INDEX [assets.cambridge.org]assets.cambridge.org/97805215/94486/index/9780521594486_index.pdf · 646 Index alchemy (cont.) practical, 393–4 Roger Bacon, 392–4 Summa perfectionis

INDEX

N.B.: The index does not cover the notes.

abacus, 516–17

abbacus arithmetic, 520

d’Abano, Pietro, 222, 597–8, 603

�Abbasid dynastyastronomy during time of, 36, 116–18,

169

general discussion, 22, 31–7, 46, 54, 169

mathematics during time of, 68

medicine during time of, 143–5

translation during, 22, 34–5, 36–8, 116–18

translators and patrons, 34–5, 95, 97, 116–18

Abbo of Fleury, 297–8

�Abd al-Lat.ıf al-Baghdadı, 156

abdominal surgery, 163–4

Abelard, Peter, 216, 275

abridgements, of The Canon of Medicine, 150–1

Abu al-�Ala� Zuhr, 147

Abu al-H. asan �Alı, 39

Abu Kamil, 72, 74

Abu Zakarıya� Yah. ya ibn Abı al-Raja�, 152

acceleration of falling bodies, 59, 424–6

active (practical) sciences, 245–6, 249–50, 261–3,537

Adams, Henry, 630

Adelard of Bathinternationalism of scientific learning, 364

philosophia, 370

potential of man, 383, 384

Questions on Natural Science, 381, 383

On the Same and the Different, 384

specialization, 373

translation by, 346, 518

use of methodology of Timaeus, 381

administration, systematization of, 367–8

Advancement of Learning, The (Bacon), 8

Aegidius of Rome, 413

aether, 43, 401, 432, 440–1, 443

Africa, medicine in, 332–3

agricultural technology, 635–6

d’Ailly, Pierre, 443–4, 450–1

air, as a nonnatural, 603–4

Albert of Saxony, 415, 426

Alberti, Leon Battista, 562

Albertus Magnusalchemy, 391–2, 394

On Animals, 573–8

change and motion, 407–8

classification of sciences, 256

Commentary on De caelo, 451–2

cosmology, 451–2

geography, 554

harmonization of Aristotelian corpus withChristian thought, 279

mathematics, 262

On Minerals, 391–2, 573–8

natural history, 573–8

observations in natural philosophy, 259

optics, 500–1

On Plants, 573–8

albion, 467–8

Albucasis, 146, 159, 163–4

alchemy, 385–403

Albertus Magnus, 391–2, 394

Byzantine science, 203

calcination in, 396

intrinsic sulfur in, 391

in Islamic natural philosophy, 45

Jewish science, 183–4

in late Middle Ages, 397–402

origins of medieval European, 385–90

645

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646 Index

alchemy (cont.)practical, 393–4

Roger Bacon, 392–4

Summa perfectionis of Geber, 394–7

as terrestrial astronomy, 389–90

theoretical, 392–3

thirteenth century, 390–7

Alcuin of York, 248, 314–15

Alexander of Tralles, 324, 331

Alexandria, 16, 20, 48, 51, 60, 85, 91, 103, 149, 190

medical schools, 142–4

Alexandrian summaries, 329

Alfanus, 380

Alfonsine Tables, 235, 459–60, 468–70

Alfonso X, king of Castile and Leon, 344, 468–9

algebra, 71–3, 519, 521–2, 523, 525

Algebraby Abu Kamil, 72, 74

by al-Khwarizmı, 77–8

algorism/algorithm, 519, 521

Alhacen. See Ibn al-Haytham�Alı, 31

Almagest (Ptolemy)Abbreviated, 472

commentaries on, 191, 195–6, 206

geography, 552–3

and Islamic astronomy, 121

in official curriculum, 234

planetary models, 121–3, 446

translation of, 118, 346

See also EpitomeAlmanac of Health (Kitab Taqwım al-s.ih. h. ah),

Ibn But.lan, 150

almanacsastrological, 477

astronomical, 461

Almohad dynasty, 33, 53, 348, 350

amicable numbers, 75

�Ammar ibn �Alı al-Maws.ilı, 151

ampliation, 543

analogical terms, in signification, 542

analytical languages, 281–2

Anastasius of Sinai, 331

Anatoli, Jacob, 177, 352

Anatomia (Mondino de’ Luzzi), 594

anatomy, 153–6, 489–90, 496, 592–6

ancient sciences, in Islam, 27–9. See also Greekscience

Andalo da Nigro, 473

AndalusiaIslamic astronomy in, 118, 127–9

Jewish science in, 171–2

angels, in cosmology, 449

Anglo-Saxon medicine, 337–8

animal (psychical) spirit, 599–600, 604

animals. See natural history; soulanimate beings, in Islamic natural philosophy, 44

Anselm of Canterbury, 275, 376

al-Ant.akı, Dawud, 158

Anthemius of Tralles, 194

antisepsis use, in Islamic medicine, 160

Apian, Peter, 467–8

apogee, solar, 119, 124–5

Apollonius, 64

apothecaries, 581–3

appearances, in optics, 507–8

Aquinas, ThomasAristotelianism and church, 279

creation versus eternity of world, 440

existence beyond cosmos, 453

logic, 258

motion in void, 413

sciences versus arts, 255

ArabicJewish scientific works in, 171

texts on astronomy in, 117–18

translation of ancient mathematics, 62–3

translation of Greek mixed sciences to, 91–4

translation of Greek natural philosophy to,34–40

used in translation of Greek naturalphilosophy, 40

See also specific entries beginning with “Islamic”arbor-diagrams, 149

ArchimedesMeasurement of the Circle, 64

simplicity of mathematics of, 523–4

Sphere and Cylinder, 64

argument, methods of scientific, 377–83

Aristippus, Henricus, 373

Aristotelianismand Islamic astronomy, 128

in Islamic natural philosophy, 41, 42–4, 52–3,56–7

in Jewish natural philosophy, 182–3

in twelfth-century Renaissance, 379–80

See also church and science; Ibn Rushd;universities

Aristotleagent intellect, 41

On Animals, 572–3

celestial and terrestrial parts of world, 440–2

celestial motions and causes, 448

celestial movers, 432–3

celestial phenomena, 443

change and motion, 404–5

commentaries on cosmological works of,437–8

versus cosmology of Ptolemy, 443–5







Index 647

effects of motion, 427

existence beyond cosmos, 453

falling bodies, 419–20, 424

formal definition of motion, 407–8

On the Heavens, 405, 432, 436, 548–9

logic, 35, 378, 534, 537–8

mathematics, 526–7

Metaphysics, 433

Meteorology, 440–2, 443, 505–6

motion in void, 411–12


natural philosophy and cosmology,436

optics, 99–100, 486–7, 505–6, 508

Physics, 99–100, 405, 411–12, 419–20, 427,432–3

place and time, 409–11

plenum, 42

Posterior Analytics, 100, 374, 378, 537–8

principles of natural things, 405–7

projectile motion, 58, 419–20, 421–2

shiphaulers argument, 415–16

On the Soul, 46, 223, 572

specialization in twelfth-century Renaissance,374

spherical earth, concept of, 548–9

translation of, 342–5, 347–8, 351–4

arithmeticByzantine, 192–4

in early Middle Ages, 513–14

general discussion, 318–22

Islamic, 64–5, 69–71

mental, 65, 70

See also numbersArithmetic (Boethius), 319

armillary sphere, 461–2

Arnald of Villanova, 398–9, 608

Art of Alchemy (Michael Scot), 390

artsand body of medieval science, 263–5

defining, 242–3

faculty of, in Latin universities, 219–22, 228,261–3, 278–9

and methods, 255–61

overview, 254–5

twelfth-century canon of, 253–4

uses of, 261–3. See also disciplines, scientific;masters of arts

Asclepius, 383

al-Ash�arı, Abu al-H. asan, 55–6

Ash�arites, 55–7

Ashenden, John, 474

Ashkenazic Jewish science, 174

Asia, in geographical works, 556–7

Asian influences on technology, 633–4

astrolabein astronomical calculation, 462–6

in Byzantine science, 196–8, 201

in Islamic astronomy, 35, 114–15, 116, 135

in Islamic mathematics, 82–3

in Latin astronomy, 212, 234, 241, 250–1, 259,264, 300–1, 317–18, 341, 352, 357, 369, 459,462–6, 468, 503, 634, 642

in monastic timekeeping, 300–1

and precision of observations, 317

spherical, 115

transmission, 634

universal, 83, 464–6

astrolabe-quadrant, 466

astrology, 456–84

Byzantine, 199–200

and Carolignian astronomy, 314–16

court, and patronage, 475–7


Islamic, 69

and Islamic astronomy, 113–14, 125–6

in Islamic natural philosophy, 45, 47, 60

in Jewish science, 176–7

medical, 331

natural history and, 579, 582

and nonnaturals, in medical theory, 603

overview, 458–9

popular, 477–8


See also astronomyastronomers’ arithmetic, Islamic, 70

Astronomical Tribiblos (Meliteniotes), 197

Astronomicum Caesareum (Apian), 467–8

astronomy, 456–84

Alfonsine tables, 468–70

Byzantine, 195–9, 201

and cosmology, 438

critics of old, 470–3


geography and, 552, 555

in Islamic natural philosophy, 52, 60

Jewish, 169–70, 174–6

in Latin universities, 233–4

monastic timekeeping, 298–301

obliquity of ecliptic, 128

observation and calculation, 460–8

and optics, 102–3

overview, 302, 456–9

planetary, 459–60

Ptolemaic theory of planetary longitude,478–84

spherical, 460

terrestrial, alchemy as, 389–90

translation movement in Latin Christendom,346






648 Index

astronomy (cont.)trepidation, 447

See also astrology; computus; Islamicastronomy; obliquity of ecliptic; orbs

atomism, 55, 181, 183, 411–12

AugustineOn acute and chronic diseases, 332

astronomy, 309–10

On Christian Doctrine, 273, 274, 318, 571

cosmology, 305–6

handmaiden formula, 271–4

liberal arts, 209

Literal Commentary on Genesis, 272–3, 274,305–6

mathematics, 318

miracles and natural order, 290–1

natural history, 571

optics, 490–1

study of nature as form of worship, 290

Aurelianus, Caelius, 136

Auriol, Peter, 508

Aurora consurgens (Rising Dawn), 398

authority, of doctors, 622–4

Autolycus of Pitane, 427

automata, Byzantine, 202–3

Avempace. See Ibn BajjaAvendauth, 352, 357–8

Averroes. See Ibn RushdAvicenna. See Ibn Sına, Abu �Alıaxial rotation of earth, 442–3

azimuth circles, on astrolabe, 82–3

azyaj (plural of zıj), 117–18

Bacon, Francis, 8

Bacon, Rogeralchemy, 392–4

cosmology, 445

On the Errors of Physicians, 393, 607

experience, in medicine, 607

geography, 554–5, 557

handmaiden formula, 277–8

On the Multiplication of Species, 504–5


natural philosophy and mathematics, 256–7

observation, 259, 260

optics, 501–5, 506, 508, 509

Opus maius, 506, 554–5

Opus Tertium, 445

Questions regarding On Plants, 573

syncategoremata, 546

Baghdad, 38, 144

al-Baghdadı, Abu al-Barakat, 58–9, 179, 424–5

al-Baghdadı, Ibn Tahir, 75, 76

Bah. ya ibn Paquda, 183–4

balances, 103, 104

Bald, Leechbook of, 337

Balınas, 386–7

Banu Hud, 351

Banu Musa, 39, 62–3, 78, 95–6, 124

bar H. iyya, Abraham, 177

Baraitha di-Shmu�el, 169

Barlaam of Seminara, 196

Bartholomew the Englishman (BartholomaeusAnglicus), 554, 588

al-Battanı, 120

Bayt al-h. ikma (House of Wisdom), 39

Beaujouan, Guy, 16

Bede of Jarrowarithmetic, 319–20

astronomy, 311–12

computus, 296

cosmology, 307

medicine, 339–40

natural philosophy, 274–5

The Reckoning of Times, 311–12

solar calendar, 293–4

zodiacal signs, 316

Bedeq ha-Bayit (The Maintenance of the House),179

“begins,” as syncategorematic term, 546–7

Benedictine schools, 209–13

benefices, 225–6, 284

Benz, Ernst, 631–2

Benzi, Ugo, 608

Bernard of Chartres, 216, 371

Bernard of Gordon, 609

Bernardus Silvestris of Tours, 371

Bernold of Constance, 317

bestiaries, 576, 577–8, 579, 580, 584–6

Bianchini, Giovanni, 469

biblical commentaries, 186–7

Billingham, Richard, 545

binomial theorem, 71

biographies of physicians, Islamic, 151

biology, Jewish, 180

al-Bırunıcareer of, 124–5

Determination of Coordinates of Cities, 82

al-Bit.rujı, 52, 128–9

blood, in medical theory, 597–9

bloodletting, in Islamic medicine, 159

Bobbio, 212

Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinusarithmetic, 319

Arithmetic, 319

astronomy, 310

Consolation of Philosophy, 287, 370

cosmological image of, 287

De hebdomadibus, 378

geometry, 320






Index 649

logic, 378

mathematics, 513–14, 515

Music, 319

philosophia, 370

theoretical versus practical sciences, 245

translation style of, 360, 361–3

See also quadriviumBologna, 214–15, 222, 374–5, 595

Boniface VIII, 594

Book of Addition and Subtraction According toHindu Calculation, The (al-Khwarizmı),64–5

Book of Alums and Salts, 388

Book of Arithmetic Needed by the Secretary andOfficial (al-Buzjani), 65, 78

Book of Calculations (Swineshead), 418–19

Book of Creation, The (Sefer Yes.ira), 170–1, 186

Book of Healing (Kitab al-Shifa’ ), Ibn Sına, 492

Book of Medicine for al-Mans.ur (al-Kitabal-Mans.urı fı al-t. ibb), al-Razı, 146

Book of Optics (Kitab al-Manazir), Ibnal-Haytham, 87–8, 492–6

Book of pleasant journeys into faraway lands, The(al-Idrısı), 555–6

Book of Roger (al-Idrısı), 555–6

Book of Secrets (al-Razı), 388

Book of Stations, (Kitab al-Mawaqif ), al-Ijı, 136

Book of the Choicest Beliefs and Opinions(Sa�adya), 185

Book of the Consideration of the Quintessence of allThings (Rupescissa), 399–400

Book of the Holy Trinity (Buch der heiligenDreifaltigkeit), 398

Book of the Remedy (Ibn Sına), 388

Book of the Secret of Creation, 386–7

Book on Motion (Gerard of Brussels), 427–8

botanyByzantine, 204–5

See also materia medica; natural history; plantremedies

Brack, Wenceslaus, 580

Bradwardine, Thomasanti-astrological work, 475–6

In Defense of God Against the Pelagians, 454

Geometria speculativa, 529

ratios, 529

Treatise on the Ratios of Speeds in Motions(Tractatus de proportionibus), 414–15,416–18, 428, 529

Bradwardine’s Rule, 415–19, 427, 434

Brahmagupta, 62

branch diagrams, in Islamic medicine, 148–9

Brethren of Purity (Ikhwan al-S. afa’), 50

Britain, 296

Brown, Peter, 614

Bryennius, Manuel, 201

Buch der heiligen Dreifaltigkeit (Book of the HolyTrinity), 398

building construction, 642–3

Bukhtıshu� family, 143

Burckhardt, Jacob, 3, 23

Burgundio of Pisa, 347, 355, 359, 361–2

Buridan, Jeanacceleration of falling bodies, 425–6

cosmology, 442–3, 446, 449–50, 453

impetus theory, 423–4, 433–4

questio method, 437

Questions on “De caelo,” 437

Burtt, E. A., 13, 14–15

Buyid dynasty, 32, 120–1

al-Buzjanı, Abu’l-Wafa, 65, 78

Byrhtferth, 298

Byzantine science, 22, 25–6, 190–206

alchemy and chemistry, 203

astrology, 199–200

astronomy, 195–9

botany, 204–5

contacts with Islamic civilization, 25–6,196–7, 200

geography, 201–2

and Jewish science, 173

and language of decline, 25–6


music theory, 200–1

optics and mechanics, 202–3

overview, 190–2

zoology, 205–6

Cabasilas, Nicholas, 196

Caelius Aurelianus, 332

Caelius Aurelius, 333–4

Caesarian sections, in Islamic medicine, 166

Caesarius of Arles, 325

Calcidius, 303, 313, 317–18

calculationin astronomy, 460–70

in Byzantine mathematics, 192–3

in Islamic mathematics, 67

in mathematics, 516–17

before twelfth-century Renaissance, 516–17

Calculation according to the Indians, called theGreat Calculation, 192–3

calculators. See OxfordCalculators’ Key, The (al-Kashı), 65

calendarsastrological, 475

Jewish, 169–70, 174, 175

caliphs, Islamic orthodox, 30–1

camera obscura, 102, 233, 461

Campanus of Novara, 451






650 Index

cannons, 640–1

Canon of Medicine (Kitab al-Qanun fı al-t. ibb),Ibn Sına, 146–7, 150–1, 492, 592–3, 596,598, 605

canons, Galenic medical, 329–30

Capella, Martianusarithmetic, 320

astronomy, 312–13

cosmology, 446

geometry, 321

liberal arts, 209, 244

philology, 376

planetary theory, 313

capitalistic economy, and technology, 643–4

Carolingian Empire, 248, 297, 312–16, 336–7

Carrara herbal, 587–8

case histories, Islamic medical, 158

Cassiodorusarithmetic, 318

astronomy, 310

geometry, 320–1

Introduction to the Divine and HumanReadings, 287, 310

medicine, 333–4

model of liberal arts, 287


Cassius Felix, 332–3

cataracts, in Islamic medicine, 160, 164–5

cathedral schoolsByzantine, 192

Latin, 209–13, 215–16, 275, 353–4

See also cathedral namescathedrals, Gothic, 642–3

Catholic church. See church and sciencecauses

efficient, 406, 421

final, 406

in natural history, 574

search for, in twelfth-century Renaissance,381–3

cauterization, in Islamic medicine, 159

celestial motionin cosmology, 446–7, 448–51


intelligences and, 448–9, 450


and religious scholarship, 126

See also astrology; astronomy; epicycles;equant hypothesis; orbs, in cosmology;planetary theory

celestial realmin cosmology, 440–3


number of orbs and order of planets, 445–7

Cellarius, Christoph, 2

center of cosmos, 442, 444–5

Cerbanus, 355

change, 404–35

in cosmology, 441

definitions of, 405–9

overview, 404–5

See also motioncharity, 325–6

Charlemagne, 210–12, 248, 297

Charles V, king of France, 237–8

Chartres cathedral and school, 213, 215–16, 240,243, 252, 337, 346, 353, 368, 371–3, 616

charts, wayfinding and navigation with, 562–6

Chaucer, Geoffrey, 464, 474

Chauliac, Guy de, 593

chemistry, 203

China, 3, 12, 17, 23, 25, 31, 201, 634, 644

astronomers, 132

gunpowder, 634

paper, 46, 70

printing, 634

Silk Route, 557

technology, 46, 634

Chioniades, Gregory, 197

Chirurgia (William of Saliceto), 593

Chirurgia Magna (Chauliac), 593

Christendom. See church and science; LatinChristendom, transmission of Greek andIslamic science to

Christian Topography (Cosmas Indicopleustes),202, 205

Christianity. See church and scienceChristine de Pisan, 262

Christmas, 293

Chrysococces, George, 197, 200

church and science, 268–85

accommodation in thirteenth century, 276–8

alchemy, 397, 398–402

anatomical dissection, 594

Augustine and handmaiden formula, 271–4

Christian feasts, and solar calendar, 292–4

Christian scholasticism, and Jewish naturalphilosophy, 182

classical tradition, recovery of, 274–6

computus, 198–9, 211, 294–8, 311–12, 314

cosmology, 305–9, 447–8, 453–4

course of events, 278–80

creation versus eternity of world, 439–40

early-medieval period, 274–6

fourfold division of earth, 550–1

generalizations regarding, 282–5

geography, 554–5

hospitals, 627–9






Index 651

late medieval developments, 280–2

mappaemundi, 558–60

medicine, 335–40

methodological precepts, 269–71

miracles, 289–92, 613–18



overview, 268–9

pagan medicine, 323–6

religious art, and depictions of nature, 587

spherical earth, concept of, 549

technology, 631–3

universities, ecclesiastical control of, 224–8

Visigothic court, 287–8

Church of Rome, 20

Ciceronian model of translation, 360, 361

circulation, pulmonary, 156

circulation of knowledge about nature, inuniversities, 235–6

circumferenceof earth, 549–50

in Islamic mathematics, 77–8

Circumnavigation of the Great Sea, 565

city planning, 561–2

city schools, vernacular, 238

civil law, systematization of, 367–8

Clagett, Marshall, 15–16

classical Latin texts, in twelfth-centuryRenaissance, 368–9

classical traditionin Christian cosmology, 306

medicine, 336

in Ostrogothic Italy, 282–5

recovery of, 274–6

and technology, 633–4

in Visigothic court, 282–5

See also church and science; naturalphilosophy

classification, traditions of, 245–8. See alsodisciplines, scientific

classroom problem-texts, mathematical, 320

clerical power, and arrangement of scientificdisciplines, 249

clerical status, of Latin universities and students,224–8

climates of earth, seven, 551

clocks, 106, 132, 203, 212, 233, 263, 301, 457, 474,634

cloth-making technology, 637–9

cogs, 641

Colish, Marcia, 5

Collection of wonders (Solinus), 335

College de Navarre, 232

College of Maıtre Gervais, 232

colleges, 232–3

Colliget (Ibn Rushd), 593–4

colors, in optics, 505–8. See also opticscombinatorics, 77

comets, 44, 314, 443, 472–3, 477, 571, 588

commentaries, 222–4, 265, 278, 313, 470, 500,509, 533–4

alchemical, 389

anatomical, 596

on Aristotelian cosmology, 436–7

of Averroes, 177, 181, 220, 343, 352–3, 407, 437,497, 534

biblical, 186–7, 305

on The Canon of Medicine, 150–1


medical, 330–1, 334

Salernitan, 596, 607

on Sentences, 221, 438

on Timaeus, 381

Commentary on De caelo (Albertus Magnus),451–2

commissioned translations, 352–3

common natures, 535–6

communes, Latin, 214

compass, in navigation, 565–6, 642

Complete Book of the Medical Art (Kitab Kamilal-s.ina�ah al-t. ibbıyah), al-Majusı, 146

Complete Book of the Medical Art (Kitab Shamil fıal-s.ina�ah al-t. ibbıyah), Ibn al-Nafıs, 147

Complete Quadrilateral, The (al-Tusı), 82

complexion, in medical theory, 601–2

composition method, 538

compounded ratios, 416, 417–18

compounded sense, in logic, 544–5

Comprehensive Book on Medicine, The (al-Kitabal-H. awı fı al-t. ibb), al-Razı, 146

comprehensive textbooks, of logic, 535

compulsory motion, 406, 411, 419–20

computation, in Islamic mathematics, 64–5

computusin astronomy, 311–12, 314

in Byzantine astronomy, 198–9

under Charlemagne, 211

and date of Easter, 294–8

Conciliator (d’Abano), 597–8

condemnations, ecclesiastical, 227–8, 278–80,439–40

Condensed Book on the Calculation of Algebra,The (al-Khwarizmı), 71–2

configuration theory, and motion, 430–1, 432

conic sections, in Islamic mathematics, 79–80

Conics (Apollonius), 64

connotation, theory of, 542

Conrad of Megenberg, 238






652 Index

consilia, 610

Consolation of Philosophy (Boethius), 287, 370

Constantine, Roman Emperor, 20

Constantine the Africanmedical theory versus practice, 607

medicine, 590–1, 592

Pantegni, 372, 592

spirits, generation of, 599–600

systematization, 368

translation by, 213, 251, 342, 372, 380

Constantinople, 191–205, 365

and Baghdad, 150

1204 capture, 191, 347, 524–5

fall, 2–3

Franciscans in, 351

hospitals, 325

illustration in, 332

and Italy, 25, 342, 346, 349–50, 355

medicine, 324

as “New Rome,” 20–1

scientific center, 143

Theodoric and, 287, 333

translations in, 342–3

zoo, 205

construction, building, 642–3

contagion, 603–4, 628

contemplative science, 249–50

continuity of European science, 11–12, 13–16

Copernicus, 24–5

corporations of medical practitioners, 624–6

corpuscular theory of matter, 395–6

Cortona chart, 566

Cosmas Indicopleustes, 202, 205, 549

Cosmographia (Bernardus Silvestris), 371

cosmology, 436–55

Aristotle, 443–5

and astronomy, 456–7

in Byzantine geography, 202

celestial and terrestrial parts of world, 440–3

creation versus eternity of world, 439–40

dimensions of world, 451–2

existence beyond cosmos, 452–5


overview, 302, 436–9

planets, order of, 445–7

Ptolemy, 443–5

terrestrial region in, 440–3

theological spheres, 447–8

in twelfth-century Renaissance, 370–2, 380,381–3

See also celestial motion; celestial realm;epicycles; orbs, in cosmology; planetarytheory

Cosmos (Sagan), 9–10

court astrology, and patronage, 475–7

courts, role of in Latin education, 237–8

Cracow university, 226–7, 234

creationin Christian cosmology, 305, 308–9

versus eternity of world, 439–40


in Islamic theological approach, 54

and natural history, 571–2

Crescas, H. asdai, 182–3

Crombie, Alistair C., 15

crossbow, 639

Crusades, 556

crystalline sphere, in cosmology, 447

cubic equations, in Islamic mathematics, 73

cultural functions of disciplinary ideals, 248–9

culture, influence on science, 270

curricula, in Alexandria, 330

curricula, in Byzantium, 204

curricula, in Latin worldarts, 212, 219–22, 240, 248, 255, 265, 275,

278–9, 404–5

astrology, 473–4

astronomy, 233–5, 456, 458, 634

Carolingian, 248

control of, 215, 218

dissection, 260

faculty structure, 219–22

innovation, 230–4

logic, 258, 277, 368, 378, 432, 533–5, 539

mathematics, 525–6, 634

medicine, 222, 591–2, 619

natural history, 569, 572–3

natural philosophy, 213, 219–22, 238–9, 279,418, 426–7, 437

optics, 260, 510

ordering of knowledge in, 258, 266

role of masters in forming, 218

specialization, 230–4

surgery, 261

teaching methods, 222–4

theology, 220–2

tradition, innovation, and specialization,230–4

transformation, 255

translation of scientific texts, 345–7

See also disciplines, scientificcurricula in madrasas, 60, 102–3

curriculum in Ottoman engineering schools,138

Cuzari (ha-Levy), 187

Damascus, 21–2

Daniel of Morley, 370






Index 653

Dante, 474

Data (Given Things), Euclid, 63–4, 525

David of Dinant, 354

De anima (On the Soul ), Aristotle, 572

De animalibus (On Animals)Albertus Magnus, 573–8

Aristotle, 572–3

De arte venandi cum avibus (On the Art ofHunting with Birds), Frederick II, 237, 578

De aspectibus (al-Kindı), 100

De caelo (On the Heavens), Aristotle, 405, 432,436, 548–9

De decem ingeniis (Bernard of Gordon), 609

De erroribus medicorum (On the Errors ofPhysicians), Bacon, 393, 607

De hebdomadibus (Boethius), 378

De ingenio sanitatis (Bernard of Gordon), 609

De iride (Grosseteste), 506

De mineralibus (On Minerals), Albertus Magnus,391–2, 573–8

De mirabilibus sacrae scripturae (IrishAugustine), 291–2

De numeris datis (On given numbers), Jordanus,525

De vegetabilibus (On Plants), Albertus Magnus,573–8

De virtutibus herbarum (On the virtues of herbs),Rufinus, 582–3

debates, in Islamic medical discourse, 149–50

decimal arithmetic, Islamic, 70–1

decline, language offifteenth century, 23–6

Islamic science and, 21–3

overview, 18

Roman Empire, 18–21

demons, in Christian cosmology, 305–6

demonstrationanatomical, 595

in astronomy, 461–4

and cause, 538

and classification of arts, 255–61

and dialectic, 321

of the fact (quia), 538

in logic, 378–9, 536–8

in mathematics, 72, 190, 206

as method of scientific argument, 378, 609

in natural philosophy, 48, 277

in optics, 87–8, 90, 100–1, 106, 256, 494

of reasoned fact (propter quid), 538

schoolroom 462

denominationin mathematics, 515

of ratios, 528–30

denominative terms, in signification, 542

depiction of nature, in natural history, 583–9

descriptions of land and property, local, 560–2

descriptive geography, of world, 553–60

Despars, Jacques, 596

Determination of Coordinates of Cities(al-Bırunı), 82

Detestande feritatis (Boniface VIII), 594

devices, study of. See mechanicsdiagrams

in Islamic medicine, 148–9

in mathematics, 515

dialectic, 533–47


See also logicdictated books, in translation movement, 356–7

dictionaries, used in translation process, 359–60

didactic medical poetry, Islamic, 149

dietetics, 602–3

difform motion, 429, 431

Digest (Justinian), 367–8

Dijksterhuis, E. J., 13, 14

dimensions of world, in cosmology, 451–2

Dionysius, 323

Diophantine equations, 74, 522

Dioscorides, 144, 152–3, 204, 328, 332–4, 336,570

disciplines, scientific, 240–67

arts, and body of medieval science, 263–5

arts, and methods, 255–61

arts, uses of, 261–3

canon of arts, new, 253–4

converging traditions in 12th century, 251–3

cultural functions of, 248–9

fifth-twelfth centuries, 242–50

liberal arts, 243–5

mechanical arts, 243–5


overview, 240–2

practices, 249–50

and specialization in twelfth-centuryRenaissance, 374

thirteenth-fourteenth centuries, 254–65

traditions of classification, 245–8

twelfth century, 250–4

See also natural philosophy; specific disciplinesdiscontinuity of European science, 11–12, 13–16

disease, in medical theory, 602–6

disputations, 222–4, 260–1, 538–41

disputes, maps used in resolution of, 562

dissection, human anatomical, 156, 594–5

distance rule, mean-speed theorem, 430, 431–2

distances, planetary, 134–5

distillation, in alchemy, 387, 392–3, 396

divided sense, in logic, 544–5






654 Index

doctors, in eleventh and twelfth century, 615–16.See also medical practice; medical theory;medicine

Domesday Book, 636

domination of earth, and technology, 631–2

Dominican houses, and translation movement,350–1

Dondi, Giovanni, 233

Doubts Against Ptolemy (al-Shukuk �alaBat. lamyus), Ibn al-Haytham, 126–7

draft animals, 635

dropsy treatment, in Islamic medicine, 164

drugsalchemical, 396–7

Byzantine, 204

in Islamic medicine, 152–3, 162

medical alchemy, 393

Duhem, Pierregeneral discussion, 10–12

Islamic astronomy, 110

Les Origines de la statique, 11

To Save the Phenomena, 14

view of fifteenth century, 24

in work of Thorndike, 13–15

Dumbleton, John, 418, 428, 480

Dunbar, William, 580

early Latin Middle Ages, 286–301, 323–40

antique learning in Ostrogothic Italy, 286–7

Christian feasts and solar calendar, 292–4

Christianity and pagan medicine, 323–6

computus and date of Easter, 294–8

disciplines, 242–50

Galenism in East, 327–32

Latin texts on medicine, 332–6


medicine, decline of, 326–7


monasteries, medicine in and out of,336–40


practices, 249–50

recovery of classical tradition, and church,274–6


earthclimates, 551

concept of, and geography, 548–53

fourfold division, 550–1

(im)mobility, 442–3

See also elemental theory; terrestrialearth-centered cosmology, 442, 444–5. See also

cosmologyEasily obtainable remedies (Euporista), Priscian,

335

Easter, calculation of date of. See computuseccentric hypothesis, of Ptolemy, 121–2, 123

eccentric orbit of planet, 303

eccentric orbs, in cosmology, 443–5

eclipses, 196

ecliptic, 112, 128

economic growth, and technology, 643–4

Education of Henry Adams, The (Adams), 630

educational institutions. See Latin educationalinstitutions; madrasas; schools; universities

elemental theoryin alchemy, 203, 392–3, 401

change and motion, 410

in cosmology, 43, 171, 307, 441

in geography, 554

in natural philosophy, 43, 414

Elements (Euclid), 63, 379, 518, 528

Elements (Stoicheiosis), Theodorus Metochites,196

elements of universe, focus on in twelfthcentury, 381

eleventh centuryIslamic astronomy and natural philosophy,

124–7

pluralistic nature of medical practice in,613–17

emanationism, 490, 491

Emerald Tablet of Hermes, 389

emotions, in medical theory, 604–5

empiricismin astrology, 473

in astronomy, 460–1

empyrean heaven, 447–8

encyclopediasalchemical, 389

astronomical, 135

Avicenna’s, 51, 353

Byzantine, 191

geographical, 554

of Hildegard of Bingen, 581

illustrations in, 584, 588–9

in Jewish communities, 180, 188

Latin, 236, 310, 553

medical (Arabic), 144, 146–51, 154, 158–9, 162

medical (Greek), 327

medical (Latin), 335


occult, 389

Roman, 21, 569

surgical, 159

of technical terms (Arabic), 105

vernacular, 236, 579

Engel, Johannes, 477–8

England, 296

Enumeration of the Sciences (al-Farabı), 48






Index 655

epicyclesBacon, 445

Calcidius, 303

Capella, 312–13

defined, 377

illustration of, 304

Ptolemy, 122–3, 480–1

epidemics, 603–4

epilepsy, 605, 618

Epitome of the Almagest (Regiomontanus), 472

Eptateuchon (Thierry), 371

equant hypothesis, 121–4, 126–7, 481

equation of the argument, 481

equations of center, 479–81

equatorium, 466–8

equinoxes, 119, 292–3, 479

equiponderant numbers, in Islamicmathematics, 75

Eriugena, John Scotus, 274–5, 307–9, 313–14

estate management, 561

estimative sense, in optics, 499

eternity of world, versus creation, 439–40

ether. See aetherethics, in arrangement of disciplines, 246

Etymologies (Isidore of Seville), 288, 310–11, 335

EuclidData, 63–4, 525

Elements, 39, 48, 51, 62, 63, 68–9, 72–4, 80–1,91, 177, 190–1, 218, 233, 236, 240, 249, 256,346, 349, 364, 368, 378, 379, 513, 518, 520,525–6, 528

influence on Islamic mixed sciences, 91–2

in Latin world, 321–2, 371, 378–9, 431, 487–8

logic, 379

in Middle Books of Islamic science, 63–4

optics, 85, 90–5, 98–9, 101, 487–8, 489,496–500

parallel postulate, 80–1

Phaenomena, 63–4

ratios, 528

translation of works by, 320, 371, 518

Euclidean geometry, 321–2

Euporista (Easily obtainable remedies), Priscian,335

exclusive model, organizations of medicalpractitioners, 625

existence beyond cosmos, 452–5

experienceand classification of arts, 258–60

in medicine, 607–10, 628

in natural history, 575–8

See also empiricismexperiment, 5–6, 8, 15, 107, 120, 326

thought, 162

experimental pharmacology, 608

experimental scienceof Bacon, 277, 503–5

Frederick II, 578

experimentare, 109

experimentationin alchemy, 386, 390, 395, 403

in anatomy, 593–4

in Arabic optics, 85, 88, 98, 101–3

in Ptolemy, 488

See rainbowsexploitation of earth, and technology, 631–2

exponible terms, 546

extramission theories, in opticsAugustine, 490–1

Bacon, 505

combined extramission-intromission opticalmodel, 100

Euclid, 488–9

Ibn al-Haytham, 101

overview, 486

extrinsic sulfur, in alchemy, 391

eyes, science of. See optics

fact, demonstration of in logic, 538

faculty of arts, 219–22, 228, 261–3, 278–9. Seealso disciplines, scientific

faculty of theology, 219–22, 228, 279–80

faculty structure, in universities, 219–22

falling bodiesacceleration of, 424–6



al-FarabıEnumeration of the Sciences, 48


Harmony Between the Views of Plato andAristotle, 49

optics, 98

al-Farisı, Kamal al-Dın, 75, 88, 93, 102

farming technology, 635–6

Fatimid dynasty, 32

fetus, removal of dead, 164

fevers, in medical theory, 605–6

Fibonacci, Leonardogeneral discussion, 520–3

Liber abbaci, 520–1

The Practice of geometry, 561

Fibonacci series, 522

fictions, in signification, 542

field guides, 584–7

fifteenth centurydecline, language of, 23–6

elaboration of medical institutions, 624–9

Islamic astronomy during, 137–8

figured numbers, in Islamic mathematics, 75–6






656 Index

financial professions, and translation movement,355

finger-reckoning, 65, 192, 319–20, 516

fire, in optics, 504. See also elemental theoryfirmament, in cosmology, 447

fixed stars, in cosmology, 451–2

Florentine codex, 367–8

Florentine Guild of Doctors, Apothecaries, andGrocers, 625–6

fluxus formae, 408

folk medicine, Jewish, 180

folkloric practices, in Islamic medicine, 160–2

forced motion, 406, 411, 419–20

formdefined, 405–6

intension and remission of, 428–9

nature of bodies, 420–1

forma fluens, 408–9

four, cosmic symbolism of number, 299

four causes, in Islamic natural philosophy, 44

fourteenth centuryarts, and body of medieval science, 263–5

arts, and methods, 255–61

arts, uses of, 261–3


disciplines, scientific, 254–65


overview, 254–5

urbanization and medical practice, 617–24

Fra Mauro, 567–8

fractional distillations, in alchemy, 387, 392–3

fractions, 71, 530

France, Latin educational institutions in, 215–16,217, 227–8. See also cathedral schools;Montpellier; Paris

Francis of Assisi, 581

Franciscan houses, and translation movement,350–1

Franciscus de Marchia, 423

Frederick II Hohenstaufen, Holy RomanEmperor

On the Art of Hunting with Birds, 237, 578

empirical content in books, 259

inquiries into nature, 237

observation and experiment, 578

patronage, 344

translations commissioned by, 352–3

universities, 229

Fulda, 212, 297, 335

Galen of Pergamumanatomy, 592, 593


Method of Healing, for Glaucoma, 333–4

optics, 489–90, 491

translation of works by, 345, 347

treatise on simple remedies, 152–3

Galenism, 327–32

Gargilius Martialis, 333–4

Geber, 387, 394–7. See also Jabir ibn Hayyan;Jabir ibn Alfah.

Genesis account, and natural history, 571–2

Gentile da Foligno, 606, 608, 609–10

geodesy, 82, 194

geography, 548–68

Byzantine, 201–2

in Capellan geometry, 321

descriptive, of world, 553–60

local descriptions and measurements, 560–2

mappaemundi, 558–60

overview, 548

scholarly mathematical, and worldview,548–53

wayfinding and navigation, 562–6

Geography (Ptolemy), 551–2, 553

Geometria speculativa (Bradwardine), 529

Geometric Constructions Necessary for the Artisan(al-Buzjani), 65

geometryof Aristotle, 526, 527

Byzantine, 194

in early Middle Ages, 513


Islamic, 64, 65, 77–81

Jewish, 177–8

Jordanus de Nemore, 525

in natural philosophy, 232, 255–8, 426–32,487, 498, 502, 506, 526–7, 531

in optics, 487–9, 498–9, 501–3

semiotic considerations, 515–16

translation movement, Latin, 346

See also EuclidGerard of Brussels, 427–8, 524

Gerard of Cremona, 343, 349, 362

Gerbert of Aurillacabacus of, 517

absence of specialization, 247–8

astronomy, 317

disciplines, scientific, 249, 250

logic, 533


pedagogical innovations, 212

specialization, 262

Germany, universities in, 229

Ghazalı, Abu H. amid, 51, 56, 126, 136

Giacomo da Forli, 598–9

Gilbert of Sempringham, 613, 617

Given Things (Data), Euclid, 63–4, 525






Index 657

glossaries, used in translation process, 359–60

Glosule, 375

Godalchemy, 401

and celestial motion, 433, 449

creation of other worlds, 453

and infinite void space, 454–5

in Islamic theological approach, 54, 55–6


as omnipotent, 281, 411

See also creation; theologyGodfrey of Fontaines, 449

Gondeshapur, 143–4

Gothic cathedrals, 642–3

grammar, 244–5, 376

grammars, used in translation process, 359

Grammatical Institutes (Priscian), 375

graphic itineraries, 564

gravity, in impetus theory, 425–6

Greek culture, recovery of, 368–70

Greek fire, 203

Greek language, in Roman Empire, 19

Greek sciencealchemy, 386

church, view of regarding, 271–4

influence on Islamic mixed sciences, 90–1

in Islam, 28–9

in Latin culture, 209

medicine, 144–5, 336

natural philosophy, translation of, 34–40

optics, 486–91

in Roman civilization, 19–20, 208

See also Aristotle; transmission of Greek andIslamic science

Greek-speaking Roman Empire, Galenism in,327–32. See also Byzantine science

Gregoras, Nicephorus, 196

Gregory of Tours, 292, 300, 340

Grosseteste, RobertDe iride, 506

Hexaemeron, 632

mathematics, 529

On Lines, Angles, and Figures, 498


optics, 497–500, 501, 506

ratios, 529

translation by, 354

Gudiel, 353

Guide for the Perplexed (Maimonides), 175, 181

Guido da Vigevano, 595

Guido de Marchia, 467

guildsof medical practitioners, 624–6

universities as, 214–16, 217–19

Gundissalinus, Dominicus, 253–4, 343

gunpowder, 640–1

gynecological surgery, in Islamic medicine, 164

H. abash al-H. asib, 119

hagiographical documents, 613–14

al-H. alabı, Khalıfah ibn Abı al-Mah. asin, 152

ha-Levy, Yehudahalchemy, 183

Cuzari, 187


handmaiden formula, 271–4, 277–8, 283–5

al-H. arith ibn Kaladah, 141–2

harmonics, 319

Harmony Between the Views of Plato and Aristotle(al-Farabı), 49

Hartner, Willy, 16–17

Haskins, Charles Homermedieval science, 13–14

Renaissance of the Twelfth Century, 13–14

healersin eleventh and twelfth centuries, 613–17


healing, 338–40, 609

health, in medical theory, 602–6

health care institutions, 624, 626–8

heaven, empyrean, 447–8. See also celestialrealm; cosmology

Hebrew scientific literature, 169–71, 181–2. Seealso Jewish science

Hellenistic philosophical tradition. See naturalphilosophy

Hellenistic science. See Greek scienceHelperic of Auxerre, 294

Henry I, King of England, 579

Henry of Langenstein, 471, 572

herbal remedies, 337–8

herbalists, 581–3

herbals, 576, 580, 584–5, 587–8

Hermann of Carinthia, 352, 361, 372

Hermes Trismegistus, 389

Hermetic writings, 383–4

Hero, 93–4

Herrad of Landsberg, 246

Heytesbury, Williamcompounded and divided senses, 544–5

mean-speed theorem, 429–30

Rules for Solving Sophisms, 429–30

Hildegard of Bingen, 212, 581, 616

Hindu-Arabic arithmetic, 192–3. See also Islamicmathematics

Hindu-Arabic numerals, 519

Hippocrates, 333–4

Hippolytus, 271






658 Index

Historia adversum paganos (Orosius), 553–4

historical period, Middle Ages as, 4, 11–12. Seealso medieval science

History of Science Society, 12

History of the Mongols (John of Plano Carpini),557

Holland, Richard, 580

homocentric planetary models, 128–9

See al-Bit, rujıHorace, 19

horoscope, 113–14, 476–8

horsepower, 635

hospitalsByzantine, 204

Christian, 325–6

Islamic, 157–8

rise of, 627–8

hour angle, calculation of, 111

Hrabanus Maurus, 247, 297, 316

Hrotswitha of Gandersheim, 248–9

Hugh of Saint-Victor, 380–1

human anatomical dissection, 156, 594–5

humanistic interest in cosmology, 370–2

humorsin alchemy, 393

in geography, 554

in medical theory, 596–602

H. unayn ibn Ish. aq, 38–9, 40, 92, 144–5, 151, 491

Hypotheses of the Planets (Ptolemy), 436

iatromathematics, 331

Iberian Peninsula, 118, 127–9, 171–2

Ibn Abı Us.aybi�ah, 151

Ibn al-Bayt.ar, 153

Ibn al-Ha�im, 127

Ibn al-Haythamastronomy, 126–7

Book of Optics, 87–8, 492–6

Doubts Against Ptolemy, 126–7

mathematics, 76

Opticae Thesaurus, 496

optics, 87–8, 93, 99, 101–2, 492–6

Ibn al-Nafıs, 147, 150–1, 156–7

Ibn al-Shat.ir, 133

Ibn al-Zarqalluh, 127–8

Ibn al-Zubayr, �Urwah, 142–3

Ibn �Asa, 92, 101

Ibn Bajja, 51–3, 59, 412

Ibn Bishr, Sahl, 171

Ibn But.lan, 149–50

Ibn Ezra, Abraham, 176, 177, 186–7, 343, 357

Ibn H. anbal, Ah. mad, 55

Ibn Hud, Mu�taman, 95

Ibn Ilyas, Mans.ur ibn Muh. ammad ibn Ah. madibn Yusuf, 154–5

Ibn Khaldun, 53, 67

Ibn Luqa, Qust.a, 74, 86, 95, 101

Ibn Masawayh, Yuh. anna, 145, 151

Ibn Nah. mias, 129

Ibn Qutaybah, 142

Ibn Razzaz al-Jazarı, 96

Ibn Rid. wan, 149–50

Ibn Rushdanatomy, 593–4

change and motion, 407, 421, 425

Colliget, 593–4

and Jewish science, 181

medical practice versus theory, 607

motion in void, 413

Spanish Aristotelians, 51–3

Ibn Sahl, Abu Sa�d al-�Ala�, 87

Ibn Sına, Abu �Alıalchemy, 388

anatomy, 592–3, 596

astrology, 126, 603

Book of Healing, 492

Book of the Remedy, 388

change and motion, 407, 422

diseases, 605


Letter to Hasen, 388–9

mayl, 58–9

mechanics, 106

medical application of astrology, 603

medical theory, 600

medicine, 146–7, 150–1

optics, 492

psychiatric disorders, 604–5

radical moisture, 598

range of natural philosophy, 42

soul, 499, 503

See also Canon of Medicine, TheIbn Tibbon, Jacob ben Machir, 466

Ibn T. ufayl, 51–3

al-Idrısı, 555–6

al-Ijı, �Ad. ud al-Dın, 136

Ikhwan al-S. afa� (Brethren of Purity), 50

illness, in medical theory, 602–6

illustrationsalchemical, 398

anatomical, Islamic, 154–5

in medical texts, 166, 332


immobile earth, in cosmology, 442–3

impetus theory, 421–4, 425–6, 433–4, 449–50

impossible positio, 540

impressed force, in natural philosophy, 58–9

In Defense of God Against the Pelagians(Bradwardine), 454

inanimate objects, in natural philosophy, 43






Index 659

inclusive model, organizations of medicalpractitioners, 625–6

Incoherence of the Philosophers, The (Tahafutal-falasifa), Ghazalı, 126

incommensurability, 527–8, 530

incompossibility of termini, 413

indeterminate equations, 74

India, 3, 8, 12, 23, 25, 31, 202, 205, 348

astronomy, 35, 62, 119, 348

geography, 556

and Islamic civilization, 21, 31, 34

mathematics, 57, 71, 77, 81, 193, 520

medicine, 35, 139, 144-5, 180

numerals, 35, 519

practical science, 38

technology, 634, 643

See also Sanskrit“infinite,” as syncategorematic term, 546

infinite space, 454–5

ingenium sanitatis, 609

inheritance calculation, in Islamic mathematics,67

instantaneous speed, 429–30

institutions, medical, 624–9

instrumentationarmillary sphere, 461–2

in Byzantine astronomy, 198

in European astronomy, 461–8

in Islamic astronomy, 120–1, 135

in Islamic medicine, 159

Jacob’s staff, 175, 461

nocturnal, 316

See also astrolabe; pinhole technique,quadrant; sundials

intellect, in twelfth-century Renaissance, 384

intellectual contextof Islamic translation movement, 37–8

of medieval European technology, 631–3

intelligences, and celestial motion, 448–9,450

intension of forms, 428–9

internationalism of scientific learning, 364

interpreters, and translation movement, 355

intrinsic sulfur, in alchemy, 391

Introduction to the Almagest, 193

Introduction to the Divine and Human Readings(Cassiodorus), 287, 310

intromission theories, in opticsAristotle, 486–7

Bacon, 505

Ibn al-Haytham, 493–5, 496

Islamic science, 100, 101

involuntary movement, 420–1

Ireland, 296, 306–7

al-Isfizarı, 96

Isidore of Miletus, 194

Isidore of Sevilleastronomy, 310–11

classical tradition, 274–5

cosmology, 306

disciplines, scientific, 243

Etymologies, 288, 310–11, 335


geometry, 320–1

medicine, 335


On the Nature of Things, 288

Islamic astronomy, 109–38

applications of, 111–14

astrolabe, 114–16

in Byzantine Empire, 195–7

developments in fifteenth century andthereafter, 137–8

Maraghah observatory, 129–35

and natural philosophy, 124–7

observational astronomy, 118–21

observatories, 68–9

overview, 109–10

planetary theory in Islamic west, 127–9

Ptolemy’s models, 121–4

in religious scholarship, 135–6

transmission and translations, 116–18

Islamic civilizationdefenders and practitioners of natural

philosophy, 45–53

historical and cultural background, 29–33

intellectual traditions, 30

natural philosophy tradition in, 40–5, 57–61

overview, 27–9

theological approach, 53–7

translation of Greek natural philosophy,34–8

translators and patrons, 38–40

See also specific entries beginning with“Islamic”

Islamic mathematics, 62–83

algebra, 71–3

arithmetic, 69–71

astrolabe, 82–3

combinatorics, 77

geometry, foundations of, 80–1

geometry, tradition of, 77–80

indeterminate equations, 74

and Islamic society, 64–7

iterative methods, 73

magic squares, 76–7

number theory, 74–7

social setting of, 64–9

sources of, 62–4

trigonometry, 81–2






660 Index

Islamic medicine, 139–67

anatomy, 153–6

early, 141–5

learned medical tradition, 145–51

ophthalmology, 151–2

overview, 139–40

pharmacology, 152–3

practice of, 157–62

pre-Islamic medicine, 140–1

theory versus practice, 162–7

Islamic mixed sciences, 84–108

contribution to European field, 491–6

developments in, context of, 94–7

heritage, 90–1

highlights, 86–90

mechanics, 103–7

optics, 97–103

overview, 84–6

transmission, 91–4

Islamic science, 27–61

alchemy, 386–90

astrology, in Byzantine Empire, 199

cosmology, 437

cultural background, 29–33

decline of, 21–3

Duhem’s judgment of, 12

European access to, 251

four causes in, 44

geography, 551–2, 555–6

Greek natural philosophy, translation of, 34–8

historical and cultural background, 29–33

natural philosophy defenders andpractitioners, 45–53

natural philosophy tradition in Islam, 40–5

optics, 491–6

overview, 27–9

theological approach, 53–7

transformations and innovations in naturalphilosophy, 57–61

translators and patrons of natural philosophy,38–40

See also specific entries beginning with“Islamic”; transmission of Greek andIslamic science

Isma�ılism, 32, 49–50

Israeli, Isaac, 175

Italyastrology in, 476

Jewish science in, 172–3

medicine in, 333

Ostrogothic, ancient learning in, 286–7

public health institutions, 626–7

See Salerno; universitiesiterative methods, in Islamic mathematics, 73

itineraries, wayfinding and navigation with,562–6

Jabir ibn Alfah. , 470

Jabir ibn Hayyan, 387, 394–7

Jacob’s staff, 175, 461

James of Venice, 355, 374

al-Jazarı, Badı� al-zaman, 106–7

Jean de Roquetaillade (John of Rupescissa),399–400

Jerome, 289, 447

Jewish doctors, 622–4


alchemy, 183–4

astrology, 176–7

astronomy, 174–6

in Byzantine Empire, 197

Hebrew scientific literature, emergence of,169–71

impact on Jewish thought, 184–9

logic, 177


medicine, 178–80


in Northern Europe, 174

overview, 168–9

survey by community, 171–4

Jewscommunities of, and science, 171–4

in translation movement in Christendom,345

Johan Simon of Zeeland, 467

Johannes de Tinemue, 524

John of Beverley, 339–40

John of Holywood or Halifax. See Sacrobosco,John of

John of Jandun, 413

John of Ligneres, 468

John of Murs, 468

John of Plano Carpini, 557

John of Rupescissa (Jean de Roquetaillade),399–400

John of Salisbury, 361, 373, 374, 379–80

John of Saxony, 469–70, 473

Jordanus de Nemoregeneral discussion, 523–7

On given numbers, 525

Jundishapur. See Gondeshapural-Jurjanı, al-Sayyid al-Sharıf, 136

Justinian, 367–8

kalam, 28, 53–7, 183

Karaites, 173

al-Karajı, Abu Bakr, 71, 72–3, 74






Index 661

al-Kashı, JamshıdThe Calculators’ Key, 65

Reckoners’ Key, 71, 78

Treatise on the Circumference, 79

Kepler, Johannes, 438, 461, 510–11, 515

equation of, 73

optics, 87, 99

Key of the Sciences (al-Katib al-Khwarizmı), 105

al-Khayyamı, 71, 73, 80–1

al-Khazinı, 96, 104–5

al-Khujandı, 120–1

al-Khwarizmı, al-Katib, 105

al-Khwarizmı, Muhammad ibn MusaAlgebra, 170

arithmetical computation, 64–5

The Condensed Book on the Calculation ofAlgebra, 71–2

daily prayer times, 111

geometry, 77–8

Jewish calendar, 169–70

Kitab al-jabr w�al-muqabalah, 519

quadratic equations, 71–2

sundials, 112

translation of, 519

Killingworth, John, 469

Kilwardby, Robert, 449

al-Kindı, Abu Ya�qubbest known works of, 91–2

experiment, 102

general discussion, 46–8, 51

Kindı Circle, 46–8

mathematical demonstration in physics, 100

medicine, 153, 608

models of vision, 94, 97–9, 492, 494

overview, 100

private support of, 94–5

punctiform analysis of light radiation, 87

translation, 551

radiation, 492, 494

Kindı Circle, 46–8

al-Kitab al-Mans.urı fı al-t. ibb (Book of Medicinefor al-Mans.ur), al-Razı, 146

al-Kitab al-H. awı fı al-t. ibb (The ComprehensiveBook on Medicine), al-Razı, 146

Kitab al-jabr w�al-muqabalah (al-Khwarizmı),519

Kitab al-Manazir (Book of Optics), Ibnal-Haytham, 87–8, 492–6

Kitab al-Mawaqif (The Book of Stations), al-Ijı,136

Kitab al-Qarast. un, 104

Kitab al-Qanun fı al-t. ibb (The Canon ofMedicine), Ibn Sına, 146–7, 150–1, 492,592–3, 596, 598, 605

Kitab al-Shifa� (Book of Healing), Ibn Sına, 492

Kitab Kamil al-s.ina�ah al-t. ibbıyah (CompleteBook of the Medical Art), al-Majusı, 146

Kitab Shamil fı al-s.ina�ah al-t. ibbıyah (CompleteBook of the Medical Art), Ibn al-Nafıs, 147

Kitab Taqwım al-s.ih. h. ah (Almanac of Health),Ibn But.lan, 150

Klosterneuburg, 552

knowability of world, in optics, 507–8

knowledge, ordering of, 258

Koyre, Alexandre, 14–15

Kraus, Paul, 387

Lach, Donald, 556

Lactantius Firminianus, 549

land, local descriptions and measurements of,560–2

land disputes, maps used in resolution of, 562

land itineraries, 562–4

land surveying, 561

languagerefinement of during twelfth-century

Renaissance, 375–7

in Roman Empire, 19–20

signification, 541–2

supposition theory, 542–4

See also logic; specific languageslanguage aids

in twelfth-century Renaissance, 377

used in translation process, 359–60

lapidaries, 576–7

laryngotomy, in Islamic medicine, 163–4

Late AntiquityChristianity and pagan medicine, 323–6

decline of medicine, 326–7

Galenism in Greek, 327–32

Latin texts on medicine and natural science,332–6

late Middle Ages, alchemy in, 397–402. See alsofifteenth century; fourteenth century;thirteenth century

Latin Christendom, transmission of Greek andIslamic science to, 341–64

course of translations, 341–5

goals, 345–7

Greek versus Arabic, 347–9

overview, 341

patrons, 351–4

sources, 349–51

techniques, 356–63

from translatio studii to respublicaphilosophorum, 363–4

translators, 354–6

See also church and science






662 Index

Latin educational institutions, 207–39

academic works outside of universities, 236–8

from Benedictine expansion to urban schools,209–13

church support of, 284

guilds of masters and students, rise of, 214–16

overview, 207–9

See also cathedral schools; universitiesLatin encyclopedists, 437

Latin languageJewish science in, 172

natural science texts, 332–6

refinement of in twelfth-century Renaissance,375–7

in Roman Empire, 19–20

and specialization in twelfth-centuryRenaissance, 373–4

texts in twelfth-century Renaissance, 368–9

Latin Roman Empire, 332–6. See also LatinChristendom, transmission of Greek andIslamic science to

latitude of forms, 230, 415, 428–9

latitude, in navigation, 642

latitudinal zones, 550, 559

Lavenham, Richard, 545

lawcanon, 355

and disputation, 223

faculty of, 215, 217, 219, 221–3, 261, 277, 373–5,534, 590

role of in development of universities, 214–15,218

Roman, 215, 355, 367–8, 374–5

schools of Islamic, 113

See civil lawlawyers, in translation movement, 355

lazaretto, 628

learned medical tradition, Islamicanatomy, 153–6

ophthalmology, 151–2

overview, 145–51

pharmacology, 152–3

learning, systematization of, 367–8

lectures, in Latin universities, 222–4

Leechbook (Bald), 337

legends, in geography, 556

legitimate disciplines, 263–5

Leo the Mathematician, 202

Letter to Hasen (ibn Sına), 388–9

Leunast, 340

levers, 103–4

Levi ben Gerson, 175–6, 189, 237, 461

Lewis, C. S., 452

Liber abbaci (Fibonacci), 520–1

Liber Antimaquis, 383

Liber de causis (Proclus), 381–2

liberal artslogic in, 533–4

and mechanical arts, 243–5


overview, 242–3

representation of in Chartres cathedral, 240

scholars influencing, 209



“Library of the Seven Liberal Arts,” 346, 369

licensed medical practitioners, 619–21

life, prolongation of, in alchemy, 393–4

light, study of. See opticsLight of the Lord (Crescas), 182

light radiation, punctiform analysis of, 87, 99,494

linguistic science, logic as, 536

linguistic toolsin twelfth-century Renaissance, 377

used in translation process, 359–60

Literal Commentary on Genesis in Twelve Books(Augustine), 272–3, 274, 305–6

literal translation, 360, 361–3, 373–4

literary style, in twelfth-century Renaissance, 369

literary translations, 360, 361, 373

literature, Islamic medical. See learned medicaltradition, Islamic

liturgy, monastic, 289–90

local geography, descriptions and measurementsof, 560–2

local interactions between church and science,270

logic, 532–47

in arrangement of disciplines, 246, 258

background of, 533–6

compounded and divided senses, 544–5

demonstration and scientific method, 537–8

general discussion, 244

as Jewish science, 177

nature of, 536–7

obligations, 538–41

overview, 532–3

signification, 541–2

sophismata and obligations, 538–41

supposition, 542–4

syncategoremata and Proofs of Terms, 545–7


Logica moderna, 534

Lombard, Peter, 438

longitude, Ptolemaic theory of planetary, 478–84

Louvain University, 225, 231






Index 663

Lull, Ramon, 400–2, 565

luni-solar time calculation. See computusLurch Book of medicine, 334

Luzzi, 594

Mabel of Stotfold, 613

Macrobian zone model, 550–1, 559

macrobiotics, 393–4

Macrobius, 209, 304, 333

macrocosm, 370–2

madrasas, 32, 53, 56, 60, 63, 69, 77, 94, 135–8, 215

al-Maghribı, 132, 150

magicin Byzantine world, 203–4

and demons, 305

in Islamic mathematics, 70

in Islamic medicine, 140–1, 160–2

in Islamic natural philosophy, 45, 50

in Jewish world, 174, 180

in Latin world, 237, 253, 265, 474–5

and Lull, 402

and Latin mathematics, 512, 517, 520

and Latin medicine, 323–4, 331, 339, 611, 613

manipulation of nature, 383–4

and natural history, 569, 571, 577, 579

as practical learning, 261

and science, 13, 253

translation, 344

See also alchemy; occult; talismansmagic squares, 76–7, 193

magic-medicinal bowls, Islamic, 160, 161

magnetic compass, 565–6, 642

Magnus of Emesa, 329

Maier, Anneliese, 15–16

Maimonides, MosesAristotelian astronomy, 52

astrology, 177

contemplation of God’s works, importance of,175

folk remedies, 180

Guide for the Perplexed, 181

impact of on Jewish thought, 188

Mishneh Torah, 188

natural philosophy, 181

position of Jewish physicians, 179

Maintenance of the House, The (Bedeq ha-Bayit),179

al-Majusı, �Alı ibn al-�Abbas, 146

al-Malik, Muh. ammad ibn �Abd, 39

Mamluk period, 33, 135

al-Ma�mun, 37, 62, 118–19

Manfred, King, 363

al-Mansur, 62

Mans.ur’s Anatomy (ibn Ilyas), 154–5

Manual (Byrhtferth), 298

manual practices, 249–50

manuscriptsArabic, 23, 92, 149

Ashkenazic, 174

Byzantine, 191

diagrams in, 262, 298, 318

exponential growth, 236

Greek into Arabic, 39, 62

Hebrew, 173, 181–2

illustration in, 166, 332, 584, 586–7

Judeo-Arabic, 170

and Latin universities, 235–6

monastic, 210

medical, 333–6, 337–8

organization, 247

paper, 46, 70, 192, 235, 368, 466, 634

papyrus, 328, 332

pecia system, 235

Persian, 92, 96

Syriac, 92

vellum/parchment, 192, 466, 564–5

See also transmissionmapmaking, 249

by al-Idrısiı, 555–6

conservatism in, 551–2

converging traditions in, 567–8

graphic itineraries, 564

local, 562

from tables, 552

world, 66

mapsByzantine, 201

in dispute resolution, 562

Ebstorf Map, 558

of knowledge, 242, 255, 257, 266

Peutinger Map, 564

T-O, 558–9

See also qiblamappaemundi, 558–9, 560

Maraghah observatory, 25–6, 33, 53, 68, 95, 97,110, 114, 129–35, 196, 364

Marco Polo, 201

marine navigation, 565–6, 642

maritime itineraries, 565

market economy, and technology, 643–4

Marriage of Philology and Mercury, TheCapella, 312–13

Marsilius of Inghen, 543

Martianus, 376

See also Capellomarvels, in geography, 556

Masarjawayh, 142

Mash�allah, 171






664 Index

mastersArabic, 348–50

of arts, 10, 207–8, 212–38, 252–63, 353, 375,428, 460, 471, 539

of cathedral schools, 208, 210, 212, 216, 315,353, 533

of city schools, 238

degree, 219

of law, 215, 221

of medicine, 213, 221, 231–3, 262, 591, 595–6,600–1, 603, 606, 608–9, 616

mobility, 228-9, 235

of monastic schools, 212, 297, 533

of palace school, 248

privileges of, 225

of reckoning, 192

regent, 222–3, 231

of the sciences, 350

of theology, 221, 228

trades, 214

See also curriculum; madrasas; schools;universities of trades, 214

masters, Arabic, 348–9

Materia medica (Dioscorides), 144, 147, 150,152–3, 204, 332, 570

mathematical philosophers, and Islam, 41

mathematical sciences, 7, 29, 84–108

See also astronomy; mechanics; latitude offorms; optics


and astronomy, 457

Byzantine, 192–4

in Byzantine musical theory, 200

calculation, 516–17

consideration of, 523–7

and development of technology, 634

disciplines of Middle Ages, 244, 264

early Middle Ages, 513–14


in geography, 554–5

in Islamic civilization, 62–83

in Islamic natural philosophy, 47, 59–60

Jewish, 170, 177–8

Jordanus de Nemore, 523–7

Leonardo Fibonacci, 520–3

magic squares, 76–7

mechanics, 105–6

at Merton College, 232–3

in optics, 487–9, 493–6, 498–9, 501–3

overview, 302, 512–13

practice of, 520–3

ratios and proportions, 527–30

relation to natural philosophy, 255–8

scholarly mathematical geography, 548–53


synthesis with natural philosophy, 101–2

as theoretical science, 246


twelfth century, 517–19

in universities, 234, 523–7

usefulness of, 512–13, 530–1

See also specific mathematical branches by namematter theory, 395–6

mayl, 422, 424–5

See also impetus theoryMcVaugh, Michael, 147, 612, 624


measurementcosmos, 321

geographical, 321, 550

lunar diameter, 176

lunar eclipse, 301

of movement, 44, 59

in music, 200

obliquity of ecliptic, 120–1

in optics, 98

precession of equinoxes, 213

solar year, 119

of weights and volumes, 89

See also astrolabe; qibla; Jacob staffMeasurement of the Circle (Archimedes), 64,

79

measurements of land and property, local,560–2

Mecca, computing direction of, 65–7, 112–13

mechanical arts, 96, 243–7, 261, 571, 630–44

mechanical clocks, 132, 301

mechanics, 11, 17, 202–3, 246, 397

See also Islamic mixed sciencesin Byzantine civilization, 202–3

in Islamic civilization, 84–108

Newtonian, 14

medical alchemy, 393–4, 399

medical practice, 611–29

contracts between patient and doctor, 621–2



Islamic, 157–67

versus medical theory, 591–2, 607

organizations, 624–6

overview, 611–13

pluralistic nature of, 613–17

urbanization and, 617–24

medical theory, 590–610

anatomical knowledge, 592–6

from health to disease, 602–6

humors, virtues and qualities, 596–602

overview, 590–2

from theory to practice, 606–10






Index 665

medicalization, 629

Medici, Rudolf, 467

medicine, 139–67, 323–40

antisepsis, 160

antisepsis in Islamic medicine, 160

in arrangement of disciplines, 247–8

converging traditions in European, 251–2

decline of, 326–7

disease, 602–6

fevers, classification of, 605–6

Galenism, 327–32

goals of translation movement in LatinChristendom, 347

Jewish, 170, 178–80

late Latin texts on, 332–6

in Latin educational institutions, 213

in monasteries, 336–40, 614–17, 627

pagan, Christianity and, 323–6

schools of, in Byzantium, 190

theoretical, 162–7, 606–10

in universities, 219–22, 591–2, 619

See also Islamic medicine; medical practice;medical theory; Salerno

medicines. See drugsmedieval science, 1–26

early 1920s, research in, 12–15

as field, history of, 8–10

fifteenth-century, and decline, 23–6

Islamic science, and decline, 21–3

Middle Ages as historical period, 1–5

overview, 1

Pierre Duhem, research by, 10–12

postwar years, research in, 15–18

Roman Empire, and decline, 18–21

science, defining, 5–8

Mehmed II the Conqueror, 26

Meliteniotes, Theodorus, 197

memory, in optics, 499–500

mensuration, in Islamic mathematics, 78

mental arithmetic, 65, 70

mental disorders, 604–5

mental language, in signification, 541–2

Mercury (planet), 133–4, 312–13, 482

mercury, in alchemy, 395–6

Merton College, 232–3, 426–32

See also mean-speed theoremMesarites, Nicolas, 192

Metalogicon (John of Salisbury), 373, 379–80

metals, in alchemy, 391–2, 396–7

Metaphysical Foundations of Modern PhysicalScience (Burtt), 14–15

metaphysics, 50–1, 381–2

Metaphysics (Aristotle), 433

meteorology, 44

Meteorology (Aristotle), 440–2, 443, 505–6

method of healing, 609

Method of healing, for Glaucoma (Galen), 333–4

Methodist medicine, 332–3

methodological principles of philosophy, appliedto theology, 281–2

methods, and classification of arts, 255–61

Metochites, Theodore, 196, 199

Meyasher �Aqov, 177–8

Michelet, Jules, 23

microcosm, 370–2

Middle Ages, as historical period, 1–5, 11–12. Seealso medieval science

Middle Books, Islamic mathematics, 63–4

Middle East, Jewish science in, 173

middle sciences, 255–6

military technology, 203, 639–41

minerals. See natural historymiracles

in medical practice, 613–18

and natural order, 289–92

Mishnat ha-Middot, 170

Mishneh Torah (Maimonides), 188

mixed bodiesin medicine, 602

in theories of motion in void, 410, 414–15

mixed sciences, 634. See also Islamic mixedsciences; mechanics; optics

Mi�yar al-�uqul, 106

modernity, European/Western conceptions of, 3

modist logic, 535

monasteriesand healing, 615–17

libraries, 210, 336–7, 475, 616

liturgy, 289–90

and medicine in early Middle Ages, 336–40

schools, 207–8, 209–13

timekeeping in, 298–301

See also individual monastery namesMongols, 33, 557

monstrous races, in geography, 556

Montecassino, 372

Montpellier, university, 595

Moonlongitude of, 482–3

orbs of, in cosmology, 445

Ptolemaic model for, 483

Moral Questions (Anastasius of Sinai), 331

Moses of Bergamo, 355

motion, 404–35

acceleration of falling bodies, 424–6

in Aristotle, 58, 105, 120, 406–22, 427, 432–5,448–51

Bradwardine’s rule, 415–19

compulsory, 406, 411, 419–20

configuration theory, 430–1, 432






666 Index

motion (cont.)definitions of, 405–9

difform, 429, 431

of Earth, in cosmology, 442–3

falling bodies, 419–21

impetus theory, 421–4

in Islamic natural philosophy, 58–9


mechanics, 105

natural, 43–4, 406, 411, 420–1

overview, 404–5

Oxford calculators, 426–32

place and time, 409–11

planetary, 122, 127, 132, 298, 303–6, 314, 317,432–4, 442–5, 448–51, 478

projectile, 58–9, 419–24

uniform, 429, 431

violent, 406, 411, 419–20

in void, 411–15

voluntary, 406, 420

See also celestial motion; planetary theorymotive power, in theories of motion in void,

414–19

movers. See motion; celestial motionmultiplication of species doctrine, 498

al-Munawı, Nur al-Dın �Alı ibn, 152

musicByzantine theory of, 200–1

as mathematical science, 244

mathematical theory of, 528–9

Music (Boethius), 319

Mu�tazilites, 54–6

mystics, and natural history, 581

Nah. manides (Moses ben Naman), 188–9

Naples, 229, 344–5, 352–3, 582

Natalis, Hervaeus, 449


depiction of nature, 583–9

experience and world of particulars, 575–8

in monasteries, 579, 583

overview, 569–70

place of in medieval intellectual world, 570–4

practice and use of, 578–83

Natural History (Pliny), 208, 307, 314, 335, 556,569–70, 579, 584

natural knowledge, in early Middle Ages,286–301

antique learning in Ostrogothic Italy, 286–7

Christian feasts and solar calendar, 292–4

computus and date of Easter, 294–8



overview, 286


See also sciencenatural motion, 43–4, 406, 411, 420–1

natural order, miracles and, 289–92

natural philosophyand alchemy, 398

in arrangement of disciplines, 246–7

change and motion, 434

in Christian cosmology, 305

in classifications of Gundissalinus, 253–4

converging traditions in European, 251–2

cosmology, 438

defenders and practitioners of, 45–53

defined, 7

in Islamic astronomy, 124–7, 135–6

in Islamic civilization, 40–53, 57–61



at Merton College, 232–3, 428

relation to mathematics, 255–8

synthesis with mathematics, 101–2

terrestrial realm in, 43


tradition of in Islam, 40–5

transformations and innovations in, 57–61

translation of Greek, background andmotivations behind, 34–8

translators and their patrons, 38–40

See also church and sciencenatural spirit, in medical theory, 599

naturalism, in Latin universities, 221

naturalistic healing, 613–17

naturals, in medical theory, 602–5

naturecirculation of knowledge about, in

universities, 235–6

importance of study of in Islam, 41–2

study of in Latin universities, 219–22

of things, 406, 420–1

Nature of Things, TheBede of Jarrow, 307

Isidore of Seville, 306

natures, common, 535–6

nautical navigation, 565–6, 642

navigation, 562–6, 642

lateen sails, 641–2

negative terms, in signification, 542

Neophytos Prodromenos, 204

Neo-platonism, 41, 49–50, 490–1, 497–8

Neugebauer, Otto, 16, 235

New Theories of the Planets (Theoricae novaeplanetarum), Peuerbach, 471–2

Nicander of Colophon, 204

Nicholas of Reggio, 345






Index 667

nominalists, 434, 535–6

nonnaturals, in medical theory, 602–5

North Africa, medicine in, 332–3

number theory, 74–7, 513–14

numbersamicable, 75

cosmic symbolism of number four, 299

equiponderant, 75

figured, 75–6

odd-numbers rule, 432

perfect, 75

pyramidal, 75–6


triangular, 75

See also mathematicsnumerals, 263, 515

Hindu-Arabic, 35, 70, 193, 320, 341, 357, 459,517, 519, 521, 634

Roman, 319, 459

obligations, in logic, 538–41

obliquity of ecliptic, 119–21, 127–8

observationand classification of arts, 258–60


observational astronomy, 118–21, 129–35, 175–6,460–8

observatories, Islamic, 68–9, 137

Observatory in Islam, The (Sayili), 12

occult components, of terrestrial substances, 387,391

occult philosophy, 402

occult sciences, in natural philosophy, 45. Seealso alchemy; astrology; magic; talismans

Ockham, William ofbanned, 231

logic, 535, 537, 540, 541–2

motion as form flowing, 408–9

motion in void, 413–14, 434

philosophical analysis, 281

projectile motion, 423

odd-numbers rule, 432

“official” or “officiable” terms, 546

Oldrado da Ponte, 397

Olivi, Peter John, 422–3

On acute and chronic diseases (Aurelianus), 332

On Animals (De animalibus)Albertus Magnus, 573–8

Aristotle, 572–3

On Christian Doctrine (Augustine), 273, 274, 318,571

On gardens (Gargilius Martialis), 333–4

On given numbers (De numeris datis), Jordanus,525

On herbs and cures (Hippocrates), 333–4

On Lines, Angles, and Figures (Grosseteste), 498

On medicine (Caelius Aurelius), 333–4

On Minerals (De mineralibus), Albertus Magnus,391–2, 573–8

On Nature (Periphyseon), Eriugena, 307–9,313–14

On Plants (De vegetabilibus), Albertus Magnus,573–8

On ratios of ratios (Oresme), 529–30

On the Art of Hunting with Birds (De artevenandi cum avibus), Frederick II, 237, 578

On the Configuration of Qualities (Oresme),430–1

On the Course of the Stars (Gregory of Tours),300

On the Division of Philosophy (Gundissalinus),253–4

On the Errors of Physicians (De erroribusmedicorum), Bacon, 393, 607

On the Heavens (De caelo), Aristotle, 405, 432,436, 548–9

On the Motion of the Sphere (Autolycus), 427

On the Multiplication of Species (Bacon), 504–5

On the Nature of Things (Isidore of Seville),288

On the Perfect Magistery, 389

On the Properties of Things (Bartholomew theEnglishman), 554, 588

On the Same and the Different (Adelard of Bath),384

On the Secrets of Nature, 402

On the Soul (De anima), Aristotle, 572

On the virtues of herbs (De virtutibus herbarum),Rufinus, 582–3

ophthalmology, in Islamic medicine, 151–2

Optica (Ptolemy), 488–9

Opticae Thesaurus (Ibn al-Haytham), 496

optics, 84–108, 485–511

in astronomy, 102–3, 461

beginnings of in thirteenth-century Europe,497–501

Byzantine science, 202–3

burning mirrors, 79, 96, 102, 112, 194, 202,394

colors, appearances, and knowability ofworld, 505–8

diffusion of after Roger Bacon, 509–11

Greek beginnings, 486–91

overview, 485–6

rainbow and its colors, 505–7

Roger Bacon, 501–5

See also Islamic mixed sciences; radiation;visual cone






668 Index

Opus maius (Bacon), 506, 554–5

Opus Tertium (Bacon), 445

oral transmission of books, in translationmovement, 356–8

orbs, in cosmologycelestial motions and causes, 448–51

concentric, 443–5

dimensions of world, 451–2

formation, 498

in Islamic science, 43–4, 47, 50, 120–1, 123–9,133–6

number of, 43, 445–7

overview, 443–5

total, 444–5

Oresme, Nicoleastrology, 475–6, 478

celestial motions and causes, 450–1

On the Configuration of Qualities, 430–1


existence beyond cosmos, 453, 454

extension of Bradwardine’s Rule, 419

graphical representation of qualities andspeeds, 430–2, 434

impetus theory, 426

Questions on Euclid’s Elements, 431–2

ratios, 529–30

organizations, of medical practitioners,624–6

Oribasius, 327–8

Orosius, Paulus, 553–4

Orthodox caliphs, Islamic, 30–1, 141–2

Orthodox Church. See Byzantine scienceorthodoxy, medical, 331

Ostrogothic Italy, 286–7

Ottoman Empire, 33

Oxford calculators, 426–32, 434. See alsoDumbleton, John; Swineshead

Oxford University, 217, 226, 232–3, 469, 539–40.See also Merton College

Pachymeres, George, 194, 196, 200–1

Padua, university of, 227, 233, 353, 595

pagan learningin Christian cosmology, 306

medicine, and Christianity, 323–6




Pahlavi Persian, 35

Pantegni (Constantine the African), 372, 592

papacyand astrology, 476

and Latin universities, 225

political importance of, 20

and translation movement, 354

Pappus of Alexandria, 85, 90–1, 93–5, 103, 105–6,191, 194

parallel postulate, 80–1

Parisanatomical dissection in, 595


condemnations, 227–8

Latin educational institutions in, 216, 217

sophismata in, 539

See also schools; University of ParisParis, Matthew, 564

Parmenides, 405

paronyms, 542

partial orbs, in cosmology, 444–5

particulars, in natural history, 575–8

partisans of �Alı, 31

partisanship, and university curricula, 230–1

Paschal calculation. See computuspassio (being-acted-upon), 407

passions of mind, as nonnatural, 604–5

pathological disorders, 605–6

patronageby church of science, 283–5

court astrology, 475–7

Islamic mathematics, 68–9


translation movement, 344, 351–4

Pecham, John, 509–10

Pelagonius, 333

perception. See opticsPerez, Gonzalo, 353

perfect numbers, 75

periodization of European history, Middle Agesin, 1–5, 11–12

Periphyseon (On Nature), Eriugena, 307–9,313–14

periploi, 565

permitted disciplines, 263–5

Persia, translation in, 35, 197

Persian astronomy, 85, 95

in Byzantine Empire, 195

Persian Syntaxis (Chrysococces), 197, 200

perspectiva. See opticsPerspectiva (Witelo), 509

Perspectiva communis (Pecham), 509–10

perspectivist science. See opticsPerugia, university of, 227

Petrarch, 1

Petrus Alfonsi, 342, 352, 356–7, 373

Petrus Bonus, 397–8

Peuerbach, Georg, 206, 234, 471–2

Phaenomena (Euclid), 63–4






Index 669

phantasy, in optics, 487

pharmacologyByzantine, 204

experimental, 608

Islamic, 152–3, 162

medical alchemy, 393

phenomena, celestial, 443

Philippe de Mezieres, 476

Philoponus, John, 58, 422, 424–5

philosophers’ stone, 395

philosophitranslators as, 355–6

philosophia, during twelfth-century Renaissance,370–2

philosophydivisions of, 257

Greek, in Islam, 28–9, 41–2

and Jewish medicine, 179




physica. See medicine and natural philosophyphysical world, in Islamic natural philosophy,

42–4, 58–9

physicians, 581–3

female, 622–4

municipal, 626–7

See also doctors; medical practice; medicaltheory; medicine; Salerno

physics, 346–7. See also natural philosophyPhysics (Aristotle), 99–100, 405, 411–12, 419–20,

427, 432–3

physiognomy, 265

Physiologus, 205–6, 335–6

physiology, 590–610

anatomical knowledge, 592–6

of eating and drinking, 333

of eye, 485, 489–90

from health to disease, 602–6

humors, virtues and qualities, 596–602

overview, 590–2

from theory to practice, 606–10

See also circulation, pulmonarypictures. See illustrationsPiero della Francesca, 238

Pierre de Saint Flour, 606

pilgrim routes, and translation movement,350

pinhole technique, in astronomy, 461. See alsocamera obscura

Pisa, 342, 350

place, in change and motion, 409–11

plague, 603–4

plague hospitals, 628

planetary astronomy, 121–35, 169–70, 175–6, 198,200, 211, 233–4, 296–8, 459–60

Planetary Hypotheses (Ptolemy), 121, 123

planetary longitude, Ptolemaic theory of,478–84

planetary theoryCapella, 312–13

Carolingian, 313, 314, 315

in eleventh century, 317–18


in Islamic west, 127–9

Jewish, 175–6

Maraghah observatory, 129–35

of Ptolemy, 121–4

See also astronomy; cosmologyplanning, city, 561–2

plant remedies, 337–8

plantsand textiles, 638

See also natual historyPlato, 41–2, 49–50, 98–9, 200, 208–9, 226, 254,

257, 287, 302–6, 313, 347, 362, 372, 374,379–82, 389, 443, 490–1, 500, 503–5, 513,526–7, 600. See also Calcidius;Neoplatonism; Timaeus

Pletho, George Gemistus, 197–8, 201

Pliny the Elder, 313, 335, 556

Plotinus, 490, 491

Plutarch, 523

pneumatism, in medical theory, 599–601

poetryIslamic didactic medical, 149

and natural history, 580

political reasons, for Islamic translationmovement, 36–7

Polo, Marco, 201, 557

Pomata, Gianna, 622

pope. See papacyportolan charts, 565, 566

portolani, 565

Posidonius, 327

possible positio, 540–1

post-and-tower windmills, 637

postcolonial societies, Roman, 21

Posterior Analytics (Aristotle), 100, 374, 378,537–8

potential of man, in twelfth-centuryRenaissance, 383–4

power technologies, 636–7

practical (active) sciences, 245–6, 249–50, 261–3,537

practice, mathematical, 520–3

Practice of geometry, The (Fibonacci), 561






670 Index

practice of medicine. See medical practice;medical theory

practices, scientific. See disciplines, scientificPrague, university of, 234

prayersIslamic, 111, 112–13

monastic, and timekeeping, 298–301

precession of equinoxes, 119, 479

Precious Pearl (Petrus Bonus), 397–8

pre-Islamic medicine, 140–1

primary colors, 508

prime mover. See celestial motion; motionprinciples of natural things, 405–6

printing, by Latin universities, 236

Priscian, Theodore, 335, 375

privation, as principle of natural things,405–6

privative terms, in signification, 542

Problems literature, 331

problem-texts, mathematical, 320

Proclus, 381–2, 491

Procopius of Gaza, 324

profession, medicine as, 629

prohibited disciplines, 263–5

projectile motiongeneral discussion, 419–21

in Islamic natural philosophy, 58–9

and theory of impetus, 421–4

prolongation of human life, in alchemy, 393–4

Proofs of Conclusions, 430

Proofs of Terms, 535, 544, 545–7

property, local descriptions and measurementsof, 560–2

property management, 561

prophecy, in Islamic natural philosophy, 47

prophetic medicine, 141

proportions, in mathematics, 244, 319, 416,527–30

propositional analysis. See logicProvence, 172

Psalm 148, 289–90

pseudo-Aristotle, 389

pseudo-Lull, 400–2

psychiatric disorders, 604–5

psychical (or animal) spirit, 599–600, 604

psychological aspects of visual perception,499–500

psychological states, in medical theory, 604–5

psychology, and search for causes, 382. See alsoAristotle; Ibn Sina; soul

Ptolemyastronomy, 460, 478–84

cosmology, 436, 443–5, 446

Geography book, 551–2, 553

Handy Tables, 195–7, 201

and Islamic astronomy, 118, 121–4, 126–7,132–4

in Latin universities, 234

Optica, 488–9

optics, 488–9

Planetary Hypotheses, 121, 123, 436

translation of works by, 346

See also Almagestpublic health institutions, 624, 626–8

public works, and geography, 562

pulmonary circulation, 156

pulsation, in medical theory, 601

punctiform analysis of light radiation, 87, 99,494

pyramidal numbers, 75–6

qibla computation, 65–7, 109, 112–13, 116, 136

quadrant, with astrolabe, 466

quadratic equations, 71–2, 170, 521–2

quadrivium, 85, 190, 193–4, 196, 200–1, 209–10,212, 241, 244, 246, 248, 250, 252–3, 255–7,288, 298, 310, 353, 368, 456–7, 514, 548, 634

qualities, in medical theory, 596–602

quantificationof qualities, 230, 404, 428–9, 526

of theology, 282

questio method, 437

questions and answers formatin commentaries on Aristotelian cosmology,

437

in cosmology, 438

in Islamic medical discourse, 149

in medical texts, 331

Questions on “De caelo” (Buridan), 437

Questions on Euclid’s Elements (Oresme), 431–2

Questions on Natural Science (Adelard of Bath),381, 383

Questions regarding On Plants (Questiones suprade plantis), Bacon, 573

al-Quhı, Abu Sahl, 120

quintessence, 43, 401, 432, 440–1, 443

See also aetheral-Qushjı, �Ala� al-Dın, 137

Rabanus Maurus, 247, 297, 316

rabbinic literature, Jewish medicine found in,180

radiationfrom eye, 492

physical and mathematical analysis, 500–1

in punctiform analysis of light, 87, 99,494

from the stars, 492

universal, 492, 498–9

radical moisture, 598






Index 671

rainbows, 505–7

Rashed, Roshdi, 17

al-Rashıd, Harun, 62, 68, 143, 157

rational science, logic as, 536–7

ratiosin Bradwardine’s rule, 416, 417–18, 419

in Islamic mathematics, 78, 80–1, 87


Ravenna, 330

Raymond of Marseilles, 371–2

al-Razı, Abu Bakr Muh. ammad ibn Zakariyya�alchemical work, 388

Book of Medicine for al-Mans.ur, 146

The Comprehensive Book on Medicine,146

medical work, 146

philosophical work, 49–50

realists, 535–6

reason, in Islamic theological approach, 55

reasoned fact, demonstration of, 538

recipe books, medicinal, 335, 337–8

Reckoners’ Key (al-Kashı), 71, 78

Reckoning of Times, The (Bede), 311–12

rectangulus, 470

Rede, William, 469

reflectionin optics, 93, 502

in rainbows, 505–7

refractionin optics, 93

in rainbows, 505–7

sine law of, 87

regimens, 602–3

Regiomontanus, Johannes, xxii, 206, 236, 467,472–3, 478, 510

regulatory institutions, medical, 624–6

Reims, 316–17, 533, 616

religion. See church and sciencereligious art, 587

religious influence, on Islamic naturalphilosophy, 57–8, 60–1

religious rituals, Christian, 292–4

religious scholarship, Islamic astronomy in,135–6, 137–8

religious sciences, Islamic, 27–8

remission of forms, 428–9

Renaissance. See twelfth-century RenaissanceRenaissance of the Twelfth Century (Haskins),

13–14

resistive power, in theories of motion in void,414–19

resoluble terms, 546

resolution method, 538

respublica philosophorum, 363–4

Rhabdas, Nicolas, 192

rhetoric, 244

Richard of Fournival, 580

Richard of Middleton, 449

Richard of Wallingford, 212, 301, 457, 467, 470,474–5

Richer of Rheims, 213

Rising Dawn (Aurora consurgens), 398

ritual uniformity, 295

Robert of Ketton, 352, 372

Roger II of Sicily, 555–6

Roman Church, 20. See also church and science;papacy

Roman Empirechurch, view of regarding attitude to science

from, 271–4

decline of, 18–21

recovery of culture during twelfth-centuryRenaissance, 368–70

schooling in, 208

science of in Ostrogothic Italy, 286–7

and technology, 633

Rome (city of )beyond the decline of, 18–21

fall of, 9

language, 1

roots, in Islamic mathematics, 71

Rouse, Mary, 384

Rouse, Richard, 384

Rufinus, 582–3

Rules for Solving Sophisms (Heytesbury), 429–30

Rupescissa, John of (Jean de Roquetaillade),399–400

Russell, Bertrand, 514

Sa�adya Gaon, 185–6

Sabra, A. I., 16

Saccheri quadrilateral, 80, 81

Sacrobosco, John of, 293

art of algorism, 519, 525

on astrolabe, 464

circulation, 456

cosmology in, 437–8

immobility of earth, 442

literary style of, 460

Tractatus de sphaera, 549, 553

translations, 175, 238

in university curriculum, 230, 233

Safavid dynasty, 33

Sagan, Carl, 9–10

sailing directions, 565–6

sails, lateen, 641–2

saintsfeasts of, 293

healing by, 339–40







672 Index

St. Albans, 212, 301, 457, 474, 564, 639

St. Ambrose, 447

St. Anselm. See AnselmSt. Augustine. See AugustineSt. Basil, 333, 447

St. Benedict, 298, 632

St. Bernard of Clairvaux, 352

St. Bonaventure, 440

St. Boniface, 551

St. Denis (church), 643

St. Gallen monastery, 212, 316, 616, 642

St. Isidore. See Isidore of SevilleSt. John, 618

St. John of Beverley. See JohnSt. Katherine of Alexandria, 220

St. Leonard of York, 627

St. Martin of Tours, 292, 340

St. Maur, 618

St. Nicholas of Tolentino, 618

St. Pauls’ Abbey (Antioch), 367

St. Peter’s (Rome), 20

St. Victor (abbey), 367, 375. See also HughSalamanca University, 235

Salernitan Questions, 251–2

Salerno, 213, 342, 372

Saliba, George, 117

Saljuq Turks, 32

salts, in alchemy, 390

Samarqand observatory, 137

al-Samawcal, 73

Sanskrit, 16, 38, 62, 116–17, 144, 632

Sarton, George, 12

Sasanid Empire, 36, 37

Sayili, Aydin, 12, 69

Schindel, Jan, 234

scholarly mathematical geography, 548–53

Schoner, Johannes, 469

schools, 11, 207–39

Alexandrian, 190, 195

of Alfonso X, 468

of Athens, 60, 190

Carolingian, 210–11, 248, 316

Citizens’ school (Vienna), 258

Constantinople, 197

curriculum, 345, 569, 634

free, 216

Greek, 209, 330

Jewish, in Sicily, 173

late-antique, 41, 195, 224, 309

medical, 589

monastic, 208–13, 224, 238, 246, 274–5,297–8, 307, 533, 616

mosque, 63

Ottoman engineering, 138

palace, 210, 248

Paris, 215–18, 533

public, 309–10

rationalist, in kalam, 185

of religious orders, 220

Roman urban, 207, 318, 330

Salerno, 213, 342

of St. Victor, 375

Syriac, 40, 190

of thought, in Baghdad, 185

urban Latin, 208, 212, 275

urban vernacular, 207, 236–8

See also Benedictine; cathedral; cathedralschools; educational institutions;Gondeshapur; madrasas; monasteries;universities, urban

science, defining, 5–8. See also medieval science;specific branches of science by name

sciences, theoretical (speculative), 245–6, 261–3,537

scientific argument, methods of, 377–83

scientific method, in logic, 537–8

Scot, Michael, 390

Scotus, Duns, 421, 428

second intentions, 537

secondary moistures, in medical theory, 598–9

Secret of Secrets, 389

secular science, in Islam, 27–9

secularization, 282

Seeing, science of. See opticsSefer Asaf, 170

Sefer Yes.ira (The Book of Creation), 170–1,186

self-luminous celestial bodies, 443

self-movement, 420, 443, 449

semantics. See logicsemiotic considerations, in mathematics, 514–16,

530

Sentences (Lombard), 438

separation of termini, 413

Severianus, 549

Severus Sebokht, 35

sex/sexualityhygiene, 170

intercourse, 261

and medicine, 263, 335, 603

in natural philosophy, 17

as a “nonnatural,” 602

al-Shadhilı, S. adaqah ibn Ibrahım, 164, 165

Shıa Muslims, 31, 32, 49–50

shell construction, of ships, 641

shiphaulers argument, 415–16

ships and shipbuilding, 641–2

Shırazı, Qut.b al-Dın, 132, 133, 160






Index 673

Shlomo ben Adret, 180

al-Shukuk �ala Bat. lamyus (Doubts AgainstPtolemy), Ibn al-Haytham, 126–7

sickness, in medical theory, 602–6

Siger of Brabant, 279

sight, science of. See opticssignification, in logic, 541–2

signsin mathematics, 514–16

zodiacal, 314–16

Simon Cordo of Genoa, 359–60, 582, 586

Simon de Phares, 477

Simplicius, 178, 424

Sınan, 96

Sindhind (Brahmagupta), 62

sine law of refraction, 87

skeleton-built ships, 641

Smith, Julian, 566

social setting, of Islamic mathematics, 64–9

solar apogee, 119, 124–5

solar calendar, and Christian feasts, 292–4

solar year, length of, 119

Solinus, 335

solstices, 292–3

sophismata, 418, 426–7, 538–41

soulin alchemy, 387–8, 393

animal, 44

faculties of, 600–1

in foetus, 328

form of living thing, 413

as harmony, 514


in Jewish natural philosophy, 182, 189

of orbs, in cosmology, 433, 440, 443,449

physical, 382

rational, 44, 487

and search for causes, 382

and spirits, in medical theory, 599–600

vegetative, 44, 572–4, 600

world, 303, 364, 382, 572

See also Aristotle; psychologyspace

in theories of motion, 409, 410

void, 411–15, 454–5

Spain, 32–3, 459–60. See also AndalusiaSpanish Aristotelians, 51–3

spatial framework, in medieval cosmology, 302–3

specializationabsence of, 247–8

curricular, in universities, 230–4

and disciplines, 262–3


during twelfth-century Renaissance,372–5

specific form theory, 608

speculation, about natural world, 380–1

speculative (theoretical) sciences, 245–6, 261–3,537

speed of motionin Bradwardine’s rule, 415–19


Sphere and Cylinder (Archimedes), 64

spheres, in cosmology. See orbs, in cosmologyspherical astrolabe, 115

spherical astronomy, 460

spherical earth, concept of, 548–9

spherical trigonometry, 470

spirits, in medical theory, 599–601, 604

Stadiasmus, 565

stars, fixed, in cosmology, 451–2

statics, 525

Stephen of Alexandria, 195

Stephen of Antioch, 372

Stephen the Philosopher, 361

stern-post rudder, 641

stirrups, in warfare, 640

Stoicheiosis (Elements), Metochites, 196

Strabo, 201, 556

studia of religious orders, 351, 533–4

studium generale, 217, 225, 229. See alsouniversities

sublunar realm, in natural philosophy, 43

substantial change, 407

al-S. ufı, �Abd al-Rah. man, 120

sulfur, in alchemy, 391, 395–6

Summa perfectionis, 394–7

Summa philosophiae, 448

Sunin cosmology, 452

longitude of, 479–80

Mercury and Venus orbiting, 312–13

sundials, 79, 112, 290–1, 469

Sunni Muslims, 31

supernatural cures, 613–18

supernatural healing, 338–40

superparticular, 319

superpartient, 319

supposition theory, 534, 542–4

collective supposition, 544

confused and distributive supposition, 544

determinate supposition, 543–4

immobile supposition, 544

material supposition, 543

(im)mobile supposition, 544

natural supposition, 543

personal supposition, 543–4






674 Index

supposition theory (cont.)purely confused supposition, 544

simple supposition, 543

surgeryabdominal, 163, 164

and anatomical knowledge, 593–4

apprenticeship, 158

eye, 152, 158–9

gynecological, 164

instruments, 159, 164–5

in Islamic medicine, 142, 146, 158–60, 162–6

oral transmission, 250

in Salerno, 593

outside therapeutics, 141, 162–3

translation, 362

in universities, 230, 261, 619

women practitioners, 611

surveying, land, 561

al-Suyut.ı, Jalal al-Dın, 136

Swineshead, Richard, 418–19, 428, 430, 512

syllabus, Galenic medical, 329–30

symbolism, algebraic, 72

symbols, in mathematics, 514–16

syncategoremata, 534, 545–7

Synonyma (Simon of Genoa), 359–60

synoptic tables, in Islamic medicine, 150

Syriac language, translation into, 35

systematization, during twelfth-centuryRenaissance, 367–8

al-T. abarı, �Alı ibn Rabban, 145

tablesAlfonsine, 172, 175, 197, 233-5, 237, 459–60,

468–70, 479–84

arithmetic, 192

calculating, in Islamic mathematics, 81

geographical, 552, 561

geometrical, 65

Handy, 195–7, 201

lunar, 301

lunar crescent visibility, 119

Persian, 35, 197, 201

planetary, 110, 118, 120, 173, 175, 195, 198, 261,342–4, 346, 351–2, 368–9, 371

Pisan, 357

prayer, 58, 111

qibla, 113

synoptic, 150

synoptic, in Islamic medicine, 150

Tabulae resolutae, 235

timekeeping, 111

Toledan, 120, 172, 175, 197, 459, 461, 552

trigonometric, 73, 81, 83, 119, 196

See also zıj

Tabula Peutingeriana (Peutinger Map), 564

Tahafut al-falasifa (The Incoherence of thePhilosophers), Ghazalı, 126

Taliesin, 339

talismans, 141, 160, 383–4

Talmudic remedies, 180

Tatian, 271

teaching. See cathedral schools; madrasas;universities

technology, 630–44

agricultural, 635–6

building construction, 642–3

classical and Asian influences on, 633–4

intellectual context of, 631–3

military, 639–41

overview, 630–1

power, 636–7

ships and shipbuilding, 641–2

textile production, 637–9

terminist logic, 534

terminology, Latin, in twelfth-centuryRenaissance, 376–7

terrestrial astronomy, alchemy as, 389–90

terrestrial realm, in natural philosophy, 43

terrestrial region, in cosmology, 440–3

terrestrial substances, components of, 387

Tertullian, 271

Testament (Lull), 401

textbooksalchemy, 394

arithmetic, 525

astrology, 382–3, 394–7

astronomy, 135, 262, 297, 314, 346, 471–2,553

computus, 297

geography, 553

geometry, 529

liberal arts, 262, 346, 373, 580

logic, 535, 537–8

mathematics, 346, 529

medicine, 151, 230, 329–30, 347, 492


natural philosophy, 230

optics, 278, 510

physics, 346–7

specialization, 373

surgical, 619

theology, 438

See also curricula; specific textbooks by titletextile production, 637–9

texts, medical, 333–6, 337–8

textual practices, scientific, 249–50

Thabit ibn Qurraalgebra, 72






Index 675

anti-Aristotelian physical theories, 59

on Archimedes, 78

geometrical investigations, 78–9

instantaneous planetary velocity, 125

mechanics, 89, 96–7, 104

patronage of, 96

pseudo-authorship, 164–5

stellar positions, 461

sundials, 112

talismans, 384

translations by, 38–40, 62–3, 118

trepidation, 447

Theodore of Antioch, 364

Theodore of Mopsuestia, 290

Theodoric of Freiberg, 506–7

theological spheres, in cosmology, 447–8

theologyand astronomy, 456–7

faculty of, 219–22, 228, 279–80

influence on Islamic natural philosophy, 57–8,60–1

as Islamic approach to natural sciences, 53–7

and science, 269


See also church and science; kalamTheon of Alexandria, 91, 191, 193, 195–6, 206

theoretical (speculative) sciences, 245–6, 261–3,537

theoretical alchemy, 392–3

theoretical medicine, 162–7, 606–10. See alsomedical theory

Theorica planetarum (Theory of the Planets), 460

Theoricae novae planetarum (New Theories of thePlanets), Peuerbach, 471–2

Thierry of Chartres, 346, 371

Thomas of Cantimpre, 577

Thorndike, Lynn, 13, 395

Timaeus (Plato), 46, 49, 208, 213, 216, 218, 244,247, 275, 303, 317, 336, 346, 362, 369, 371,381, 436, 439, 514, 518

timechange and motion, 409–11

linear concept of, and technology, 632

See also calendar; computus; qibla; latitude offorms; motion

timekeepingin Islamic astronomy, 111–12

in Islamic mathematics, 67, 69

monastic, 298–301

See also calendar; clocksTimothy of Gaza, 205

Timurid rulers, and Islamic science, 33

To Save the Phenomena (Duhem), 14

Toledan Tables, 459, 552

Toledo, 343–4, 353–4, 355, 357–8, 362–3, 469

total orbs, in cosmology, 444–5

Toulouse University, 228

town planning, 561–2

tracheotomy, in Islamic medicine, 163–4

Tractatus de herbis, 586

Tractatus de proportionibus (Bradwardine), 529

Tractatus de sphaera (Sacrobosco), 553

transcendental terms, in signification, 542

translatio studii, 363–4

translationof academic works into vernacular, 237–8

appropriation of ancient mathematics byIslam, 62–3

Arabic into Latin, 25–6, 28, 156–7, 172

and development of technology, 634

of Greek and Arabic Science into Latin,341–64

of Greek into Latin, 38, 208–9, 213

of Greek medicine to Arabic, 143–5

of Greek mixed sciences to Arabic, 84–7, 91–7

of Greek natural philosophy to Arabic, 22,34–40, 42, 45–6

into Hebrew, 172, 174–5, 177

Hebrew into Arabic, 185

of Hebrew into Latin, 173, 179–81

Latin into Greek, 198

of mathematical texts, 62–5, 77, 79, 81, 518–19

from Pahlavi, 62

Persian into Greek, 197

role in Islamic astronomy, 116–18

from Sanskrit, 62

of Sanskrit into Arabic, 192

and success of universities, 218

from Syriac, 62

in twelfth-century Renaissance, 373–4, 376–7

See also transmission of Greek and Islamicscience; Jews

transmission of Greek and Islamic science,341–64

course of translations, 341–5

in European scientific disciplines, 251–3

goals, 345–7

Greek versus Arabic, 347–9

Islamic astronomy, 116–18


overview, 341

patrons, 351–4

sources, 349–51

techniques, 356–63

from translatio studii to respublicaphilosophorum, 363–4

translators, 354–6

See also translation






676 Index

transmission of knowledge, and universities,235–6

transmutation, alchemical, 391–2, 395, 396–7

travelbooks and ideas, 165, 197, 202, 210, 212, 235,

254

and medicine, 140, 153, 157

students and masters, 178, 197, 201, 215

Treatise on the Circumference (al-Kashı), 79

Treatise on the Ratios of Speeds in Motions(Bradwardine), 414–15, 416–18, 428

Treatise on the Solar Year, 119–20

trebuchet, 640

tree diagrams, 149

Tree of Science (Lull), 565

trepidation, 120, 127–9, 447

triangular numbers, 75

trigonometry, 57–8, 81–2, 470

trivium, 244, 252

Trotula, 208, 213

Turisanus, 598, 601

Tuscus, Leo, 355

T. usı couple, 131–2

al-Tusı, Nasır al-DınThe Complete Quadrilateral, 82

optical work, 88

patronage of, 95

al-Tusı, Sharaf al-Dın, 73

tutors, Muslim, of mathematics, 63

twelfth-century Renaissance, 365–84

language, refinement of, 375–7

overview, 365–7, 517–19

philosophia, widening boundaries of, 370–2

potential of man, 383–4

Roman and Greek culture, recovery of,368–70

scientific argument, methods of, 377–83

specialization, rise of, 372–5

systematization during, 367–8

translation in, 373–4, 376–7

Ulug Begh, 26

Umayyad dynasty, 21–2, 31, 35–6, 116–17, 142–3

uniform motion, 429, 431

units of measurement, geographical, 550

unity of ritual, 295

universal astrolabe, 83, 464–6

universitiesanatomical dissection, 594–5

Aristotle in, 218, 220–1, 223, 226–8, 231, 247,254, 258, 266, 275–9, 284

astrology, 473–4

church support of, 284

clerical status and social parameters, 224–8

curricular tradition, innovation, andspecialization, 230–4

expansion of, 228–30

faculty structure, 219–22

as guilds, 217–19

knowledge about nature, circulation of, 235–6

law, 214–15, 218, 219–22

logic, 258, 533–5

mathematics, 234, 523–7

medicine, 219–22, 591–2, 619

natural philosophy in, 219–22

rise of, 208

small group supervision in, 231–2

social parameters in, 224–8

specialization in twelfth-century Renaissance,374–5

teaching and learning in, 222–4

theology, 219–22

translations commissioned by, 353

See also specific universities by nameUniversity of Bologna, 214–15, 222, 595

University of Cracow, 226–7, 234

University of Louvain, 225, 231

University of Montpellier, 595

University of Naples, 229, 352–3

University of Oxford, 217, 226, 232–3, 426–32,469, 539–40

University of Padua, 227, 233, 353, 595

University of Parisanatomical dissection, 595

Aristotle’s natural philosophy, 278–80

astrology, 473–4

astronomy, 233

colleges, 232

condemnations, 227–8

development of, 375

role of masters in, 218

small-group supervision, 231–2

social origins of students, 226

University of Perugia, 227

University of Prague, 234

University of St. Andrews, 225

University of Salamanca, 235

University of Toulouse, 228

University of Uppsala, 225

University of Viennaastrology, 263

astronomy, 233, 470–1, 552

mathematical sciences, 234


specialization, 231

Uppsala, 225

al-Uqlidisi, Abu’l-Hasan, 70

�Urd. ı Lemma, 130–1






Index 677

urban schools, Latin, 207–8, 209–13, 275

urbanization, and medical practice, 617–24

urines, treatise on, 329

uroscopy, 329

Val en Worp (Dijksterhuis), 14

Vallicrosa, Josep Marıa Millas, 16

Vegetius, 333

Venerable Bede. See Bede of JarrowVenetian quarters, 350

Venus, 312–13

verbal sciences, 244

vernacular works and translations, 237–8, 337–8,357–8

verse, natural history in, 580

Vienna, 231. See also University of ViennaVillard de Honnecourt, 642

Vincent of Beauvais, 351, 475, 554

violent motion, 406, 411, 419–20

virtues, in medical theory, 596–602, 604

Visigothic court, natural knowledge in, 287–8

vision, study of. See opticsvisual cone, in optics, 487–8, 489, 493–5, 496

vital spirit, in medical theory, 599–600

vocabulary, Latin, in twelfth-century, 376–7

Vocabulary of Things (Vocabularius rerum),Brack, 580

void spaceand existence beyond cosmos, 454–5

motion in, 411–15

Voltaire, 9

voluntary motion, 406, 420

Walcher of Malvern, 300–1, 356–7

warfare, technology of, 639–41

warfare thesis, 268

Wars of the Lord, (Levi ben Gerson), 189

water supply, geographical planning of,563

waterpower, 636–7

wayfinding, and geography, 562–6

weapons, 203, 639–41

weights, theory of, 525. See also mechanicsWeisheipl, James, 449

Western Roman Empire, 332–6. See alsoByzantine science

Whewell, William, 9

White, Lynn, 630–1, 632, 640

William of Conches, 252, 370–1, 376, 559

William of Ockham, 413

William of Rubruck, 557

William of Saint-Cloud, 461

William of Saliceto, 593

William of St. Emmeram, 317

Wilson’s theorem, 76

windmills, 637

Witelo, 509

Wolf, Armin, 559–60

womenanatomy, 594

cataract patient, 165

as herbalists, 582

excluded from balanced complexion, 602

literacy, 623

in medicine, 140, 209, 213, 611, 614, 618,622–4

and natural world, 579

and observation, 583

physicians, 615

restrictions on medical practice, 623

role in generation, 154

and textiles, 637–8

See also Hildegard of Bingen; Trotulaand university, 227

wool manufacture, 638

worlddescriptive geography of, 553–60

knowability of, in optics, 507–8

view of, scholarly mathematical geographyand, 548–53

See also cosmologyworld maps, 66–7, 558–60

writing style, twelfth-century Renaissance, 369

Ya�ish, Shlomo ibn, 180

Yah. ya ibn Abı Mans.ur, 119

Yes.irat ha-Welad, 170

Yesod �Olam (Israeli), 175

York, 210

Yushkevich, A. A. P., 16

Zahrawı, Abu al-Qasim, 146, 159, 163–4

Al-Zıj al-Mumtah. an (ibn Abı Mans.ur), 119

zıj astronomy texts, 117–18, 459–60

zodiac, 113–14, 119, 311, 314–16

zones, latitudinal, 550, 559

zoo, 205

zoology, 205–6, 572–3






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INDEX [assets.cambridge.org]assets.cambridge.org/97805215/94486/index/9780521594486_index.pdf · 646 Index alchemy (cont.) practical, 393–4 Roger Bacon, 392–4 Summa perfectionis