340, 342–343 pond characteristics, 339 pond management, 339–341 value-added amenities, 341recreational sport fishing lakes, definition, 329recruitment consistent, 218–219 in largemouth bass-bluegill ponds, 183–184, 185, 189 proportional size distribution effects, 185, 189 in stocking-maintained food webs, 155, 160 in stunted populations, 227redear sunfish, 161, 163, 170–171, 189redox potential, 87, 100, 131red swamp crayfish, 168–169red-winged blackbirds, 394reeds, 394refilling, of drained ponds, 237Regier, Henry A., 12regulations. See also permits for aquatic plant management, 299 for community fishing ponds, 362–363, 364–365 compliance and enforcement, 362–363, 364–365 for herbicide use, 293–294 for pond drainage, 236 for pond management, 116 for pond use, 318–319 for stocking, 172, 331relative abundance indices, 189, 192relative weight, 15, 197, 226–227relative weight (Wr) index, 192–196renovation, of ponds, 235–249 community fishing ponds, 363–364, 365–366 with draining, 235–237 fertilizer application after, 121 partial, 244, 246 rotenone-based, 237–244 selective, 244, 245–246reptiles diets, 395 pond habitat management , 392–394, 410


Reregistration Eligibility Decision for Rotenone (Environmental Protection Agency), 237“rescue poles,” 319reservoirs comparison to small impoundments, 4 levee ponds as, 25 recreational and economic importance, 8–9resource competition, in plant communities, 105, 106respiration, 66–67, 73, 79, 91restocking, 243–244, 309restoration, of older ponds, 46. See also renovation, of pondsrice, 402Ridge Lake, Illinois, 13–14river grass, in wildlife ponds, 394river otter, 393–394, 395, 410, 411roads, on dams, 39rock quarry ponds, 25Rome, ancient, fish culture practices, 9rooted floating plants, 89, 104rooted submersed plants, 106rotenone, 401, 409 action mechanism, 238 application procedures and timing, 238, 242–243, 244, 245–246 dosages and formulations, 238–241 neutralization, 243–244 on-site toxicity testing, 241 for pond renovation, 237–244 as restricted-use piscicide, 237, 238 species susceptibility, 239–241 toxicity, 238rotifers, biomass turnover, 109rotovating, 295, 296runoff acidic, 117 cold, 70 from construction sites, 68 flushing effect, 55–56 from lawns, 68 nutrients in, 115 pesticides in, 67–68 as pond site selection consideration, 29 as pond water source, 25, 26

sediment in, 115 sources, 316 suburban, 115 turbid, 58–59 urban, 115 vegetative coverage effects, 28rushes, 101, 102, 279, 402

S

safety issues chemical and human waste contaminants, 322–323 dam failure, 319–321, 322 drowning, 319St. Louis, Missouri, 362salamanders, 409salinity, 172, 173, 174, 333–334sand, 76, 79Sars, G.O., 9Save-and-Hold-Harmless Agreements, 346–347Scarseth, G.D., 11schistosomiasis, 323schools community fishing pond involvement, 367 outdoor classrooms, 358, 359sealants, for ponds, 308–309Secchi disk visibility, 62, 63, 91, 94–95, 313, 318secondary productivity, 106–109 measurement, 108–109 relationship to primary productivity, 84sedges, 279, 397, 402sediment. See also bottom soils nutrient manipulation in, 297 phosphorus release from, 129–130 resuspension, 79–80sedimentation from agriculture, 30 aquatic plant management implications, 281 in bottom soils, 79–80 from deforestation, 30 monitoring changes in, 317 during pond aging, 80 prevention, 8

445Index

sediment removal, 236–237 with draining, 80 for eutrophication control, 131–132 with excavation, 62sediment sinks and traps, 8, 29, 31, 115seepage, 307–309 control and correction, 75, 307, 308–309 from dams, 307, 308, 319 in new ponds, 307–308 normal, 57 rate, 57seining, 183, 246, 271, 330seining-assessment method, 183–184, 189self-shading, 91, 92septic and sewer systems, 59 leakage from, 68 within watersheds, 323sexual maturation timing relationship to stunting, 219–221 socially mediated, 220, 221, 223, 228shad, 237, 256. See also gizzard shad; threadfin shadshading for aquatic plant control, 296, 297, 301 self-shading, 91, 92 from trees, 46, 255shallow lakes and ponds alternative stable states, 105 winterkill, 114, 255–256Shelford’s law of tolerance, 88shorebirds. See also individual species management, 406–407 water depth preferences, 392shoreline development index, 50shorelines of community fishing ponds, 366 esthetics, 34 vegetation, 34, 106 of wildlife impoundments, 40, 393, 407, 410silicon, 87, 92silt, sedimentation, 79sinkholes, pond formation in, 5siphoning and siphon systems, 46, 235, 236site preparation, 34 for dams, 36, 38–39

site selection for ponds, 28–31 for pond seepage avoidance, 307site visits, 383–384size, of ponds in bird and wildlife habitats, 392 community fishing ponds, 354, 355 as construction consideration, 30, 36 fish community balance and, 30size-at-maturity, 220size-specific mortality, 221–223skunks, 410slot length limits at community fishing ponds, 365 protected, 225, 226–227, 228small impoundments. See also ponds from 1934–1965, 23 comparison to lakes and reservoirs, 4 definition, 3–4 demand for, 23smallmouth bass, 159, 169, 241smartweed, 101Smith, E.V., 11snails, as swimmer’s itch vectors, 323snakes, 393–394, 410social influence hypothesis, 220social media, as public outreach tool, 356social networking, 383social structure, effect on sexual maturation, 220, 221, 223, 228societal values, affecting pond management, 8, 114–115, 116. See also estheticssodium, 61, 87sodium bentonite, 308sodium carbonate, 129sodium carbonate peroxyhydrate, 283sodium nitrate, 131sodium percarbonate, 285soil suitability, 30–31 water absorption in, 53soil augers, 31soil compaction as pond sealing method, 309 relationship to soil moisture, 39Soil Conservation Service, 23, 375. See also Natural Resources Conservation Service


soil dispersants, for pond seepage repair, 308–309soil moisture, 39, 53soil particles classification, 76 in runoff, 58–59soil profiles, 77–78soil samples, 30–31soil scarification, 397soil triangles, 30, 75, 76solar radiation. See lightsonar units, hand-held, depth measurement with, 280South Dakota, 206, 207, 217southeastern United States, pond thermal stratification, 69–70, 71southern naiad, management, 299–301southern United States, oxygen-depleted ponds, 36spawning assessment, 183–184spawning gravel beds, 44, 45spawning stress, 263specific gravity, relationship to water temperature, 252spike rush, 73spike sedges, 402spillways components, 316 drain valves, 46 maintenance, 316 primary, 39, 41–43, 46, 316 screens for, 43 secondary (emergency/auxiliary), 39, 41, 43, 44, 317 site selection, 34 trash racks, 316split-stocking, 162sport fishing. See recreational pond leasingsport fish suppliers, 386Sports Illustrated, 13spotted gar, 158spring flow, 75spring peepers, 409springs, rotenone application in, 242staking, of pond sites, 34Standard Methods for Sampling North American Freshwater Fishes (Bonar et al.), 217

Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (Eaton et al.), 61standard weight (Ws) equation, 193standing crops geographic factors, 114 of phytoplankton, 94–95, 97standpipes, 41, 42, 43, 142states. See also specific states aquatic plant management regulations, 299 fish and wildlife management agencies, 377 ownership of fish and wildlife, 374 pond resources, 5–7stocking. See also individual fish species with angling-enhancing species, 162–165 of community fishing ponds, 355, 357–358, 360, 362, 363–364, 364, 365 of fee-fishing ponds, 331–332 for fishing clinics and derbies, 357–358 fish species not suitable for, 158 history, 155 in new ponds, 260 oxygen levels for, 255 with prey-enhancing species, 165–169 protocols and procedures, 162, 172–175 recommended fish species, 155, 157 of recreational small impoundments, 155–180 regulations, 172 relationship to hatchery development, 9–10 states’ recommendations, 377 sterile species, 171 as stress cause, 172–173 time to first harvest, 175 trout-only ponds, 170stocking rates, alignment with fertilization programs, 125stocking trucks, promotional function, 356stoichiometry, ecological, 88storm even frequency design, 43storms, as destratification cause, 70storm-water runoff control, 8

447Index

stream basins, 49stream catchments, 58streams, 34, 53, 75stress as disease risk factor, 251 handling-related, 175, 331–332 hooking-related, 333 osmoregulatory/osmotic, 173, 333–334 oxygen depletion-related, 251, 257 spawning-related, 263 stocking-related, 172–173 transportation-related, 172–173, 331–332striped bass, hybrid. See hybrid striped bassstructures, for habitat improvement, 140–141stunting, 215–230 angling effects, 222–223 definition, 215 environmental effects, 218–223 genetic effects, 218, 223–224 habitat-related effects, 224–225 management strategies, 225–228, 229 mechanisms associated with, 218–225 mortality factors, 221–223 protected slot length limits, 225, 226–227, 228submersed (submergent) plants, 89, 99–101 adverse effects on ponds, 277–278 biomass, 101 management, 283, 286, 291 as muskrat and beaver food source, 410 stable state of, 105 in waterfowl habitat, 405, 407substrates artificial, 140–141 effect on wildlife use, 392–393 for periphyton, 98, 99succession, of wetland vegetation, 397–398sugars, produced in photosynthesis, 86sulfate, in total dissolved solids, 61sulfite, in anaerobic sediment, 79sulfur, as nutrient, 66, 87sulfuric acid, 77, 261summer, thermal destratification in, 74summerkill, 74, 114

sun angle, effect on primary productivity, 86sunfish as community fishing pond species, 364 diet, 84 as fee-fishing pond species, 331 fire ant-related die-offs, 265 hybrid, 170, 363 longear, stunting in, 219 pond construction for, 28 as recreational fishing pond species, 339 redear, 161, 163, 170–171, 189 rotenone-based management, 246 rotenone toxicity, 237 spawning gravel beds, 44, 45 stocking, 158sunlight. See lightsunlight angle, effect on phytoplankton productivity, 90–91super-cooling, of water, 139surface, of water bodies, definition, 73surface films, for evaporation control, 140surface water phytoplankton photosynthesis in, 92 as pond water source, 26–27, 75, 330 quality, 26–27 saline, 61suspended solids, 62swallows, 408swimmer’s itch, 323swimming, 282, 319, 345swimming beaches, 45Swingle, Homer Scott, 3, 10–11, 12, 15, 119, 183, 189, 215

T

tapeworms, 324tempering, of transported fish, 331–332tetrasodium pyrophosphate (TSSP), for pond seepage repair, 308–309Texas hunting leases, 338 landowner liability laws, 346, 347 oxygen depletion-related fish kills, 135–136 recreational pond leasing, 340 toxic algae, 324


Texas AgriLife Extension, 302Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, 132theft prevention, at fee-fishing ponds, 336thermal stratification, 69–72. See also turnover aeration-based reduction, 137–138 circulation-based reduction, 137–139 in deep ponds, 31 in farm ponds, 137–138 monitoring, 318thermal stress, in fee-fishing pond species, 331thermocline, 70, 71, 73threadfin shad as bluegill competitor, 166 characteristics, 161 cold intolerance, 245 diet, 84 handling-related stress, 175 hauling tank conditions, 174 as largemouth bass prey, 181 rotenone management, 244 stocking, 157, 166, 171–172ticket lakes, 329, 338tilapia, 9, 13, 161, 168, 331tilling, of bottom soils, 318toads, breeding time, 409tolerance, ranges, 88top-down control, of ecosystems, 85–86topographical features, of fish habitats, 44topographical maps, 28, 29, 30, 280total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration, 59, 61–62transpiration, 53transport, of fish, 172–173, 332–333trash racks, 316tree frogs, breeding time, 409trees adverse effects on dams, 321, 322 elimination from dams, 316, 321 esthetic effects, 45 flooding-tolerant species, 402 as habitat, 44, 140, 409, 411 near fee-fishing ponds, 336 shading from, 46, 255 societal value, 8 in wildlife impoundments, 402, 409, 411

trespassing, 318, 374triclopyr, 285, 290, 398trophic cascade hypothesis, 85–86, 119trophic levels, in food chains, 119trophogenic zone, 73tropholytic zone, 73trophy fish. See also trophy-size individual fish species in community fishing ponds, 364trophy fishing, anglers’ attitude toward, 339tropical ponds and lakes, 71, 91trout. See also rainbow trout catch rate, 355 dissolved oxygen requirements, 334 hatcheries, 9 hauling tank conditions, 174 rotenone toxicity in, 237 stocking, 170trout-only ponds, 170turbidity, 62, 63 assessment, 62, 63, 318 causes, 309 monitoring, 318 phytoplankton-related, 94–95 reduced photosynthesis in, 255 undesirable amount, 62, 63, 127turbidity management, 65, 309–311 chemical treatments, 311–314 with organic matter, 314–315turbidity testing, 309turbulence, 74turions, 277turnover dissolved oxygen depletion in, 114, 134, 135 distinguished from phytoplankton die-offs, 266 as fish kill cause, 252–253, 257 summer, 252–253turnover periods, in biomass, 108–109turtles, 393Twain, Mark, 16Twitter, 356

U

ultra-violet light, for algae control, 286underharvesting, 16

449Index

undesirable species in community fishing ponds, 363–364 introduced after rotenone applications, 243 introduction into ponds, 75ungulates, 411United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization, 309United States Army Corps of Engineers, 116 Aquatic Plant Control Research Program, 298 wetland pond permits from, 33–34United States Bureau of Reclamation, 376United States Coast Guard, 319United States Commission on Fish and Fisheries, 375. See also U.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceUnited States Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, Ecosystems Mission Area, 376United States Environmental Protection Agency, 114 herbicide labeling requirements, 293–294 herbicides approval by, 282 rotenone registration by, 237, 238United States Fish and Wildlife Service, 375–376 career opportunities with, 373United States Forest Service, 376United States Geological Survey Ecosystems Mission Area, 376 National Hydrography Dataset, 5–7University of Florida, Center for Invasive and Aquatic Plants, 298, 302University of Nebraska-Lincoln, outdoor classroom program, 359urban development, as nutrient input source, 89urban fishing ponds. See also community fishing ponds, 352 construction, 27 eutrophication, 365–366 fishing rates, 351 purposes, 27 water quality, 360 watersheds, 360

urban sources, of water pollutants, 115

V

vanadium, as micronutrient, 87vegetation buffers, 45–46, 68, 129, 394–395, 401, 409volume, of ponds calculation, 50, 51, 52, 239 relationship to watershed area, 55–57 rotenone application based on, 242 sedimentation-related loss, 80, 317volume development index, 50, 52

W

wading birds, 407waivers, 346–347walleye, 237, 241, 256warmwater fish, dissolved oxygen concentration requirements, 67, 68washout, of phytoplankton, 94waste management, 59, 323water buffering capacity, 117 density, 253water balance, 54–58water budgets, 54–58water canna, 102water celery, 100water circulation, 137–139water circulators, in ice-covered ponds, 319water color, in fish kills, 257water column, heat distribution throughout, 69water conservation, 23waterferns, 103water flow in aquatic plant management, 280 in herbicide use, 289 inflow, 54, 55, 75, 280 outflow, 54, 55, 280 in pond dye use, 286waterfowl. See also individual species aquatic plant management implications, 282 botulism in, 315 diets, 395


food plots for, 401–402, 406 lead poisoning, 396 life cycle, 403–404 nesting boxes, 402–403 nesting habitat, 279 overabundance, 360–361, 365 as swimmer’s itch vectors, 323 water depth preferences, 392 in wildlife impoundments, 403–406waterfront property, economic value, 8water grass, 101, 102water hardness, 65–66, 106, 117, 121, 133water hyacinth, 73, 102, 103, 255 control, 287, 290, 291, 296water lettuce, 103 control, 290, 291water level fluctuations, 75 locating and marking, 34 in wildlife ponds, 396–397water lily, 73, 102, 104, 402 control, 291water management, focus of, 16water management structures, construction, 39–43watermeal, 103–104, 278, 280, 282 control, 292water mold infections, 263water nymph, 102water plantain, 402water pollution, 67–68 agricultural, 115 livestock-related, 401 point and nonpoint sources, 114–115 of urban watersheds, 360water quality, 26–27 Clean Water Act, 33, 34, 114, 116, 358 of community fishing ponds, 358, 359, 360–361, 365–366 effect of watersheds on, 58–59 of eutrophic ponds, 131 of fee-fishing ponds, 333–334 improvement, 8 as outdoor classroom topic, 358, 359 pond depth and, 31 of wildlife ponds, 393water quantity, 31, 360

water sample collection, in fish kill investigations, 266–267, 268watershed runoff, 115watershed discharge, timing, 58watershed ponds. See embankment pondswatersheds, 49–59 bare, 58–59 of community fishing ponds, 360, 366 definition, 49 forested, 58 inadequate, 28 land-use considerations, 28–29 monitoring and general maintenance, 316 ponds as percentage of, 58 as pond site selection consideration, 28, 30 as public trust resources, 374 unit, 49 of urban ponds, 360 water balance, 52–54watershield, 104water snakes, 393–394water table, relationship to soil moisture, 53water temperature, 68–69 air temperature relationship, 68 ammonia level relationship, 261–262 bacterial growth effects, 108 effect of plankton blooms on, 68–69 in fertilizer application, 123, 124 in fish feeding, 127 in hauling tanks, 172, 173, 174 phytoplankton effects, 92–93 phytoplankton requirements, 105–106 in rotenone application, 243 secondary productivity effects, 107 specific gravity relationship, 252water troughs, freeze-proof, 399water trucks, 35water visibility in fish kills, 257 in phytoplankton blooms, 125, 259weather fronts, 74Wege, G. J., 193, 196weight-frequency data, for biomass assessment, 15well water, 26, 75, 330

451Index

West Nile virus, 321wetlands definition, 391 organic matter-containing soils, 78 ponds in, 32–33 regulatory authority over, 116 societal values toward, 116 as wildlife habitat, 391wetland vegetation, 391 agricultural varieties, 401–402 succession in, 397–398wet meadow sedge, 1033white crappie, stocking, 158, 164white sucker, rotenone toxicity, 241wild fish, as fee-fishing pond species, 331wildlife, as public trust resource, 374wildlife, small impoundment management for, 391–420 amphibian management, 408–409 artificial structures in, 402–403 food plots, 401–402, 406 impoundment biological characteristics, 393–396 impoundment physical characteristics, 392–393 livestock grazing in, 399–401 mammal management, 410–411 mechanical manipulations, 397–398 piscicide use, 401 plant succession, 397–398 prescribed fires, 398 reptile management, 410 vegetation, 394–395 waterfowl management, 403–407 water level management, 396–397wild rice, 279wind, 4, 70, 71, 74wind-driven aerators, 137, 138windmills, 138wing dikes, 43winterkill, 255–256 definition, 139, 255 dissolved oxygen concentration in, 74

in embankment ponds, 25 in excavated ponds, 25, 59 in ice-covered ponds, 74–75, 78 pond depth and, 31, 114, 139 prevention, 259 of threadfin shad, 166World Health Organization (WHO), phytoplankton density standard, 127

X

xanthophyll, 87

Y

Y/C ratio, 11yellow-green algae, 87, 89–90yellow-headed blackbirds, 394yellow perch angling effects on, 222 characteristics, 161 density-related stunting, 218 rotenone toxicity, 237, 241 stocking, 157, 169, 227 stunted, 219

Z

zinc, 66, 87, 115zonation, 73–74zoobenthos, definition, 107zoonotic pathogens, from livestock, 401zooplankton biomass, 109 definition, 107 fertilizer effects on, 122, 123 grazing by, 93–94, 107 rotenone toxicity, 238 sampling, 109 seasonal changes, 107 top-level predation and, 86

Documents

index [fisheries.org] · See periphyton colonization, 90 definition, 276 die-offs, 316 epilithic, 98 epiphytic, 98 management techniques, 282–286 planktonic, 74, 276. See also phytoplankton