Index [assets.cambridge.org] · 2008. 11. 13. · T-WDMA scheme for, 109–110 BS. See Base station B&S OADM. See Broadcast and Select optical add/drop multiplexer Bubble switch,

Index

2D MEMS switches, 250–2512R regeneration, 7883D CDMA system, 3633D MEMS switch, 252–2533R regeneration, 788

Acceptable label set object, 749Acceptance angle, 170Access fibers, 30, 132Access link, 30Access station. See Network access station

(NAS)Acousto-optic tunable filter (AOTF)

all-fiber, 268–269fabrication of, 268in ONTC testbed, 838polarization flipping in, 267–268

ACTS. See European AdvancedCommunications Technology and Service

Acyclic graph, 871Adaptive routing algorithm, 485–486Add/drop multiplexer (ADM)

failure at, 656as LS, 79minimization of, 600–601in SONET, 79–81, 598–599

Add/drop traffic, 78–79Address shift routing

in directed Kautz hypergraph, 623–625rule for, 591in undirected Kautz hypergraph, 625

ADH. See Average distance heuristicAdiabatic chirp, 213Adjacency, in optical control plane, 719, 731,

738ADM. See Add/drop multiplexerAdministrative status object, 749–750Advanced Technology Demonstration

Network (ATDnet), 851–852Aggregate network capacity bound, 445–446

Air-clad core PCF, 189Algorithms. See also Heuristic algorithms;

Integer linear programadaptive routing, 485–486alternate routing, 485arc-disjoint, 703auxiliary graph as framework for, 606Bellman-Ford, 734–735connection allocation, 545–546constrained v. unconstrained, 486for DCS restoration techniques, 664,

666–668Djikstra’s, 734–735, 738, 888Dsatur, 872fixed routing, 485fixed scheduling, 875–879grooming, 584,Haber

603–606man’s, 505

for hypernet design, 632–633for Kautz hypernets, 623–625k-SP, 487, 547–550, 553–555least loaded routing, 489link state, 735looping, 51, 765, 897–898minimum cost routing, 637Min-Int, 547–550, 553–555, 888–892multicast connection allocation, 558–568optimization, 465–468planarity-testing, 684for point-to-point connections, 545–549,

551–557for RCA, 51–52, 127, 139, 455–468,

474–591, 623–625, 637for ring covers, 664–665SPD, 487–488void-filling scheduling, 802–803for WDM mesh networks, 603–606for WDM rings, 600–602for wide-sense nonblocking switches,

51–52

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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-88139-5 - Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition: Architectures, Design, and ControlThomas E. Stern, Georgios Ellinas and Krishna BalaIndexMore information

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916 Index

All-optical label swapping (AOLS)enabling technologies for, 811example of, 809–811processor for, 810

All-Optical Network (AON) Consortium, 839All-optical 2R or 3R regeneration, 788All-optical wavelength conversion, 275–278ALOHA, 401–403Alternate routing algorithm, 485Amplets, 204–205Amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) noise,

195–197, 200, 227, 241Amplifier chains, in EDFAs, 197Amplifiers, 190–205, 257. See also

Erbium-doped fiber amplifier; Ramanamplifier; Semiconductor opticalamplifier

amplets, 204–205EDFA, 191–197EDWA, 204front-end, 219–221line, 190linear optical, 205LOA, 205power, 190preamplifiers and, 190rare-earth-doped fiber, 191self-saturation of, 195SLALOM, 280, 789SOA, 201–203, 205, 423, 788, 790,

814–815spacing of, 197transimpedance, 219in WANs, 190–191

Analog modulation, 71, 181, 214AOLS. See All-optical label swappingAON Consortium. See All-Optical Network

ConsortiumAOTF. See Acousto-optic tunable filterAPD. See Avalanche photodiodeAPON. See ATM-based passive optical

networkAPS. See Automatic protection switchingArbitrary mesh architectures, 663–669

centralized restoration techniques in,665–666

distributed restoration techniques in,666–669

ring covers for survivability in, 664–665Arc-disjoint algorithm, 703Arrayed waveband grating (AWG), 259, 790,

796

channel selector and, 272–273as optical filtering technology, 265–266routing properties of, 265as single thermo-optically controlled MZ

switch, 271–272switches based on, 271–273versatility of, 266WADM based on, 271–272in WDM-based PONS, 417–418

AS. See Autonomous SystemsASE noise. See Amplified spontaneous

emission noiseAsynchronous OPS networks, 782–783Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), 4, 6, 8,

19APON based on, 412–414ATMOS and, 793broadband services supported by, 19, 81–82cell format of, 82logical topology in, 82–83networks of, 81–85, 97

Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) networkATM-over-SONET structure in, 82–83connection management in, 97as LRN, 81–85LS in, 81LT in, 82–83NAS in, 83point-to-point connections in, 82

ATDnet. See Advanced TechnologyDemonstration Network

ATM. See Asynchronous transfer modeATM-based passive optical network (APON),

412–414ATM network. See Asynchronous transfer

mode networkATM Optical Switching Project (ATMOS),

793ATMOS. See ATM Optical Switching ProjectAttenuation

material absorption and, 175OAs and, 30power losses from, 505Rayleigh scattering and, 176as transmission impairment, 175–177VOAs for, 241waveguide imperfections and, 176

Autocorrelation sequence, 357Automated neighbor discovery, 731Automatic protection switching (APS),

453–454in four-fiber BLSR, 657






Index 917

for link failures, using protection cycles,686–687

one-for-N, 650, 653–654, 671–672one-for-one, 650, 653, 670–671one-plus-one, 650–653redundant trees for, 697SONET linear, 650, 653

Autonomous Systems (AS), 734Auxiliary graph

access layer in, 605as algorithm framework, 606edges in, 606for grooming, 605–607

Auxiliary hypergraph, 636–637Avalanche photodiode (APD), 218–220,

422Average distance heuristic (ADH), 502AWG. See Arrayed waveband grating

Backup route computation, 678–679Backward pumping EDFA, 192–193Balanced light-tree (BLT), 505Band gap, 201Bandpass filter (BPF), 73–74Bandwidth

channelization of, 10OR constraints of, 31deregulation and, 828OT constraints of, 31of single fiber, 10trading of, 3, 859–861wavelength-brokering operational model

and, 859–860Banyan structure, 43, 50Base station (BS), 420Bellman-Ford algorithm, 734–735Benes switch, 49–51

cross-talk of, 286–288implementation of, 285–286looping algorithm for, 51twisted, 66

BGP. See Border Gateway ProtocolBH. See Buried heterostructure (BH)Bidirectional line-switched ring (BLSR),

656–657BLSR-BLSR interconnected architectures

of, 659, 663BLSR-UPSR interconnected architectures

of, 659–663four-fiber, 657two-fiber, 656–657, 676

UPSR v., 655–657Bidirectional pumping EDFA, 192–193Bidirectional ring, 600. See also Bidirectional

line-switched ringconnectivity implemented on, 143, 145–147dynamic RCA case study of, 491–494with full wavelength interchange, 493–494physical topology of, 93–94RCA in, 129–132ShuffleNet as, 155–156single fiber pair access in, 129–130spectrum reuse in, 93, 150–151two fiber pair access in, 129–132

Binary block code, 232Bipartite graph, 869, 871Birth-death process, 882–883B-ISDN. See Broadband integrated services

digital networkBit error rate (BER)

CIR influencing, 345cross-talk related to, 239digital signal detection and, 221–226of FFH-CDMA using FBGs, 362ISI increasing, 177in OLP regeneration, 76performance measured in, 167in signal regeneration, 274–275

Blocking. See also Blocking probabilitycolor clashes causing, 546–547HOL, 406, 771–773, 776, 785in networks with multifiber links, 554–555in networks with multiple wavebands,

555–557permutation switches and, 50–52in simulated multicast scenario, 567–568wavelength interchange improving, 497

Blocking probability, 390admission control and, 397–398in bidirectional ring dynamic RCA case

study, 492framed system, 397matching time slots in, 396in mesh networks, 494–495for multicast connections, 567–568multiple wavebands and, 556in multipoint logical topologies, 638rearrangeability and, 398–399as RWA performance measure, 545in TDM/T-WDMA networks, 395–399in WDMA networks, 390–395

BLSR. See Bidirectional line-switched ring






918 Index

BLT. See Balanced light-treeBorder Gateway Protocol (BGP), 726, 734Bottleneck

access, 2, 132, 409connectivity, 11, 20, 576–577distribution network as, 2electronic, 11, 15, 59at limiting cut, 447–448WIXC removing, 274

Bounds. See Flow boundsBPON. See Broadband passive optical networkBragg grating. See Fiber Bragg gratingBridged ring overlay, 461–462Bridgeless graph, 460, 685Bridges

of connected graphs, 871failures in, 681as LSs, 461–462as OLPs, 461–462in wavelength interchange, 460–462

Broadband integrated services digital network(B-ISDN), 19

Broadband passive optical network (BPON)MAC protocol for, 413–414OLTs in, 412–414ONUs in, 412–414transmission scenario in, 413

Broadband services. See also Digitalsubscriber line

ATM supporting, 19, 81–82availability of, 2–3, 19cable modems as, 3, 19DSL as, 3, 19

Broadcast-and-select operating method. Seealso Static networks

DCA constraint of, 103, 127–128, 131,138–139

large networks and, 122of shared medium networks, 103

Broadcast and Select (B&S) optical add/dropmultiplexer (OADM), 291–293

Broadcast star networkdynamic capacity assignment in, 113embedded, 140–142, 146–147, 158, 160,

327, 522–523examples of, 325–326maximum number of stations in, 122multipoint connections in, 103–106,

324–327NAS role in, 40–41, 324–237nonreflecting, 522–523

packet switching in, 112–113, 117reflecting, 523root node of, 140, 145as shared medium, 103, 117, 324–327transceivers in, 112tree emulating, 145–146T-WDMA scheme for, 109–110

BS. See Base stationB&S OADM. See Broadcast and Select optical

add/drop multiplexerBubble switch, 249Buffered nodes, 770–774Buffering

contention resolution by, 770–787dump-and-insert, 774–778electronic, 770–771as enabling technology, 789–791FDLs as medium of choice in, 770–771hybrid electric and optical, 784–787input, 771–772of nodes, 770–774in OBS, 799–800in OPS networks, 61, 759, 770–791,

799–800, 821output, 772, 780virtual, by deflection routing, 765

Buried heterostructure (BH), 207Burstiness, 111, 387, 389Burst segmentation, 806–808Burst switching. See Optical burst switchingBusiness drivers and economics, in

multiwavelength optical networking,828–837, 861

cross-connect network cost issues as,833–836

open v. closed WDM installations as,835–837

point-to-point system cost issues as,831–832

ring cost issues as, 832–834Busy destinations, 391

Cable exhaust. See Fiber exhaustCable television (CATV) distribution

networks, 227, 336Cantor network, 51Capacity allocation. See also Dynamic

capacity allocation; Fixed capacityallocation

for dedicated connections, 371–389for demand-assigned connections, 389–399






Index 919

dynamic, 346–347, 383, 399–400, 406, 558fixed, 346–347, 383–389, 400

Capacity exhaust. See Fiber exhaustCarried traffic, 387, 389, 391. See also

Throughputin demand-assigned LCs, 539–540maximization of, 471–474

Carrier-sense multiple access with collisiondetection (CSMA/CD)

collision events in, 115end-to-end propagation time in, 115–116LLC sublayer of, 121as MAC protocol, 113–114, 120throughput efficiency of, 116

Carrier suppressed return-to-zero (CSRZ)keying, 231

Carrier-to-interference ratio (CIR)BER influenced by, 345OBI performance measured by, 342–345

Carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR), 227CAS. See Channel allocation scheduleCascaded Mach-Zehnder (MZ) switch, 247CATV distribution networks. See Cable

television distribution networksC-band, 176–177CDC. See Cycle double coverCDMA. See Code division multiple accessCentralized backup route computation,

678–679Centralized control paradigm, in optical

control plane, 722Centralized restoration, 665–666Central Office (CO), 830–831, 835Central station (CS), 420–422CH. See Contraction heuristicChannel allocation

by Max Reuse, 550–551, 552–553by Min Reuse, 550–553multiple waveband, 555–557in RWA, 550–551single waveband, 552–555on trees, 566–567

Channel allocation schedule (CAS), 119examples of, 329–331in fixed-frame scheduling, 374, 376with full complement of channels, 376information loss avoided in, 329logical multicast, 382for TDM, 328–332

Channel assignment. See also Routing andchannel assignment

of λ-channels, 516–518, 528–531constraints on, 103, 125–128, 131, 138–139in fixed-frame scheduling, 373–376in LLNs, 528–540network performance comparisons of,

535–538routing compared with, 124in RWA, 516–518transmission, 532–535

Channel reservation. See also ResourceReservation Protocol

delayed, 801–802in packet switching in optical layer, 406,

411–412in PONs, 411–412slot-by-slot, 406

Channel selector, 272–273Channel sharing

advantages of, 151collisions in, 115, 118–119, 401–402

λ-channels. See also Channel assignment;Routing and channel assignment

assignment of, 516–518, 528–531MPS and, 142ONNs switching, 30shared, 532–535in single waveband, 60spacing of, 35–37, 150, 186–187wavelength continuity and, 63in wavelength-routed networks, 122

Chirp, 212, 216adiabatic, 213dispersion interaction with, 240in FBG, 265intensity-modulated analog systems, 214penalty induced by, 240transient, 213

Chirped return-to-zero (CRZ) keying, 231Chirp-induced penalty, 240Chooser node, 667–668Chords, 871Chromatic dispersion, 178–179CIR. See Carrier-to-interference ratioCircuits, 871Circuit-switched operation

of ONNs, 14, 60packet switching v., 756TDM and, 106–107in telephone networks, 4

Circulator, 257Class of service (CoS), 728–729






920 Index

Clear channels. See Demand-assignedwavelengths

CLEC. See Competitive local exchange carrierClient service associations, 32–33Clique, 870Closed walk, 871Closed WDM installations, 835–837Clos switch, 48–49, 51CNR. See Carrier-to-noise ratioCO. See Central OfficeCoarse wavelength division multiplexing

(CWDM), 17, 177, 205Cochannel heterodyne cross-talk, 62, 236–237Cochannel multipath cross-talk, 62, 236–239Code division multiple access (CDMA),

352–367coherent, 354, 360–363DS, 353–354, 360–363, 365–366electronic processing in IM/DD systems

and, 354–359using FBG, 361–362FFH, 353, 361–362improvement of, 358–359MAI in, 353, 358noncoherent, 354, 363–366with optical processing, 352–353, 359–366packet switching using, 366–367parallel transceiver structure of, 358–359self-contained uncoordinated manner of,

366as spread-spectrum technique, 352using SSFBG, 365–366T-F, 3533D, 363waveforms for, 356

Coherent converters, 63Coherent optical systems

CDMA using SSFBG, 365–366as enabling technology, 234–235heterodyne OR in, 234–235optical processing in, 363–366phase masks in, 363–365photocurrent in, 234

Coherent receiver. See Heterodyne opticalreceiver

Collisions, 115, 118–119, 401–402Color clashes

in LLNs, 138–139, 546–547Max Reuse causing, 563Min Reuse minimizing, 551–553SPT causing, 562–564

Column/row-compression algorithm, 879Column/row-expansion algorithm, 876–879Competitive local exchange carrier (CLEC),

841, 853Complete graph, 869–870Conduit exhaust. See Fiber exhaustConflict-free receiver tuning schedules, 111Connected graph, 871–872Connection allocation algorithm, 545–546Connection granularity. See GranularityConnection interference graph, 529–531Connection management

in ATM network, 97connection establishment phase of, 96, 100connection release phase of, 96–98, 100control plane in, 98information transfer phase of, 96–98of LCs, 100–102in optical networks, 3, 9, 17–18, 20, 39,

96–102in static networks, 102system of, 99–100

Connection rearrangement, 124–126, 139Connectivity bottleneck, 11, 20, 576–577Constraint-based Routing Label Distribution

Protocol (CR-LDP), 726, 730Constraints

bandwidth, 31channel assignment, 103, 125–128, 131,

138–139, 528–529, 559DCA, 103, 127–128, 131, 138–139,

528–529, 559on deflection routing, 765DSC, 135–139, 559inseparability, 135–136, 138–139, 546–550,

559interference, 449–452in LLNs, 509, 528–529optical layer, 504–505path length, 467physical layer, 548–549routing, 135–140, 509, 548–549on static multipoint networks, 424traffic, 367–371transmission, 333–335on waveband-routed networks, 38wavelength continuity, 127, 139, 450

Contending burst, 806Contention resolution

for asynchronous OPS networks, 782–783by buffering, 770–787






Index 921

by burst segmentation, 806–808comparison of techniques for, 782–783CRO for, 791–793by deflection routing, 764–770MAC protocol and, 117node architectures for, 783OBS and, 806–808in OLS, 811in OPS, 763–764testbed implementations and, 791–798time domain, 770–778timewavelength domain, 778–782by wavelength conversion, 778–783

Contention Resolution by Delay Lines(CORD) testbed, 791–793

Contention resolution optics (CRO),791–793

Continuous state process, 880Continuous time process, 880Contraction heuristic (CH), 502Control agents

DCN used by, 98, 719ONC as, 99–100

Control algorithms, 22Controllability, 242Controllable directional coupler

as guided-wave switch, 244–246semiconductor technology and, 245–246

Controllable dynamic couplers. See Dynamicdirectional couplers

Controller. See Optical node controller;Switch controller

Control paradigms, in optical control plane,722

Control plane. See also Optical control planeagents in, 98–99DCN and, 98, 719management plane v., 714

Converter edge, 606Converters

coherent, 63DFC, 64–65, 276–277, 281wavelength, 63–67, 275–277, 281,

779–782, 793–794CORD testbed. See Contention Resolution by

Delay Lines testbedCore node, 818–819Core router, 817–818Correlation sequence, 357CoS. See Class of serviceCost-performance trade-offs, 22, 62–63

Couplers. See also Directional couplers; Starcouplers

cross-talk in, 243–244GCSR, 815insertion loss in, 243–244, 250–251, 255as optical and photonic technology, 242–255wavelength-selective, 191

CRC. See Cyclic redundancy checkCR-LDP. See Constraint-based Routing Label

Distribution ProtocolCRO. See Contention resolution opticsCrossbar switch, 52, 55

implementation of, 281–284optical, 282–284path-independent loss, 282as permutation switch, 48as space switch, 281–284

Cross-phase modulation, 185Cross-points, 48, 51–52Cross-talk, 137

of Benes switches, 286–288BER related to, 239cochannel heterodyne, 62, 236–237cochannel multipath, 62, 236–239in cost-performance trade-off, 62–63in couplers, 243–244dynamic nodes and, 62–63in EFDAs, 195FWM and, 276interchannel, 62, 236–237, 258from MZ switches, 247order of, 286–288overlapping signal spectra causing, 34–35as performance impairment, 235–239power penalty for, 238–239reduction of, by switch fabrics, 52, 62of routers, 286–288space dilation reducing, 288stimulated Raman scattering introducing, 62switch, 52, 62, 247, 286–288in WDM physical-layer simulation,

306–307CRZ keying. See Chirped return-to-zero

keyingCS. See Central stationCSMA/CD. See Carrier-sense multiple access

with collision detectionCSRZ keying. See Carrier suppressed

return-to-zero keyingCube graph. See n-cube graphCutoff wavelength, 218






922 Index

Cutsof connected graphs, 871fiber, 647–648, 655–656limiting, 446–558, 886–889in max flow-min cut theorem, 446, 872–873

Cutset, 871CWDM. See Coarse wavelength division

multiplexingCycle decomposition, 664–665Cycle double cover (CDC)

in bridgeless graphs, 685of connected graphs, 872directed, 683–684in mesh networks, 460, 680–687nonplanar case of, 683, 685–686orientable, 460, 685–686planar case of, 683–684redundancy in, 680shared optical protection by, 680–687

Cyclic redundancy check (CRC), 114

DA. See Destination addressDAH. See Dual ascent heuristicDark current, 217Data Communications Network (DCN)

control agents using, 98, 719required for signaling protocol, 742

Data link control (DLC) layer, 84, 120Data networks

history of, 18–19packet-switched mode of, 4

DBR laser. See Distributed Bragg reflector(DBR) laser

DCA constraint. See Distinct channelassignment constraint

DCF. See Dispersion-compensating fiberDCN. See Data Communications NetworkDCS. See Digital cross-connect systemDDP. See Deflect and Drop PolicydeBruijn digraph

density of, 589–590maximum throughput of, 590–591

deBruijn graphmultihop networks and, 586orders of, 436

deBruijn network, 436–437Decomposition

cycle, 664–665ring, 458–462tree, 560–566

Dedicated connections, 96, 127

capacity allocation for, 371–389rearrangement of, 125switched connections v., 124

Dedicated protection ring (DPRING), 672Dedicated path-based protection, 692–693,

695Deflect and Drop Policy (DDP), 807Deflection index, 765Deflection probability, 770Deflection routing

burst segmentation combined with, 807–808constraints on, 765contention resolution by, 764–770limited, 768–770performance analysis of, 766–770virtual buffering by, 765

Deflect, Segment, and Drop Policy (DSDP),807

Delayed reservation (DR), 801–802Delay interferometer (DI), 230Demand-assigned logical connections (LCs).

See also Switched connectionsblocking calculations in T-WDMA

networks, 395–399blocking calculations in WDMA networks

under, 390–395capacity allocation for, 389–399carried traffic in, 539–540in LASs, 538–540Markov chain model for, 391packet switching compared with, 399

Demand-assigned wavelengths, 7, 11, 13, 96Demultiplexing

by ADM, 80by DCS, 80in RPs, 70

Dense hypernets, 613–615Dense logical topologies (LTs)

desirable results of, 589families of, 589–591

Dense wavelength division multiplexing(DWDM), 13, 19, 35, 60, 177

DWDM/TDM PON and, 422–424in MANs, 845–846modulation formats in, 230physical-layer simulation of,

308–311size of, 251

Dense wavelength division multiplexing/timedivision multiplexing passive opticalnetwork (DWDM/TDM PON), 422–424






Index 923

Deregulation, 3, 828Design, of hypernets, 632–641

logical-layer, 632–633physical-layer, 634–637suboptimal approach to, 633

Destination address (DA), 114DFB laser. See Distributed-feedback laserDFC. See Difference frequency converterDGD. See Differential group delayDI. See Delay interferometerDicliques, 614–615, 621Difference frequency converter (DFC), 64–65,

276–277, 281Differential group delay (DGD), 241Differential phase shift keying (DPSK), 813,

815–816Differentiated services, 5Digital cross-connect system (DCS)

algorithms for, 664, 666–668centralized restoration techniques of,

665–666distributed restoration techniques of,

666–669as LS, 79in SONET, 79–81, 582–583

Digital modulation, 71Digital signal detection

ideal, 224–225ML, 225noise, interference, and BER in, 221–226

Digital subscriber line (DSL)as half-measure, 3origin of, 19

Digital switch. See Y-branch switchDigraphs. See also Kautz digraphs

deBruijn, 589–591generalized loopbacks creating, 690–692Kautz, 615, 617–618, 622–623, 630–631,

639–640for logical topology, 589–591max flow-min cut theorem for, 446,

872–873maximum throughput of, 590–591Moore bound for, 614, 872

Direct detection optical receiver (OR), 71–74,233n26

Direct detection OR, 233n26Directed cycle double cover (CDC), 683–684Directed hypergraphs, 614–615, 617,

619–621, 623–625, 639, 874Directed hypernets, 608, 630–632, 640Directed Kautz hypergraph, 615–619

address shift routing in, 623–625converted to undirected, 623duality construction of, 617, 619edge grouping construction of, 620–621

Directed Kautz hypernets, 630–631, 641Directed star network, 45, 103n7Directional couplers

combining losses of, 44dynamic, 40–44lossless, 42, 54–55multiwaveband, 57power transfer, 42–44static, 42–44waveband-selective, 57

Directly modulated laser (DML), 212–214Direct modulation, 70, 212–214Direct sequence code division multiple access

(DS-CDMA), 353, 354, 360–363,365–366

Discrete-state continuous-time Markov chains,881

Discrete state process, 880Discrete time process, 880Dispersion, 177–183, 227

analog modulation and subcarriers in, 181chirp interaction with, 240chromatic, 178–179compensation for, 181–183flattened, 179intermodal, 170, 177–178management of, 181–183maximum bit rates influenced by, 180–181PMD, 179–180, 241shifted, 179, 185slope, 183

Dispersion-compensating fiber (DCF), 182Dispersion-flattened fibers, 179Dispersion relation, 173Dispersion-shifted fibers (DSF), 179, 185Distance network graph, 502Distance network heuristic (DNH), 502Distance vector protocols, 735–736Distinct channel assignment (DCA)

constraint, 136, 148, 454of broadcast-and-select operating method,

103, 127–128, 131, 138–139channel assignment constrained by,

127–128, 131, 559color clashes violating, 138–139,

546–547in LLNs, 528–529spectrum reuse prevented by, 103






924 Index

Distinct source combining (DSC)in LLNs, 135–139, 512–513violations of, 137–138, 512–513, 546–547,

559Distortion-induced penalty, 240–241Distributed backup route computation,

678–679Distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) laser,

207–208, 839Distributed control paradigm, in optical

control plane, 722Distributed-feedback (DFB) laser, 207–208,

215–217Distributed queue dual bus (DQDB), 458Distributed Raman amplifier (DRA), 199–200Distributed restoration

DCS-based, 666–669FITNESS protocol in, 667NETRATS protocol in, 668RREACT protocol in, 667–668SelfHealing Network in, 666–667trade-offs of, 668–669

Distributed routing approaches, 737Djikstra’s algorithm, 734–735, 738, 888DLC layer. See Data link control layerDML. See Directly modulated laser (DML)Double fiber pair access, 456Double-heterostructure geometry, 218DP. See Drop PolicyDPRING. See Dedicated protection ringDPSK. See Differential phase shift keyingDQDB. See Distributed queue dual busDR. See Delayed reservationDRA. See Distributed Raman amplifierDrop-and-continue function, 658, 659, 662Drop filter, 264Drop Policy (DP), 807D-RZ keying. See Duobinary return-to-zero

keyingDsatur algorithm, 872DSC. See Distinct source combiningDS-CDMA. See Direct sequence code division

multiple accessDSDP. See Deflect, Segment, and Drop PolicyDSF. See Dispersion-shifted fibersDSL. See Digital subscriber lineDual-access ring interconnection

configurations, 657–663Dual ascent heuristic (DAH), 502Dual honing, 30n2Duality construction, of hypergraphs

of hypergraphs, 614–619labeling convention of, 617–619limitations of, 620

Dump-and-insert bufferingarchitecture of, 774–775contention resolution and, 774–778in slotted system, 775typical packet sequence in, 776

Duobinary return-to-zero (D-RZ) keying, 231DWDM. See Dense wavelength division

multiplexingDWDM/TDM PON. See Dense wavelength

division multiplexing/time divisionmultiplexing passive optical network

Dynamic capacity allocation, 108advantages of, 112in broadcast star networks, 113contention arbitration and, 117in fixed-frame scheduling for packet traffic,

383fixed v., 408–409logical topology and, 113packet switching in optical layer and, 112,

399–400scheduling of, 117simulation evaluating performance of,

567–569in TDM/T-SCMA, 346–347

Dynamic directional couplers, 40–44Dynamic nodes, 40, 46–48, 60–62

connection states and, 46cross-talk and, 62–63generalized, 46–48, 52–53LDCs and, 47, 53–56loopback connections of, 55permutation, 45–46, 48–52, 54waveband-space switches and, 56–60

Dynamic restoration, 705Dynamic routing and channel assignment

(RCA)algorithms for, 51–52, 127, 139, 455–458,

474–507bidirectional ring case study of, 491–494characterization of, 485–487fairness in, 489–491, 498grooming in, 601–602, 605interconnected ring case study of, 495–496LLN rules for, 544–568in mesh networks, 494–495of multicast connections, 497–507for point-to-point connections, 544–558






Index 925

static RCA v., 557–558in wavelength-routed networks, 484–507

EA-DFB. See Electro-absorptiondistributed-feedback laser

EDC. See Electronic dispersion compensatorEDFA. See Erbium-doped fiber amplifierEdge-disjoint tree, 560–561Edge grouping construction

of directed Kautz hypergraph, 620–621of ShuffleNet, 614–615

Edge routerLER, 723–725in OPSnet, 816

EDWA. See Erbium-doped waveguideamplifier

EFEC. See Enhanced forward error correctionEffective-index PCF, 188–189Effective interaction length, 185–186Effective path length, 489Effective service time, 385EFM Task Force. See Ethernet in the First

Mile Task ForceEGP. See Exterior gateway protocolElectro-absorption distributed-feedback laser

(EA-DFB), 215–217Electron-hole recombination, 201–202Electronic bottleneck, 11, 15, 59Electronic buffering, 770–771Electronic dispersion compensator (EDC), 233Electronic equalizer. See Electronic dispersion

compensatorElementary station, 448–449, 510, 521,

527–528, 636Embedded broadcast star network, 140–142,

146–147, 158, 160, 327, 522–523EML. See Externally modulated laserEnabling technology

all-optical 2R or 3R regeneration, 788amplifiers, 190–205for AOLS, 811buffering, 789–791coherent optical systems, 234–235developed in WASPNET, 798end-to-end transmission channel, 228–234for OPS, 757, 787–791, 821optical and photonic device, 241–274optical fibers, 168–190optical header processing, 789optical switch architecture, 281–297,

788–789

ORs, 217–227OTs, 205–217overview of optical connection, 167–168packet synchronization, 788performance evaluation of, 297–311performance impairments and, 235–241signal regeneration, 274–281, 788transmission and switching technology

evolution, 166–167wavelength conversion, 274–281, 789

End node, 442End systems

ATM interfaced to, 82full connectivity of, 91–92in PON, 410in ShuffleNet, 588

End-to-end transmission channelas enabling technology, 228–234equalization in, 233–234FEC and, 228, 231–232modulation formats and, 229–231processing operations in, 228

Engset model, 393Enhanced forward error correction (EFEC),

852E-NNI. See Exterior Network-Network

InterfaceE-packets, 784–786EPON. See Ethernet-based passive optical

networkEqualization, 183

in end-to-end transmission channels,233–234

FEC combined with, 234in WDM systems, 233–234

Equalizer. See Electronic dispersioncompensator

Equipment failure, 648Erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA),

191–197, 241as amplet, 204amplifier chains in, 197cross-talk in, 195distributed, 197n12drawbacks of, 191emergence of, 18, 182energy levels in, 190–193gain profile of, 193–194gain saturation of, 194–195noise in, 195–197, 200population inversion in, 193






926 Index

Erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) (cont.)pump wavelengths in, 193RAs compared with, 197–199, 201structures of, 192–193

Erbium-doped waveguide amplifier (EDWA),204

Ergodic chain, 882Erlang model, 391–393Etalon. See Fabry-Perot filterEthernet, 402

EPON, 414–416, 849gigabit, 847OBS and, 821ten-gigabit, 847–848

Ethernet-based passive optical network(EPON), 849

EFM Task Force developing, 414MAC protocol for, 415–416MPCP in, 414OLTs in, 415ONUs in, 415–416

Ethernet in the First Mile (EFM) Task Force,414

Eulerian network, 459–460European Advanced Communications

Technology and Service (ACTS), 793European multiwavelength optical network

trials, 839–840Explicit Route object, 748Exterior gateway protocol (EGP), 734Exterior Network-Network Interface (E-NNI),

720, 744Externally modulated laser (EML), 214–215External modulation, 70, 214–215Eye diagram, 223–224

Fabry-Perot (FP) filter, 259finesse of, 261MI filter compared with, 262spectral response of, 260tunability of, 261

Fabry–Perot (FP) laser, 206–207Face traversal, 684Failure

at ADM, 656bridge, 681communication, 647equipment, 648from fiber cuts, 647–648FITNESS protocol for, 667link, 652, 674, 681–683, 685–687,

690–692, 750–751

at network nodes, 685node, 648, 650, 656–657, 675, 685path, 651recovery from, 580, 647, 649, 651–652,

688of underground telecommunication cables,

647Failure Immunization Technology for Network

Service Survivability (FITNESS)protocol, 667

Fairnessin dynamic RCA, 489–491, 498ratio of, 490, 498unfairness factor and, 490wavelength interchange improving, 491,

494, 498–499Faraday rotator, 257FASTAR system

restoration process of, 665–666speed of, 666

Fast frequency hopping code division multipleaccess (FFH-CDMA), 353, 361–362

Fault isolation, 733Fault protection. See ProtectionFault recovery. See RecoveryFault restoration. See RestorationFBG. See Fiber Bragg gratingFCFS basis. See First-come-first-served basisFDDI. See Fiber distributed data interfaceFDL. See Fiber delay lineFeasibility, 550, 566

of multivendor networks, 19of OPS networks, 757path, 487–488, 511, 546, 559SPD algorithm accounting for, 487–488

Feasible paths, 511, 546, 559FEC. See Forward error correction;

Forwarding equivalence classFeed-forward line delay architecture, 772–774,

791–793FFH-CDMA. See Fast frequency hopping

code division multiple accessFiber Bragg grating (FBG), 182

chirped, 265as drop filter, 264FFH-CDMA using, 361–362manufacturing of, 263–264SSFBG, 365–366tunability of, 264written into planar waveguides, 264–265

Fiber cablesribbon, 174






Index 927

typical designs of, 174–175underground, 647

Fiber cutscauses of, 647failure from, 647–648UPSRs and, 655–656

Fiber delay line (FDL), 759as buffering medium of choice, 770–771in feed-forward delay line architecture,

773–774in JET protocol, 802packet loss probability v., 780–781synchronizer based on, 762

Fiber-disjoint tree, 634–636Fiber dispersion. See DispersionFiber distributed data interface (FDDI), 458Fiber exhaust, 828–829

in WDM point-to-point systems, 831–832in WDM rings, 832–833

Fiber grating, 182, 259, 263–265, 361–362,365–366

Fiber links, 2, 10, 31–32, 126, 411, 554–555Fiber-optic transmission systems, 647Fibers

access, 30, 132bandwidth of, 10bidirectional pairs of, 34congestion of, 475dispersion influencing, 179, 182, 185efficiency of, 536as enabling technology, 168–190geometry of, 174–175glass, 1–2graded-index, 169–171, 177–178gratings and, 182, 259, 263–265, 361–362,

365–366large effective area, 186–187low-loss, 1, 18optical, 168–190PCFs as, 21, 188–190polarization-maintaining, 174resources of, 34step-index, 168–170, 177–178technological advances in, 20wavelength requirements reduced by,

476–477working and protection, 291

Fiber to the building (FTTB), 20, 409Fiber to the cabinet (FTTCab), 20, 409Fiber to the curb (FTTC), 20, 409Fiber to the home (FTTH), 3, 20, 409Fiber to the node (FTTN), 20

Field programmable gate array (FPGA), 813Filters. See Optical filtering technologyFirst-come-first-served (FCFS) basis, 764FITNESS protocol. See Failure Immunization

Technology for Network ServiceSurvivability protocol

Fixed capacity allocation, 108, 111, 116, 400dynamic v., 408–409in fixed-frame scheduling for packet traffic,

383–389in TDM/T-SCMA, 346–347

Fixed frame passive optical network (PON),412–414

Fixed frame PON. See Fixed frame passiveoptical network

Fixed-frame schedulingalgorithm for, 875–879channel assignments in, 373–376dynamic capacity allocation in, 383examples of, 375–379, 878heterogeneous, 379for LCs, 534multicast LCs and, 380–383for packet traffic, 383–389parameters of, 371–372queues in, 384–388for stream traffic, 371–383traffic matrix scaling in, 379–380, 593tunability in, 373–376

Fixed routing algorithm, 485Fixed scheduling algorithm

column/row-compression, 879column/row-expansion, 876–879decomposition into permutation matrices,

877, 879terminology of, 875–879

Fixed transmitters with tunable receivers(FT-TR), 109–110, 117–119, 147, 161,331–332, 346, 353–354, 394–395, 404

Flow bounds, 444–448, 452aggregate network capacity, 445–446fluid, 470–471limiting cut, 446–448, 886–889

Flow conservation equation, 466–467Fluid flow bounds, 470–471Folded bus topology, 41, 155Forests

definition of, 671of multicast connections, 505Steiner, 635

Fortuitous destinations, 136, 513, 515,528






928 Index

Forward error correction (FEC)encoding/decoding functions of, 232end-to-end transmission channel and, 228,

231–232equalization combined with, 234

Forwarding equivalence class (FEC), 723Forward pumping EDFA, 192–193Four-fiber bidirectional line-switched ring

(BLSR), 657Four-fiber BLSR. See Four-fiber bidirectional

line-switched ringFour-fiber shared-protection ring

(SPRING)link failure survived by, 674node failure survived by, 675WDM, 453–458, 673–675

Four-fiber SPRING. See Four-fibershared-protection ring

Four-wave mixing (FWM), 182, 184–185,276, 281

FP filter. See Fabry-Perot filterFPGA. See Field programmable gate arrayFP laser. See Fabry-Perot laserFP resonator. See Fabry-Perot filterFrame schedule, for time division techniques,

108Free spectral range (FSR), 260Frequency shift keying (FSK), 67, 813–815Front-end amplifiers, 219–221FSK. See Frequency shift keyingFSR. See Free spectral rangeFTTB. See Fiber to the buildingFTTC. See Fiber to the curbFTTCab. See Fiber to the cabinetFTTH. See Fiber to the homeFTTN. See Fiber to the nodeFT-TR. See Fixed transmitters with tunable

receiversFull grooming, 597Full wavelength interchange, 495

bidirectional rings with, 493–494fluid flow bound and, 470–471RCA as optimization problem and,

468–469, 470–471, 493–494Full width at half maximum (FWHM),

260–261Fully connected graph. See Complete graphFundamental cycles, 664, 871Fundamental soliton solution, 188FWHM. See Full width at half maximumFWM. See Four-wave mixing

G.872 networking standard, 32–33Gain profile, of EDFAs, 194Gain saturation, of EDFAs, 194–195Garbling, in routing, 137Gate arrays

FPGA, 813as guided-wave switches, 248–249

Gateway interconnection example, 14–16,578–580

Gateway node, 442Gaussian approximation, 226, 439GCSR. See Grating-assisted codirectional

coupler with sampled grating reflectorGeneralized dynamic nodes, 46–48, 52–53Generalized Kautz hypergraph, 543–544, 615

as functionally equivalent to Kautz digraph,622–623

symmetric case of, 621tripartite representation of, 621–622

Generalized label object, 749Generalized label request object, 749Generalized loopbacks, 690–692Generalized Multiprotocol Label Switching

(GMPLS), 717generality of, 729–730, 752–753lightpath establishment and tear-down in,

750link management in, 730–733LSP hierarchy in, 741in optical control plane, 729–751OSPF-TE supporting, 738–742overview of, 729–751path protection in, 736–737provisioning in, 744routing in, 730, 734–742RSVP-TE supporting, 749–750signaling in, 730, 742–751

Generalized switchescross-points in, 52power transfer relations of, 53

Geometric optics, 168–171Gigabit Ethernet, 847Gigabit passive optical network (GPON), 414,

849Gimbaled mirror, 252–253Glass fiber, 1–2Global communications infrastructure,

demand for, 1–2GMPLS. See Generalized Multiprotocol Label

SwitchingGPON. See Gigabit passive optical network






Index 929

Graded-index fiberintermodal dispersion in, 170, 177–178rays in, 169–171

Graded refractive index (GRIN) lens, 263Granularity

fluid flow bound and, 471grooming resolving, 581in hierarchical networks, 16, 18label stacking influencing, 727in optical networks, 12, 16optical switches and, 13–14, 78performance influenced by, 538–540refinement of, 396–397, 539–540in SONET, 81

Graph coloringbrute force approach in, 451–452complexity of, 452Dsatur algorithm for, 872minimal edge, 636minimal vertex, 450–451in OCGs, 131in optimization, 467–468static RCA and, 449–452

Graphs. See also Digraphs; Graph coloring;Hypergraphs; Logical connection graph

auxiliary, 605–607bipartite, 869, 871bridgeless, 460, 685circuits in, 871complete, 869–870connected, 871–872connection interference, 529–531deBruijn, 436, 586distance network, 502Hamilton, 690maximal, 436maximal independent set in, 869–870Moore, 434–437, 452, 468, 508–509Moore bound for, 434, 543, 586,

872multigraphs as, 560–561, 869n-cube, 436OCG, 131path interference, 449–452, 467–468subgraphs of, 869–870terminology of, 869–873theory of, 869–874walks of, 870–871, 874

Grating-assisted codirectional couplerwith sampled grating reflector (GCSR),815

GratingsAWG, 259, 265–266, 271–273, 417–418,

790, 796fiber, 182, 259, 263–265, 361–362,

365–366as optical filtering technology, 263–265SSFBG, 365–366waveguide, 259, 263–265

GRIN lens. See Graded refractive index lensGrooming, 637–639

algorithms for, 584, 603–606auxiliary graph for, 605–607benefits of, 597–598, 601in dynamic RCA, 601–602, 605edge, 606full, 597granularity resolved by, 581in hypernets, 637–639in logical topology, 597–607in LRNs, 581–585, 597–607, 642of multihop connections, 637in multipoint logical topologies, 637–639of multitier networks, 581–585node for, with optical bypass, 583–584optimal, 599–600in point-to-point logical topologies,

597–607policies for, 607in SONET, 896n1source, 597in static RCA, 600–602subrate functions of, 583in WDM mesh networks, 602–607in WDM rings, 598–602

Group velocity dispersion (GVD), 178–179Guard bands, 36, 259Guard times, 108Guided wave optical transmission, 18, 21Guided wave propagation

modes of, 171–174principles of, 168–174rays and geometric optics in, 168–171

Guided-wave switchesbubble, 249controllable directional coupler as,

244–246fabrication of, 244gate array, 248–249MZ, 246–247Y-branch, 248, 284

GVD. See Group velocity dispersion






930 Index

Haberman’s algorithm, 505Hairpinning, 584–585, 597Hamilton graph, 690Header error correction (HEC) field, 763Header processing, 789–790Header routing, 624Head-of-the-line (HOL) blocking, 406,

771–773, 776, 785HEC field. See Header error correction fieldHelmholtz equation, 172Heterodyne cross-talk. See Cochannel

heterodyne cross-talkHeterodyne optical receiver (OR), 73–74,

234–235Heterogeneous traffic scheduling, 379Heuristic algorithms

ADH, 502CH, 502DAH, 502DNH, 502limiting-cut, 886–889MBFS-d, 561–563, 567MCH, 703–704minimum-hop, 474–479Monte Carlo approach, 479–484SCH, 502SPT, 501–502, 561–564for static RCA, 474–486for traffic in WDM mesh networks, 604–605for traffic in WDM rings, 600–602

Hierarchical networksgranularity in, 16, 18long-haul networks as, 16–17manageability of, 18MANs in, 16–18ONNs in, 17rationale for, 16–18

Hitless reconfiguration, 596HOL. See Head-of-the-line blockingHoley fibers. See Photonic crystal fibersHolographic liquid crystal switch architecture,

254–255Homodyne cross-talk. See Cochannel

multipath cross-talkHot potato routing. See Deflection routingHybrid approach, to optical networks, 13–16,

20, 60, 87. See also Hybrid electric andoptical buffering; Logically routednetworks

Hybrid control paradigm, in optical controlplane, 722

Hybrid distributed-discrete amplification,199–200

Hybrid electric and optical bufferingcontention resolution by, 784–787packet loss by, 786performance analysis of, 785–787queuing model for, 786

Hybrid routing model, 718–719, 751–752Hybrid switches, 296–297Hyperarc, 541–543, 621Hyperedge

full connectivity in, 634as hyperarc, 541–543in LCHs, 540–541load of, 626–628MPS as, 147, 149

Hypergraphs. See also Logical connectionhypergraph

auxiliary, 636–637density of, 613–615, 623directed, 614–615, 617, 619–621, 623–625,

639, 874duality constructing, 614–615, 616–619edge grouping constructing, 614–615,

620–621fan-out in, 613Kautz, 543–544, 615–625, 629–630,

639–641Moore, 613–614OCH, 517–518, 533–535terminology of, 873–874underlying graph of, 610–611undirected, 613, 623, 625, 628–630,

639–640, 873–874Hypernets. See also ShuffleNet

algorithms for, 632–633applications of, 608dense, 613–615, 623design of, 85, 87, 95, 156–161, 632–641of diameter 1, 540–541directed, 608, 630–632, 640embedding of, 158, 160, 634–637grooming in, 637–639Kautz, 615–631, 641layered view of, 607–608LCH for, 608–609, 632–633LLN realization via, 147–149logical layer of, 632–633logical topology building, 85, 87, 145,

147–149, 156–161, 607–632LRNs as, 87, 95, 156–161






Index 931

LSNs in, 157–161LTNs in, 157–161MPSs in, 143, 158–161, 608–612, 631–632,

634–637multicast virtual connections in,

631–632multihop networks v., 628–631multipoint connections in, 156–161as multipoint logical topologies,

607–632multistar, 149, 540–544, 639–641physical layer of, 634–637physical topology of, 158reduced to point-to-point networks, 612tree topology in, 158, 634–636undirected, 608–610, 635–636waveband assignment in, 635–637

IETF. See Internet Engineering Task ForceIGP. See Interior Gateway ProtocolILEC. See Incumbent local exchange carrierILP. See Integer linear programImage network, 890–891IM/DD systems. See Intensity-modulated

direct-detection systemsImpact-ionization effect, 219Impairments. See Performance impairments,

in network environmentIncumbent local exchange carrier (ILEC),

841, 845–847, 853Information abstraction, 719–720Infrastructure swapping, 860Injection electroluminescence, 202Injection laser. See Semiconductor laser diodeI-NNI. See Interior Network-Network

InterfaceInput buffering, 771–772Inseparability

illustration of, 548in LLNs, 135–136, 138–139, 546–550path coalescing caused by, 559

Insertion loss, in couplers, 243–244, 250–251,255

Integer linear program (ILP), 449for design of optimum light-trees, 637–638model, 503–504in path-based protection, 694–697for p-cycles, 689–690for SRGs, 700for WDM mesh network, 603–604

Intelligent optical switch (IOS), 857

Intensity-modulated direct-detection (IM/DD)systems, 168

CDMA and electronic processing in,354–359

CNR and, 227digital signal detection in, 221–226ORs in, 217–227typical waveforms in, 222

Intensity modulation, 168, 214, 217–227, 341,354–361

Interchannel cross-talk, 62, 236–237, 258Interconnected rings

BLSR-BLSR, 659, 663BLSR-UPSR, 659–663dual-access SHR, 657–663dynamic RCA case study of, 495–496ripple effect in, 663simulation case study of, in MANs,

844–845single-access SHR, 657–663UPSR-UPSR, 659, 663WDM composed of, 302–308

Interface identification object, 749–750Interfaces, of optical control plane

illustration of, 721information abstraction in, 719–720

Interface Switching Capability Descriptor, 740Interference. See also Min-Int algorithm;

Multilayer interference filter; Optical beatinterference

in channel assignment, 528–531in CIR, 342–345color clash caused by, 546–547connection interference graph for, 529–531constraints from, 449–452digital signal detection and, 221–226ISI, 177, 180MAI, 353, 358, 366path coalescence causing, 546–547path interference graph for, 449–452,

467–468Interferometers

DI, 230MZ, 214–215, 230, 246–247, 279–280, 788,

814–815Interferometric cross-talk. See Cochannel

multipath cross-talkInterior Gateway Protocol (IGP), 734, 737Interior label-switching router (LSR), 723Interior Network-Network Interface (I-NNI),

720, 744






932 Index

Intermediate System to Intermediate System(IS-IS) protocol, 726

Intermediate System to Intermediate Systemprotocol with Traffic Engineeringextensions (ISIS-TE), 730

Intermodal dispersion, 170, 177–178International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

networking standardsG.872, 32–33transmission bands standardized by, 35wavelength bands of, 176wavelength grid standardized by, 35

Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), 717Internet Protocol (IP)

evolution of, 19MPLS applications for, 729routers for, 4, 83–84

Internet Protocol (IP) networkIP routers in, 4, 83–84as LRN, 83–84, 152–153MPLS in, 722–729

Internet Protocol (IP) routers, 4, 83–84Internet service providers (ISPs)

as key networking players, 19SLAs with, 5–6

Internodal distancesas optical hops, 31–32, 438–439in random networks, 438–440in ShuffleNet, 439–440

Internodal network links, 30Interoffice (IOF), 304Intersymbol interference (ISI), 177,

180IOF. See InterofficeIOS. See Intelligent optical switchIP. See Internet ProtocolIP network. See Internet Protocol networkIRP. See Island Restoration ProtocolISI. See Intersymbol interferenceIS-IS protocol. See Intermediate System to

Intermediate System protocolISIS-TE. See Intermediate System to

Intermediate System protocol withTraffic Engineering extensions

Island protection. See Segment protectionIsland Restoration Protocol (IRP), 700Isolator, 257ISPs. See Internet service providersITU networking standards. See International

Telecommunication Union networkingstandards

Just enough time (JET) protocolFDLs in, 802JIT protocol v., 805in OBS, 801–803priority, 803void-filling scheduling algorithms for,

802–803Just in time (JIT) protocol

JET protocol v., 805messages in, 803–804in OBS, 803–806signaling performance of, 804–806variations of, 805–806

Kautz digraphs, 615density of, 589–590directed Kautz hypernets compared with,

630–631generalized, 589generalized Kautz hypergraph as functional

equivalent of, 622–623Kautz hypergraph duality relations to,

617–618maximum throughput of, 590–591ShuffleNet compared with, 630–631undirected Kautz hypergraph constructed

from, 639–640Kautz hypergraphs, 641

directed, 615–621, 623–625duality construction of, 616–619duality relations of, 617–618generalized, 543–544, 615, 621–623undirected, 623, 625, 628–630, 639–640

Kautz hypernets, 615–628, 641directed, 641growth of, 616, 623parameters of, 615–616performance comparisons of, 626–631routing algorithms for, 623–625useful properties of, 615

Kautz network, 436–437k-edge connected graph, 871KEOPS testbed. See KEys to Optical Packet

Switching testbedKeying

CRZ, 231CSRZ, 231DPSK, 813, 815–816D-RZ, 231FSK, 67, 813–815NRZ, 229–231






Index 933

OOK, 67, 221, 228–230PSK, 67, 229–230RZ, 229–231

KEys to Optical Packet Switching (KEOPS)testbed

network components in, 795–796node architecture for, 793–795packet format for, 794

k-node connected graph, 871k shortest path (k-SP) algorithm, 487

Min-Int algorithm vs., 549–550, 553–554for point-to-point connections, 547–549for single waveband, 553–554as static, 555steps of, 548

k-SP algorithm. See k shortest path algorithm

Label Distribution Protocol (LDP), 726, 730Label edge router (LER), 723–725Label Information Base (LIB), 723Label object, 748Label Request object, 748Labels. See also Optical label switching

protocols for assignment of, 725–726reuse of, 724signaling for distribution of, 745stacking of, 726–727swapping of, 723–724, 809–811

Label set object, 749Label-switched path (LSP), 723

control driven, 725data driven, 725hierarchy of, in GMPLS, 741in MPLS, 717, 723, 725nested, 741–742tunnel establishment of, 748–749

Label switching. See Optical label switchingLabel-switching router (LSR), 85, 723–724,

727LAMBDANET, 20LANs. See Local area networks (LANs)Large effective area fibers, 186–187Large-scale free-space integrated switch

fabrics, 250–253LARNet, 417LAS. See Local access subnetsLasers

arrays of, 210–211DBR, 207–208, 839DFB, 207–208, 215–217DML, 212–214

EA-DFB, 215–217EML, 214–215FP, 206–207MFL for, 418mode-locked, 208–209modulation technology for, 212–217origin of, 18in OTs, 68, 70–71, 205–211semiconductor, 18, 205–207single-frequency, 181, 207–211supercontinuum generation and, 208–209tunability of, 210–212VCSEL, 205, 211–212

Latest available unused-channel first with voidfilling (LAUF-VF) algorithm, 803

Latin routers, 45, 265LAUF-VF algorithm. See Latest available

unused-channel first with void fillingalgorithm

Layer-2 protocols, 729Layers. See Logical layers; Multilayered

networks; Optical-layer protection;Packet switching, in optical layer;Physical layers

LC. See Logical connectionLCC traffic model. See Lost calls cleared

traffic modelLCG. See Logical connection graphLCH. See Logical connection hypergraphLC switch architecture. See Liquid crystal

switch architectureLDC. See Linear divider-combinerLDP. See Label Distribution ProtocolLDR. See Limited deflection routingLeast loaded routing algorithm, 489LEC. See Local Exchange CarrierLER. See Label edge routerLIB. See Label Information BaseLightpath, 7, 443, 603–604

edges, in WDM mesh networks, 606establishment and tear-down of, 750minimization of, 607

Light-tree, 497–499balanced, 505ILP for optimum design of, 637–638list of, 499MC-WRN and, 501–504source-destination, 498

Lightwave networks. See Optical networksLimited-connection case, 397Limited deflection routing (LDR), 768–770






934 Index

Limiting cut bound, 446–448Limiting cuts, 446–558

heuristic for, 886–889multicommodity flow problem and, 886

Line amplifiers, 190Linear divider-combiner (LDC), 47,

141–142combining ratios of, 54σ -δ, 141–142dividing ratios of, 54dynamic nodes and, 47, 53–56in LLNs, 134permutation switches and, 54power transfer relations of, 55in rooted routing, 564–565routing rules and, 566as star coupler, 54tree decomposition and, 566

Linear lightwave networks (LLNs), 23, 94–95,133–151, 162–163

advantages of, 140channel assignment in, 528–540color clashes in, 138–139, 546–547connection rearrangeability in, 139constraints in, 509, 528–529directed trees in, 513–515DSC in, 135–139, 512–513full connectivity in, 140, 145–147geographical reach limitation in, 577–578hypernet realization of, 147–149inseparability in, 135–136, 138–139,

546–550LCHs for, 541LDCs in, 134local access to, 519–521Min-Int algorithm for routing in, 890–892MPSs in, 140–145, 508, 540–544multipoint connections in, 134multistar, 149, 540–544network connections in, 94–95, 133–151,

558–567nonblocking stations in, 510, 518–519,

527–528ONN functionality in, 133performance parameters of, 536–537properties of, 95purely optical approaches in, 576–578routing in, 135–140, 507–568, 890–892as single-wavelength-per-waveband

networks, 134special cases of, 134

spectrum partitioning in, 557–558wavelength requirements of, 433wavelength-routed networks compared

with, 150–151, 527Linear networks. See Linear lightwave

networksLinear optical amplifier (LOA), 205Line-based survivability schemes

path-based v., 678, 705protection in, 651–652, 657, 674, 679–692

Line protection. See Shared optical protectionLine sum, 875Line terminating element (LTE), 653Linewidth enhancement factor, 212Link bandwidth parameter, 740Link bundling, 733, 739–740Link capacity, 2, 10, 592Link cost metric, 740Link encoding type, 740Link failure, 652, 674

APS using protection cycles against,686–687

CDC protecting against, 681–683generalized loopbacks protecting against,

690–692in planar networks, 686–687protection against, 681–683, 685–687,

690–692, 750–751Link functionality, 22Link management

in GMPLS, 730–733LMP in, 719, 732–733neighbor discovery in, 731–732

Link Management Protocol (LMP), 719features of, 732in GMPLS, 732–733link bundling in, 733in MPLS, 719

Link p-cycles, 688Link protection type, 740Link State Advertisement (LSA), 738–741Link state algorithms, 735Link state information dissemination,

739–741Link state protocols, 735–736. See also Open

Shortest Path First protocolLiquid crystal switch architecture

advantages of, 254holographic, 254–255multiwavelength, 269–270

Little’s formula, 885






Index 935

Livelock, 765LLC frame. See Logical link control frameLLN. See Linear lightwave networksLMP. See Link Management ProtocolLOA. See Linear optical amplifierLocal access subnets (LASs), 91, 326

demand-assigned LCs in, 538–540as elementary access station, 521on Petersen network, 519–521

Local area networks (LANs)early structures proposed for, 13, 20local v. global, 114n14

Local carrierscompetition from, 3ILEC, 845–847LEC, 831, 841, 845–847, 853

Local exchange carrier (LEC), 831, 841,845–847, 853

Logical connection (LC), 432, 578. See alsoDemand-assigned logical connections;Logical connection graph; Logicalconnection hypergraph

fixed-frame scheduling for, 534in LRNs, 581–582management of, 100–102many-to-one, 102, 162multicast, 380–383multiplexing of data streams from, 68multipoint, 102NAS as interface for, 67notation for, 103ONCs and, 101one-to-many, 102, 104, 162one-to-one, 104, 110, 162packet switching and, 111, 121–122,

399transmission channel and, 31

Logical connection graph (LCG), 140–141,442

embedding of, on physical topology,634–637

in logical-layer design, 591–593logical topology in, 91–93for LRNs, 585ShuffleNet, 593structural bounds on, 586

Logical connection hypergraph (LCH),147–148, 382

diameter of, 158hyperedges in, 540–541for hypernets, 608–609, 632–633

for multistar LLNs, 541for undirected hypernets, 608–609

Logical layers, 6–8, 13, 29adjacency in, 731control techniques for, 21current protection and restoration

techniques in, 650–669design of, 591–593, 632–633, 642in hypernets, 632–633logical topology of, 12, 77, 82, 97in multihop networks, 591–593of multilayered networks, 10, 12–13, 21, 29opaqueness of, 8, 10, 12physical layer interface with, 30reconfigurable, 16, 79–80, 82, 94

Logical link control (LLC) frame, 114–116,120–121

Logically routed networks (LRNs), 94–95,151–163. See also Hypernets;Synchronous optical network

ATM network as, 81–85characteristics of, 579–580design challenges of, 153, 641–642generic arrangement for, 77–78grooming in, 581–585, 597–607, 642hop count v. network capacity in, 153hypernet design of, 85, 87, 95, 156–161,

632–641as hypernets, 87, 95, 156–161, 607–641IP network as, 83–84, 152–153LCG for, 585LCs in, 581–582logical topologies of, 145, 153–156, 580,

585–593, 607–632LPs in, 578LSNs in, 151–161MPLS as, 84–85multihop design of, 433, 591–607multipoint, 607–632, 641physical topologies of, 580–581, 585physical topology of, 436–437, 580–581,

585point-to-point, 153–156, 578–579,

585–591, 641rationale for, 576–581recovery in, 580regularity in, 586SONET as, 79–81STSs in, 580versatility of, 641wavelength requirements of, 433






936 Index

Logical networks, 6–7. See also Logicallyrouted networks

connections organized by, 12hybrid architecture and, 16LSNs in, 12, 77as middlemen, 12–13overlays, 77–85

Logical path (LP)in LRNs, 578SONET path v., 651

Logical signal, conversion of, 31,67–68

Logical switch (LS)ADM as, 79in ATM network, 81bridges as, 461–462DCS as, 79functions of, 77–79, 85–86NAS as interface for, 78ONN interfaced with, 77

Logical switching nodes (LSNs), 8,93–94

degrees of, 153, 157in hybrid architecture, 15–16in hypernets, 147–148, 157–161in IP networks, 83in logical networks, 12, 77in LRNs, 151–161multiplexing and, 94in optical networks, 152–153in ShuffleNet, 157

Logical terminal node (LTN), 157–161Logical topology (LT), 12, 77, 97, 150. See

also Multipoint logical topology;Point-to-point topology

in ATM networks, 82–83cyclic changes in, 596dense, 589–591digraphs for, 589–591dynamic capacity assignment and, 113embedded in physical topology, 91,

594–596, 634–637, 642grooming in, 597–607hypernet, 85, 87, 145, 147–149, 156–161,

607–632LCGs showing, 91–93of logical layers, 12, 77, 82, 97of LRNs, 145, 153–156, 580, 585–593,

607–632in multihop networks, 585–591, 594–596multipoint, 607–632

physical topology independent of, 79, 94physical topology matched with, in static

RCA, 444–448point-to-point, 585–591, 597–607survivable, 649wavelength requirements of, 444

Long-haul networks. See also Ultra long-haulnetworks

commercial network deployments and,856–858

current considerations in WADMarchitectures and, 854–856, 862

hierarchical, 16–17mesh architectures for, 855

Long period fiber grating, 265Loopback connections

for control purposes, 141of dynamic nodes, 55generalized, 690–692

Looping algorithm, 51, 765, 897–898Loss. See also Packet loss

from attenuation, 505of directional couplers, 44information, 329insertion, 243–244, 251, 255from material absorption, 175path-independent, 282power, 504–505from Rayleigh scattering, 175splitting, 504–505throughput, 36–38traffic, 673from waveguide imperfections, 176

Lossless directional couplers, 42, 54–55Lossless scheduling, 405–407Lost calls cleared (LCC) traffic model, 391Low-loss fibers, 1, 18LRN. See Logically routed networksLS. See Logical switchLSA. See Link State AdvertisementLSNs. See Logical switching nodesLSP. See Label-switched pathLSR. See Label-switching routerLT. See Logical topologyLTE. See Line terminating elementLTN. See Logical terminal node

Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI),214–215, 230

drawbacks of, 246fabrication of, 246–247






Index 937

regeneration by, 279–280SOAs using, 788, 814–815

Mach-Zehnder (MZ) switchcascaded, 247cross-talk from, 247guided-wave, 246–247modification of, to WADM, 264–265single thermo-optically controlled,

271–272MAC protocol. See Media access control

protocolMAI. See Multiple access interferenceManaged reach solution, 856Management of Photonic Systems and

Networks (MEPHISTO), 840Management plane

control plane v., 714resources in, 721

Manhattan Street Network (MSN), 765, 770MANs. See Metropolitan area networksMany-to-many optical connection (OC),

533–535Many-to-one logical connection (LC), 102,

162Many-to-one optical connection (OC), 533Markov chains

birth-death process as, 882–883for demand-assigned LCs, 391discrete-state continuous-time, 881ergodic, 882Markov processes and, 881–883queues and, 883–885random processes and, 880–883

Markov processes, 388, 881–883Matched filter, 356Material absorption, 175Matrix scaling, of traffic, 379–380, 593Maxband, 545–546Max flow-min cut theorem, 446, 872–873Maximal graph, 436Maximal independent set, 869–870Maximizing resource utilization (MRU), 605Maximizing single-hop traffic (MST),

604–605Maximum free capacity (MFC), 489Maximum likelihood (ML) detection, 225Maximum reuse (Max Reuse)

channels allocated by, 550–551, 552–553color clashes caused by, 563Min Reuse v., 552–553, 567wavelength list ordered by, 486–487, 499

Max Reuse. See Maximum reuseMaxwell’s equations, 171, 255MBFS-d algorithm. See Modified breadth-first

search with parameter d algorithmMC-CR. See Minimum-cost collapsed-ringMCH. See Minimum-cost heuristicMC-LGS. See Multicast-capable logical

grooming switchMC-WRN. See Multicast-capable

wavelength-routed networkM|D|1 queue, 884–885Media access control (MAC) protocol,

86ALOHA, 401–403characteristics of, 115, 120contention arbitrated by, 117CSMA/CD as, 113–114, 120Ethernet, 402lossless scheduling, 405–407for optical packet switching, 111–121,

399–408perfect scheduling, 407–408performance-to-cost ratio for, 120for PONs, 412–416position of, in MWNA, 120–121role of, 102, 113, 400sublayers of, 111–121tell-and-go, 403–405uncontrolled scheduling, 401–403

Memory. See Random access memoryMemoryless distribution, 881MEMS. See Microelectromechanical systemMEPHISTO. See Management of Photonic

Systems and NetworksMesh architectures

arbitrary, 663–669centralized restoration techniques in,

665–666distributed restoration techniques in,

666–669for long-haul networks, 855optical-layer protection in, 677–703ring covers in, 664–665, 669shared optical protection in, 679–692spare capacity of, 669ultralong-haul networks and, 856

Mesh network. See also Wavelengthdivision-multiplexed mesh network

access-fiber bottleneck in, 132algorithms for, 603–606blocking probability in, 494–495






938 Index

Mesh network. (cont.)CDCs in, 460, 680–687commercial deployments of, 856–858connectivity implemented on, 143, 145,

147Eulerian, 459–460full wavelength interchange in, 495lightpath edges in, 606RCA in, 131–133, 494–495ring decomposition of, 458–462single fiber pair access in, 131–132sparse wavelength interchange in, 460–461spectrum reuse in, 133, 150–151transport network in, 715tree embedded in, 147–149tree topology embedded in, 140–142,

147–149Metro networking state of the art

emerging technologies and architectures in,847–850

metro WDM network deployments,851–854

network elements in, 850–851Metropolitan area networks (MANs)

amplets in, 204–205capacity expansion of, 843challenges of, 841CSMA/CD impossible in, 116current state of, 845–847deployment case study of, 853–854domain of, 842–843DWDM in, 845–846early structures proposed for, 13, 20evolution of, 844–847goal of, 861–862in hierarchical networks, 16–18ILEC, 845–847initial vision of, 844–845interconnected-ring simulation case study

of, 844–845legacy architectures in, 842–843in multiwavelength optical networking,

841–854, 861–862networking state of the art, 847–854transparency in, 844–845typical ring architectures in, 850–851unique characteristics of, 841–842WADMs in, 842, 851WDM in, 35–36, 843–847, 851–854

MFC. See Maximum free capacityMFL. See Multifrequency laser source

M|G|1 queue, 884–885Microelectromechanical system (MEMS), 20,

242design challenges of, 252electrostatic v. magnetic, 253in large-scale free-space integrated switch

fabrics, 250–253mirrors in, 271scalability of, 250–2513D, 252–2532D, 250–251WADM based on, 270–271

Microstructured fibers. See Photonic crystalfibers

Microwave subcarriers, 227Microwave wireless systems, 227Midsystem spectral inversion, 182MI filter. See Multilayer interference filterMinband, 545–546Minimal cut, 871Minimal edge coloring, 636Minimal vertex coloring, 450–451Minimum-cost collapsed-ring (MC-CR),

703–704Minimum-cost heuristic (MCH), 703–704Minimum cost routing algorithms, 637Minimum-hop heuristic, 474–479Minimum interference, 892Minimum reuse (Min Reuse)

channels allocated by, 550–553color clashes minimized by, 551–553Max Reuse v., 552–553, 567wavelength list ordered by, 486–487

Min-Int algorithmas adaptive, 555illustration of, 550, 888–889image network and, 890–891k-SP algorithm v., 549–550, 553–554for point-to-point connections, 547–549for routing in LLNs, 890–892for single waveband, 553–554

Minority carrier injection, 202Min Reuse. See Minimum reuseMIP. See Mixed integer programMirror frequency, 64–65Mirrors

gimbaled, 252–253in MEMS-based WADM, 271in signal regeneration devices, 280,

789in SLALOM, 789






Index 939

Mixed integer program (MIP), 449in hypernet design, 632–633in multihop network design, 592in static RCA optimization, 464–465

ML detection. See Maximum likelihooddetection

M|M|1 queue, 884Mode coupling, 177Mode-locked laser, 208–209Modified breadth-first search with parameter d

(MBFS-d) algorithmdefinition of, 561size of trees generated with, 567tree decomposition using, 562–563

Modulationanalog, 71, 181, 214cross-phase, 185digital, 71formats of, 229–231index, increase in, 345intensity, 168, 214, 217–227, 341,

354–361in NAS, 70–71overmodulation and, 345in SCMA, 71, 337–339self-phase, 185technology for, 212–217

MONET. See Multiwavelength OpticalNetwork project

Monochromatic signal, 172Monte Carlo approach

deterministic approaches compared with,479–480

flow chart of, 481rules of, 481–482as stochastic approach, 479time trace of, 482–483wavelength interchange in, 484

Monte Carlo simulation, 239Moore bound

for digraphs, 614, 872for graphs, 434, 543, 586, 872for undirected hypergraphs, 613

Moore graphorders of, 436Petersen, 434, 437, 440–442, 468, 508–509,

766rings as, 452tessellations of plane in, 435–43638-vertex, 435vertices in, 434–435

Moore hypergraph, 613–614MPCP. See Multi-point Control ProtocolMPLS. See Multiprotocol Label SwitchingMPS. See Multipoint subnetMRU. See Maximizing resource utilizationMSN. See Manhattan Street NetworkMSP. See Multiservice platformMSPP. See Multiservice provisioning

platformMST. See Maximizing single-hop trafficMulticarrier recovery, 860–861Multicast-capable logical grooming switch

(MC-LGS), 637–639Multicast-capable wavelength-routed network

(MC-WRN), 498light-tree approach to, 501–504power loss in, 504–505

Multicast connection allocationalgorithm for, 558–568completion of, 566–568

Multicast connectionsallocation algorithm for, 558–568blocking probability for, 567–568forest of, 505LC, 380–383routing of, 497–507, 558–567survivability techniques for, 702–703threefold, 531in transparent networks, 500virtual, in hypernets, 631–632

MulticastingMPLS applications for, 729with optical layer constraints, 504–505optical splitters and, 500, 503, 505–507sparse, 505–507

Multicast optical connection (OC), 532–533Multicast optical path (OP), 100, 106, 531

multiplexing and, 105point-to-point connections compared with,

106possible implementations of, 383RWA with, 522–525

Multicast path. See Multicast optical pathMulticast tree, 100, 559–560, 631–632Multicommodity flow problem, 470, 886Multidimensional codes, 360–361Multifiber links, 126, 554–555Multifrequency laser source (MFL), 418Multigraph, 560–561, 869Multihop electronic overlay, 94Multihop groomed connection, 637






940 Index

Multihop networks. See also ShuffleNetdeBruijn graphs and, 586design of, 591–607as hybrid approach, 20, 87hypernets v., 628–631logical layers in, 591–593logical topology in, 585–591, 594–596LRNs as, 433, 591–607optical hops in, 31–32, 438–439origin of, 585–586physical layer in, 594–596, 642point-to-point topology and, 585–591routing in, 591–593

Multihop packet transmission and multiratepayload testbed, 819–820

Multilayered networks. See also Physicallayers

case for, 12–16challenges of, 20file-sharing services in, 6, 8logical layers of, 10, 12–13, 21, 29OCh layer of, 32–33OMS layer of, 32OTS layer of, 32–33physical layers of, 7n4, 10–11, 11n6, 13,

21–22PM layer of, 32SONET in, 6–8

Multilayer interference (MI) filter, 259FP filter compared with, 262integrated array of, 263operation of, 261–262switches based on, 271–272tunability of, 262

Multipath cross-talk. See Cochannel multipathcross-talk

Multipath dispersion, 170Multiple access interference (MAI), 353, 358,

366Multiple waveband routing, 555–557Multiplexing. See also Add/drop multiplexer;

Demultiplexing; Dense wavelengthdivision multiplexing; Time divisionmultiplexing; Wavelength divisionmultiplexing

CWDM, 17, 177, 205of LC data streams, 68LSNs and, 94multicast paths and, 105multiple access techniques for, 36, 327–367representative, 327–367

SCM, 348–352, 811–812space division, 34time division, 36waveband, 37–38

Multipoint connections, 85. See also Staticmultipoint networks

in broadcast star networks, 103–106,324–327

in hypernets, 156–161LC, 102in LLNs, 134management of, 102operations for realizing, 109in static networks, 371–399terminology of, 31–32time division techniques for, 106–109time/wavelength division techniques for,

109–111in wavelength-routed networks, 122–123,

122n16Multi-point Control Protocol (MPCP), 414Multipoint logical topology (LT)

blocking probability in, 638fully shared, 145–147grooming in, 637–639hypernets as, 607–632MPS capacity in, 611–612

Multipoint LT. See Multipoint logical topologyMultipoint networks. See Static multipoint

networksMultipoint subnet (MPS)

capacity of, 611–612channel-sharing parameters for, 611λ-channels and, 142control of, 142–143creation of, 142full connectivity realized on, 140as hyperedge, 147, 149in hypernets, 143, 158–161, 608–612,

631–632, 634–637implementation of, 143, 634in LLNs, 140–145, 508, 540–544NASs in, 95, 143in Petersen networks, 522

Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS). Seealso Generalized Multiprotocol LabelSwitching

applications of, 722, 728–729flows managed by, 85header format of, 723–724in IP networks, 722–729






Index 941

LMP in, 719as LRN, 84–85LSPs in, 717, 723, 725LSRs in, 723–724in optical control plane, 717, 719, 722–729packet transport through, 722–727protocol stack of, 727–728tunnels formed by, 726–727, 748–749VPNs allowed by, 722, 728

Multiservice platform (MSP), 857Multiservice provisioning platform (MSPP),

849Multistar network

connectivity implemented on, 143, 145fiber length in, 464hypernets as, 149, 540–544, 639–641LLN, 149, 540–544optical spectrum efficiently utilized by, 464,

640physical topology of, 144–145, 150,

462–464, 540–544, 640–641spectrum reuse in, 150–151waveband-routed, 542–543wavelength-routed, 462–464

Multistar physical topology, 150, 462–464,540–544

Multitier networksdefinition of, 581grooming of, 581–585inefficiencies of, 584–585OEO switches in, 582–583two-tier, 582–584VCs in, 582

Multivendor networks, 19Multiwaveband directional couplers, 57Multiwaveband switch (MWS), 56–57

power transfer relations of, 57wavelength-dilated switch v., 273–274

Multiwavelength network architecture(MWNA)

connectivity in, 23, 91–163current applications of, 756as framework, 34high-bandwidth optical channels in, 12history of, 18MAC protocol positioning in, 120–121multiple layers in, 6–8, 12nonlinear effects in, 186–187origins of, 4–5resources of, 28–87sublayers in, 29, 31, 75

taxonomy of, 85–87in WANs, 29–30

Multiwavelength optical networking. See alsoMultiwavelength network architecture

advantages of, 830business drivers and economics in,

828–837, 861current trends in, 828–862long-haul and ultralong-haul, 854–858, 862MANs in, 841–854, 861–862new applications of, 858–861outlook for, 862testbeds in, 828, 838–841, 861

Multiwavelength Optical Network (MONET)project, 840–841

Multiwavelength switch (MWS)AOTF, 267–269, 838AWG-based, 271–273liquid crystal, 269–270MEMS-based wavelength-selective,

270–271MI filter-based, 271–272as optical and photonic technology, 266–274realization of, 266–267wavelength-dilated, 273–274

Multiwavelength transport network (MWTN)project, 839

MWNA. See Multiwavelength networkarchitecture

MWS. See Multiwaveband switch;Multiwavelength switch

MWTN project. See Multiwavelengthtransport network project

MZI. See Mach-Zehnder interferometerMZ interferometer. See Mach-Zehnder

interferometerMZ switch. See Mach-Zehnder switch

NAS. See Network access stationNational Transparent Optical Network

Consortium, 840NC. See Network connectionsn-cube graph, 436NDF. See Nonzero dispersion fiberNegative dispersion fiber, 214Neighbor discovery

adjacency discovered through, 731approaches to, 731–732automated, 731implemented on transport links, 720n3in link management, 731–732






942 Index

Neighbor discovery (cont.)in OOO switch, 733as optical control plane function, 721provisioning system for, 732

Nested label-switched path (LSP), 741–742NETRATS protocol. See Network Restoration

Algorithm for TelecommunicationSystems protocol

NetSolver, 665NETSPAR protocol, 665–666Network access station (NAS), 7–8, 104

access gateways attached to, 14–15in ATM networks, 83as boundary, 30in broadcast star networks, 40–41, 324–327elementary, 448–449, 510, 521, 527–528,

636end nodes connected to, 442as LC port/transceiver interface, 67as LS interface, 78modulation process of, 70–71in MPS, 95, 143nonblocking, 128–129, 131–132, 448–449,

510, 518–519, 527–528OLPs in, 75, 77ONN connected to, 30, 128, 131OT side of, 70–71packet switching by, 101, 116–117in point-to-point connections, 69OR side of, 71–74in static networks, 102–103, 324traffic type characterized by, 101transceiver functions implemented by, 67,

77typical, 67–68WADM combined with, 58, 70, 131wavelength assignment determined by,

128Network connections (NCs), 33, 91–163

LLN, 94–95, 133–151, 558–567management and control of, 96–102static, 94–95, 102–122in waveband-routed networks, 133–151in wavelength-routed networks, 94–95,

122–133Network management, 9, 17–18, 20, 39Network management system (NMS), 99–100,

735, 859Network-Network Interface (NNI)

exterior v. interior, 720, 744signaling and, 742–745

Network nodes. See also Dynamic nodes;Logical switching nodes; Optical networknodes

architectures of, 783, 793–795, 814, 851buffered, 770–774chooser, 667–668for contention resolution, 783core, 818–819end, 442failure at, 648, 650, 656–657, 675, 685fiber to, 20gateway, 442grooming, 583–584for KEOPS testbed, 793–795LTN, 157–161maximum throughput per, 588–589in OLS, 812–814ONC for, 99–100OPS, 760–763p-cycles encircling, 688primary, 658root, 140, 145secondary, 658sender, 667–668static, 40–46, 432in unbuffered networks, 760–763vendor generic WADM, 851in WDM ring, 458

Network Restoration Algorithm forTelecommunication Systems(NETRATS) protocol, 668

Network state, 484Next generation access, 849Next Generation Internet (NGI), 812NGI. See Next Generation InternetNMS. See Network management systemNNI. See Network-Network InterfaceNode-encircling p-cycles, 688Nodes. See Network nodesNoise

ASE, 195–197, 200–201, 227, 241in CNR, 227in digital signal detection, 221–226in EDFAs, 195–197, 200–201heterodyne ORs reducing, 74OBI, 342power, 48in RAs, 200–201RIN, 227shot, 196, 220, 227, 235in SNR, 167, 219–221






Index 943

NOLM. See Nonlinear optical loop mirrorregenerator

Nonblocking access links, 131–132Nonblocking network access station (NAS),

128–129, 131–132, 448–449, 510,518–519, 527–528

Nonblocking stationsin LLNs, 510, 518–519, 527–528in RCA, 128–129, 131–132, 448–449

Nonblocking switches. See Strict-sensenonblocking switches; Wide-sensenonblocking switches

Noncoherent systemsCDMA, 354, 361–366intensity-modulated, 360–361optical processing in, 360–363

Nonlinear effects, on transmissioneffective interaction length, 185–186large effective area fibers and, 186–187self- and cross-phase modulation, 185stimulated Brillouin scattering, 184stimulated Raman scattering, 183–184

Nonlinear optical loop mirror regenerator(NOLM), 280

Nonlinear Schrodinger equation, 187Nonplanar case, of cycle double cover (CDC),

685–686Nonreciprocal devices, 257Nonreflecting broadcast star network,

522–523Non-return-to-zero (NRZ) keying, 229–231Nonrevertive mode, of one-plus-one facility

protection, 655Nonzero dispersion fiber (NDF), 182Normalized line sum, 875Normalized maximum hyperedge load, 627Normalized quasidoubly stochastic (NQDS)

matrix, 875–878Notification request object, 750No wavelength interchange, 465–468, 470,

474NQDS matrix. See Normalized quasidoubly

stochastic matrixNRZ. See Non-return-to-zero keyingNumerical aperture, 170

OA. See Optical amplifierOADM. See Optical add/drop multiplexerOAM field. See Operations, administration

and maintenance fieldOBI. See Optical beat interference

Objectsof RSVP, 747of RSVP-TE, 748–750

OBS. See Optical burst switchingOC. See Optical connectionOCDMA. See Optical code division multiple

accessOCG. See Optical connection graphOCH. See Optical connection hypergraphOCh. See Optical channel layerOCSS. See Optical carrier suppression and

separationOCT. See Optical coherence tomographyO-E-O switch

in multitier networks, 582–583O-O-O switches coexisting with, 585in OXCs, 59, 78, 275, 294–295, 582–583

Offered traffic, 387, 389, 391OIC. See Optical integrated circuitOLP. See Overlay processorsOLS. See Optical label switchingOLT. See Optical line terminalOMS layer. See Optical multiplex section layerONC. See Optical node controllerOne-for-N protection, 650, 653–654

electrical layer, 654optical, 671–672

One-for-one facility protection, 650optical, 670–671two routes in, 653

One-plus-one automatic protection switching(APS), 650–653

One-plus-one dedicated backup pathprotection, 692–693

One-plus-one facility protection, 650–651electrical protection in, 670nonrevertive mode of, 652–653, 655optical, 669–670revertive mode of, 653–655SONET, 652, 670

One-to-many logical connectivity, 102, 104,162

One-to-one logical connectivity, 104, 110, 162ONM. See Optical network managerONNs. See Optical network nodesOn-off keying (OOK), 67, 221, 228–230ONTC. See Optical Networks Technology

ConsortiumONU. See Optical network unitOOC. See Orthogonal optical codeOOK. See On-off keying






944 Index

O-O-O switch, 58–59, 78, 583neighbor discovery in, 733O-E-O switches coexisting with, 585in opaque networks, 59, 294–296in OXCs, 294–296

OP. See Optical pathOpaque networks, 8, 10, 12, 21, 60, 757. See

also Optical packet-switched networksG.872 standard for, 33hardware of, 58logical layers in, 8, 10, 12O-O-O, 59, 294–296open WDM network architecture as, 837optical switches in, 13n7, 21OXC, 59, 294–296practicality of, 583transparent networks v., 296

Opaque wavelength conversion, 278–281Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) protocol,

726adjacency in, 738Djikstra’s algorithm used in, 738link bundling in, 739link state information dissemination in,

739–741nested LSPs in, 741traffic and, 737–738with traffic engineering extensions, 730,

738–742in transparent networks, 741–742

Open Shortest Path First protocol with TrafficEngineering extensions (OSPF-TE), 730,738–742

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)Reference Model

DLC layer in, 84, 120TCP/IP compared with, 83–84

Open walk, 870–871Open WDM installations, 835–837OPERA. See Optical Packet Experimental

Routing ArchitectureOperations, administration and maintenance

(OAM) field, 763Operations support system (OSS), 859OPS. See Optical packet switchingOPSnet

core router architecture in, 817development of, 815–818edge router architecture in, 816

OPS networks. See Optical packet-switchednetworks

Optical add/drop multiplexer (OADM). Seealso Wavelength add/drop multiplexer

B&S, 291–293as network building block, 289parallel, 289–290serial, 289–290wavelength-based, 289–291working and protection fibers of,

291Optical amplifier (OA), 30Optical and photonic device technology

all-fiber, 242controllability of, 242couplers as, 242–255as enabling technology, 241–274multiwavelength switch technology as,

266–274optical filtering technology as, 257–266reciprocity and, 255–257switches as, 242–255

Optical beat interference (OBI), 340–345,362

CIR measuring performance of, 342–345effects of, 341–342experiment verifying, 344–345as noise, 342packet switching and, 347–348total power of, 343

Optical buffering. See BufferingOptical burst switching (OBS), 798–808

advantages of, 801architecture of, 800benefits of, 757buffering in, 799–800contention resolution and, 806–808for Ethernet access, 821JET protocol in, 801–803JIT protocol in, 803–806OPS v., 798–800, 821packet loss probabilities in, 808routing in, 801wavelength conversion in, 801wavelength-routed, 805–806WDM and, 800–801

Optical carrier suppression and separation(OCSS), 231, 818–820

Optical channel layer (OCh), 32–33Optical code division multiple access

(OCDMA), 352–353, 363–366Optical code label processing, 818Optical coherence tomography (OCT), 209






Index 945

Optical connection (OC), 30–31, 85–86, 432in channel assignment, 516–518, 528–531management of, 100–101many-to-one, 533multipoint, 31–32notation for, 103originating in OTs, 69point of origin of, 69point-to-point, 29–32, 69routing table for, 517time required for establishing, releasing,

100Optical connection graph (OCG), 131Optical connection hypergraph (OCH),

517–518, 533–535Optical control plane

adjacency in, 719, 731, 738advantages of, 716architecture of, 719–720control paradigms in, 722economics influencing, 753functions of, 721–722, 727GMPLS in, 729–751interfaces of, 719–721MPLS in, 717, 719, 722–729overview of, 714–722, 751–753provisioning of connection between two

routers in, 717reliability of, 752routing models in, 717–719scalable addressing scheme for, 716n2

Optical crossbar switch, 282–284Optical cross-connects (OXCs)

add/drop traffic and, 78–79buffer arrays emulating, 776–778functions of, 78O-E-O arrangement of, 59, 78, 275,

294–295, 582–583O-O-O arrangement of, 294–296opaque, 59, 294–296switch fabric of, 59, 243transparent, 58, 293–295waveband-selective switch as, 57wavelength-selective switch as, 293–297WIXC and, 65

Optical domain, 10Optical fibers

as enabling technology, 168–190photonic crystal fibers, 188–190principles of guided wave propagation,

168–174

solitons, 187–188spectrum of, 31n3, 34–39, 41, 46, 333–335,

464, 557, 640in Trans-Atlantic cables, 18transmission impairments of, 174–187

Optical filtering technologyAWG as, 265–266concatenation in, 240–241, 307FP filters as, 259–262gratings as, 263–265MI filters as, 259, 261–263, 271–272as optical and photonic device technology,

257–266ORs in, 258–259packet, 107, 117static, 267wavelength-selective switches in, 258–259

Optical header processing, 789–790Optical hop, 31–32, 438–439Optical integrated circuit (OIC), 243Optical label switching (OLS). See also

Label-switched pathadvantages of, 757–758, 821AOLS as, 809–811based on optical code label processing, 818contention resolution in, 811LSR for, 85, 723–724, 727network implementations of, 811–820network nodes in, 812–814in OPS networks, 808–820scalability of, 808subcarrier transmission system of, 811–812testbed demonstrations of, 811–820WDM network example of, 808–809

Optical layer. See Packet switching, in opticallayer

Optical-layer protectionin mesh architectures, 677–703path-based, 692–700in point-to-point systems, 669–672shared (line-based), 679–692in SHRs, 672–677

Optical line terminal (OLT), 91n1, 410–411,849

in BPON, 412–414in EPON, 415

Optical multicast path. See Multicast opticalpath

Optical multiplex section (OMS) layer, 32–33Optical network manager (ONM), 99, 124,

520–521, 545






946 Index

Optical network nodes (ONNs), 7–8, 37,39–66

λ-channels switched by, 30circuit-switched operation of, 14, 60dynamic nodes of, 40, 46–48example of, 715–716functionality of, 39–40, 85–86, 133in hierarchical networks, 17limitations of, 36LS interfaced with, 77NAS connected to, 30, 128, 131static nodes of, 40–46in transparent optical networks, 12wavelength assignment determined by,

128wavelength selectivity in, 123

Optical networks. See also Multiwavelengthoptical networking; Optical networknodes; Optical packet-switched networks;Passive optical networks; Synchronousoptical network; Testbeds, of opticalnetworks

bottlenecks in, 576–577client service associations in, 32–33commercial viability of, 2control and management of, 3, 9, 17–18, 20,

39, 96–102definition of, 1functionality of, 22, 63general characteristics of, 30granularity in, 12, 16history of, 18–22hybrid approach to, 13–16, 20, 60, 87LSNs in, 152–153nonlinear operations performed in, 10–11,

21objectives of, 4–9ONMs in, 99, 124, 520–521, 545ONUs in, 410–411, 422–424, 849provisioning of connection between two

routers in, 717road map for, 23–25signaling in, for protection and restoration,

750–751standardization of, 3, 20structural features of, 9switching requirements of, 52typical connection of, 31–32versatility of, 3–4

Optical Networks Technology Consortium(ONTC), 838

Optical network unit (ONU), 410–411,422–424, 849

in BPON, 412–414in EPON, 415–416

Optical node controller (ONC), 99–101Optical Packet Experimental Routing

Architecture (OPERA), 811–813Optical packet-switched (OPS) networks. See

also Optical label switching; Opticalpacket switching; Packet switching, inoptical layer

activities of, 758–759architectures of, 758–787asynchronous, 782–783buffering in, 61, 759, 770–791, 799–800,

821enabling technology in, 757, 787–791,

821feasibility of, 757nodes in, 760–763OLS in, 808–820overview of, 756–758, 820–822testbeds of, 787, 791–798, 818–821versions of, 757–758wavelength-selective cross-connects in, 57

Optical packet switching (OPS), 4, 11–12,60–62, 83

buffering and, 61contention resolution in, 763–764enabling technology for, 757, 787–791, 821with input buffering, 771–772nodes in, 760–763OBS v., 798–800, 821packet switching in optical layer v., 112promise of, 820–821in unbuffered networks, 759–764in WDM, 61

Optical Pan-European Network, 839Optical path (OP). See also Optical path-based

protectioncoalescing of, 518–519, 527, 546–547establishment of, 31expanded, 511feasible, 487–488, 511, 546, 559multicast, 100, 105–106, 383, 522–525, 531notation for, 103in RCA, 443–444RWA of, 509–516, 526–528signal, 7termination of, 60unfeasible, 511






Index 947

Optical path-based protection, 692–700,705

one-plus-one dedicated backup, 692–693,695

redundant trees for APS in, 697shared backup, 693–697spanning trees in, 697SRGs in, 697–700

Optical photon, 198–199Optical processing, with CDMA, 352–353

in coherent systems, 363–366in noncoherent systems, 360–363reasons for, 359

Optical receiver (OR)arrayed, 72–73bandwidth constraints of, 31BPF in, 73–74conflict-free tuning schedule for, 111digital signal detection in, 221–226direct detection, 71–73, 233n26as enabling technology, 217–227front-end amplifiers in, 219–221heterodyne, 73–74, 234–235in IM/DD systems, 217–227in NASs, 71–74in optical filtering technology, 258–259optical power converted by, 68photodetectors in, 71–74, 217–218savings of, 535tunability of, 73–74, 110–111, 258

Optical resource usage, 612, 627–628Optical single-sideband (OSSB) subcarrier,

809Optical spectral efficiency

in ideal cases, 335illustration of, 334in multistar networks, 464, 640transmission constraints and, 333–335

Optical splitters, 500, 503, 505–507Optical switch architecture

Benes switches, 285–286as enabling technology, 281–297, 788–789for KEOPS, 793–795router/selector, 284–285space switches, 281–284switch cross-talk and, 286–288

Optical switches. See also Optical switcharchitecture

granularity and, 13–14, 78IOS, 857maturation of, 2

opaque, 13n7, 21technology of, 242–255

Optical threshold function (OTF), 789–790Optical time to live (OTTL) function, 813Optical transmission section (OTS) layer,

32–33Optical transmitter (OT)

bandwidth constraints of, 31directly modulated, 70as enabling technology, 205–217externally modulated, 70fabrication of, 68lasers in, 68, 70–71, 205–211in NASs, 70–71optical connection originating in, 69

Optimal grooming, 599–600Optimization problem, static RCA as, 464–474

algorithms for, 465–468complexity of, 443flow conservation equation in, 466–467full wavelength interchange and, 468–469,

470–471, 493–494MIP formulations used in, 464–465no wavelength interchange and, 465–468path interference graph in, 467–468RS version of, 471–474sparse wavelength interchange and,

469–470Optoelectronic wavelength conversion, 275OR. See Optical receiverOrientable cycle double cover (CDC), 460,

685–686Orthogonal optical code (OOC), 357–358OSI Reference Model. See Open Systems

Interconnection Reference ModelOSPF protocol. See Open Shortest Path First

protocolOSPF-TE. See Open Shortest Path First

protocol with Traffic Engineeringextensions

OSS. See Operations support systemOSSB subcarrier. See Optical single-sideband

subcarrierOT. See Optical transmitterOTF. See Optical threshold functionOTS. See Optical transmission section layerOTTL function. See Optical time to live

functionOut-of-band optical service channel, 671Output buffering, 772, 780Overlapping signal spectra, 34–35






948 Index

Overlay model, for routing, 718, 751–752Overlay processors (OLPs)

bridges as, 461–462functionality of, 85–86in NASs, 75, 77regeneration of, 76RPs replaced by, 75as shim between layers, 87TPs and, 69, 75transceiver interface with, 75wavelength continuity through, 76wavelength-interchanging, 76–77

Overmodulation, 345OXCs. See Optical cross-connects

Packet lossfrom contention, 763–764in deflection routing, 766–770by hybrid system, 786in LDR, 768–770in OBS, 808in SP routing, 767–768in wavelength conversion, 767–770,

780–781Packets

delineation procedure for, 787dropping of, 778filters for, 107, 117synchronization of, 788

Packet scheduling. See also Fixed-framescheduling

alternatives for, 776–778output queuing v., 778switches’ role in, 775

Packet switchingcircuit-switched operation v., 756demand-assigned connections compared

with, 399LCs and, 111, 121–122, 399OBI and, 347–348static multipoint networks and, 111–121,

399–409Packet switching, in optical layer, 92–93, 102.

See also Optical packet switchingantecedants of, 113in broadcast star networks, 112–113, 117burstiness and, 111, 387, 389using CDMA, 366–367channel reservations in, 406, 411–412dynamic capacity allocation and, 112,

399–400

encapsulation in, 114, 117high logical connectivity and, 111,

121–122, 399lossless scheduling in, 405–407MAC protocol for, 111–121, 399–408by NASs, 101, 116–117OPS v., 112packet filters in, 107, 117perfect scheduling in, 407–408scheduling with loss in, 403–405using SCMA, 347–348in static networks, 111–121, 399–409TDM/T-WDMA case of, 117–119trade-offs of, 400uncontrolled scheduling in, 401–403

Packet trafficconnection management of, 101–102fixed-frame scheduling for, 383–389MPLS and, 722–727NAS characterizing, 101queues for, 385–386, 404–405retransmitted, 401, 405stream traffic v., 101–102unpredictability of, 384

Pan-European Photonic Transport OverlayNetwork, 840

Partitioning. See Spectrum partitioningPassband, 259–261Passive optical networks (PONs), 91n1

APON, 412–414BPON, 412–414channel reservations in, 411–412decentralized control in, 415–416DWDM/TDM, 422–424end systems in, 410EPON, 414–416, 849fixed frame, 412–414GPON, 414, 849light sources in, 422MAC protocol for, 412–416recent trends in, 422–424as static multipoint network, 409–425two-fiber v. single fiber links in, 411WDM, 416–420, 422–424wireless access and, 420–422

Path admissibility, in RCA, 450–452,485

Path AIS. See Path alarm indication signalPath alarm indication signal (AIS), 656Path-based survivability schemes, 678,

695–697, 705






Index 949

Path coalescence, 518–519, 527inseparability causing, 559interference caused by, 546–547

PathErr message, 746Path-independent loss crossbar switch, 282Path interference graph, 449–452

joint routing and wavelength minimizationsolved in, 451

minimal vertex coloring in, 450–451in RCA optimization problem, 467–468

Path lengthconstraints on, 467effective, 489

Path messages, 745–748, 750Path protection

dedicated, 695in GMPLS, 736–737ILPs in, 694–697line v., 651–652optical, 692–700, 705routing and, 736–737shared, 693–697

Path restoration, 668Path selector, 658, 659, 661–662Path state, 746, 748PathTear message, 746–747, 750PBG fiber. See Photonic band gap fiberPCFs. See Photonic crystal fibersp-Cycles

failure recovery using, 688ILP for, 689–690link, 688node-encircling, 688shared optical protection by, 688–690trade-offs of, 688–689

PD. See PhotodetectorPDG. See Polarization-dependent gainPDH. See Plesiochronous digital hierarchyPDL. See Polarization-dependent lossPeer model, for routing, 718, 751–752Penalties

chirp-induced, 240distortion-induced, 240–241power, 238–239Q, 307–308

Perfect scheduling, 407–408Performance impairments, in network

environmentchirp-induced penalty as, 240cross-talk as, 235–239distortion-induced penalty as, 240–241

enabling technology and, 235–241PMD as, 241prediction of, 297–298, 302–308signal power divergence as, 239–240

Permutation matrices, 877, 879Permutation routing, 463Permutation switches

binary switching elements of, 48–52blocking characteristics of, 50–52complexity of, 48–52crossbar, 48LDC and, 54rearrangeably nonblocking, 50–52, 66static routers as, 45strict-sense nonblocking, 51, 59wide-sense nonblocking, 51–52

Petersen graph, 434, 437, 440–442, 468,508–509, 766

Petersen networkconnection interference graphs for, 530–531deflection routing in, 765–770demand-assigned LCs in, 539–540full connectivity in, 521, 538LASs on, 519–521many-to-many OCs and, 533–535many-to-one OCs and, 533MPS in, 522multicast OPs in, 531performance comparisons of, 535–538point-to-point connections in, 525point-to-point OPs in, 526–528, 531RWA on, 518–519, 521–528transmission channel assignment in,

532–533trees in, 521–528

PHASAR. See Phased arrayPhase conjugation, 277–278Phased array (PHASAR), 265Phase mask, 363–365Phase shift keying (PSK), 67, 229–230Photocurrent, 234Photodetector (PD), 71–74, 217–218Photodiode, 217–219

APD, 218–220, 422PIN, 218

Photonically integrated laser arrays, 211Photonic band gap (PBG) fiber, 189Photonic cross-connect (PXC), 58Photonic crystal fibers (PCFs), 21, 188–190

air-clad core, 189effective-index, 188–189






950 Index

Photonic crystal fibers (PCFs) (cont.)photonic band gap, 189semiconductor technology combined with,

190Photonic device technology. See Optical and

photonic device technologyPhysical Layer Operations Administration and

Maintenance (PLOAM) cells, 412Physical layer, 6–8

adjacency in, 731control techniques for, 21design of, in hypernets, 634–637design of, in multihop networks, 594–596,

642logical layer interface with, 30of multilayered networks, 7n4, 10–11, 11n6,

13, 21–22nonlinear functionality in, 75optical and fiber layers of, 13reconfigurable, 16, 79–80, 82routing with constraints on, 548–549signal processing in, 38in static networks, 102topology of, 22, 30, 41, 79, 85–86, 93transparency of, 8, 10–11, 11n6

Physical-layer simulationof DWDM network, 308–311three-step approach to, 298–301of WADM chain, 301–302of WDM network, 301–311

Physical media (PM) layer, 32Physical topology (PT), 12, 22, 30, 85–86. See

also Ring topology; Tree topologycontrol over, 144–145density of, 434, 445folded bus, 41, 155growth of, 440, 478–479of hypernets, 158logical topology embedded in, 91, 594–596,

634–637, 642logical topology independent of, 79, 94logical topology matched with, in static

RCA, 444–448of LRNs, 436–437, 580–581, 585multistar, 144–145, 150, 462–464,

540–544, 640–641RCA and, 444ring, 150, 452–458spectrum reuse and, 41, 642star, 41, 91–93survivable, 649

symmetry of, 435–436of transparent networks, 12, 30, 41of WANs, 438–439of wavelength-routed networks, 434–442

PIN photodiode, 218pJET protocol. See Priority JET protocolPlain old telephone service (POTS), 6Planarity-testing algorithm, 684Planar lightwave circuit (PLC), 243, 249Planar waveguide, 264–265PLC. See Planar lightwave circuitPlesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH), 893PLOAM cells. See Physical Layer Operation

Administration and Maintenance cellsPMD. See Polarization mode dispersionPM layer. See Physical media layerPoint-and-click provisioning, 714, 719Point process, 880Point-to-point connections

algorithms for, 545–549, 551–557in ATM networks, 82dynamic routing rules for, 544–558in LRNs, 578–579, 585–591multicast connections compared with, 106NASs in, 69OCs as, 29–32, 69in Petersen networks, 525in SDH, 80in SONET, 80in static networks, 103–111terminology of, 29–32throughput from, 531–532, 586–589in wavelength-routed networks, 122–123wavelength routing and, 145

Point-to-point networkhypernets reduced to, 612LRNs as, 153–156, 578–579, 585–591, 641protection in, 650–654, 669–777restoration in, 650–654static, 103–111WDM, cost issues for, 831–832

Point-to-point optical path (OP), 526–528, 531Point-to-point topology, 145, 153–156

grooming in, 597–607multihop networks and, 585–591

Poisson process, 385, 392, 881, 884Polarization

flipping of, 267–268PDG and, 203, 205PDL and, 180, 239–240PMD and, 179–180, 241






Index 951

principal states of, 241states of, 174transverse, 267

Polarization-dependent gain (PDG), 203, 205Polarization-dependent loss (PDL), 180,

239–240Polarization-maintaining fibers, 174Polarization mode dispersion (PMD),

179–180, 241PON. See Passive optical networksPopulation inversion, in EDFA, 193POTS. See Plain old telephone servicePower amplifiers, 190Power penalty, 238–239Power transfer relations

of directional couplers, 42–44of generalized switches, 53of LDCs, 55of multiwaveband switches, 57static routers and, 45of switch fabrics, 50of waveband-selective switches, 57

Preamplifiers, 190Prechirp techniques, 183Precomputed backup route computation, 678Principal states of polarization (PSP), 241Priority JET (pJET) protocol, 803Protection. See also Automatic protection

switching; Path protection; Sharedoptical protection

current techniques of, in logical layer,650–669

cycles, 681–683electrical, 670equipment, 650line-based, 651–652, 657, 674, 679–692link failure, 681–683, 685–687, 690–692,

750–751objectives of, 648–649in point-to-point networks, 650–654,

669–777restoration v., 648–649, 704segment, 679, 700–702, 705signaling for, in optical networks, 750–751in SONET, 650–669

Protection information object, 749Protocol stack, of MPLS, 727–728PSK. See Phase shift keyingPSP. See Principal states of polarizationPT. See Physical topologyPublic Switched Telephone Network, 647

Pulse broadening, 178–180PXC. See Photonic cross-connect

QDS matrix. See Quasidoubly stochasticmatrix

QD SOAs. See Quantum dot SOAsQoS requirements. See Quality-of-service

requirementsQ penalty, 307–308Quality-of-service (QoS) requirements, 716

enforcement of, 759MPLS applications for, 728–729

Quantum dot (QD) SOAs, 203Quantum efficiency, 218Quantum limit, 220Quasidoubly stochastic (QDS) matrix,

875–879Queues

DQDB and, 458in fixed-frame scheduling, 384–388Little’s formula for, 885Markov chains and, 884–885M|D|1, 884–885M|G|1, 884–885M|M|1, 884model of, for hybrid electric and optical

buffering, 786packet scheduling v., 778for packet traffic, 385–386, 404–405for perfect scheduling, 407–408terminology of, 883–885

RA. See Raman amplifierRACE-MWTN consortium, 839Radiative electron-hole recombination, 202Radio-over-fiber (ROF), 420–422RAM. See Random access memoryRaman amplifier (RA)

distributed, 199–200drawbacks of, 200–201EDFAs compared with, 198–199, 201gain coefficient of, 198–199hybrid distributed-discrete amplification

with, 199–200noise in, 200–201renewed interest in, 191

Raman gain coefficient (RGC), 198–199Random access. See Uncontrolled schedulingRandom access memory (RAM), 758–759,

821Randomly connected network (RCN), 477






952 Index

Random processes, 880–883Rare-earth-doped fiber amplifiers, 191Rayleigh scattering, 175–176, 200–201Rays

geometric optics and, 168–171in graded-index fiber, 169–171largest possible angle of incidence for, 170propagation of, 170–171refractive index profiles and, 168–169Snell’s law and, 169–170in step-index fiber, 168–170

RCA. See Routing and channel assignmentRCN. See Randomly connected networkReal-time backup route computation, 678Rearrangeably nonblocking permutation

switches, 50–52, 66Receiver. See Optical receiverReceiver sensitivity, 226Reception processor (RP), 330–331

demultiplexing in, 70functionality of, 85–86OLP replacing, 75in overlay processor, 69transmission signal converted in, 31, 68

Reciprocity, 255–257Reconfigurable optical add/drop multiplexer

(ROADM). See Wavelength add/dropmultiplexer

Reconfigurationhitless, 596of layers, 16, 79–80, 82, 94in response to traffic, 596in wavelength-routed networks, 432

Record Route object, 748Recovery

from failure, 580, 647, 649, 651–652,688

in LRNs, 580multicarrier, 860–861speed of, 649using p-cycle approach, 688

Recursive design, 440–442Recursive grid, 440, 442Redundancy

in CDCs, 680CRC for, 114in generalized loopbacks, 691in ring covers, 664, 669survivability influenced by, 649–650trees and, 697

Redundant trees, 697

Reed-Solomon (RS) codes, 232Reflecting broadcast star network, 523Reflective semiconductor optical amplifier

(R-SOA), 423Refractive index profiles, 168–169Regeneration. See Signal regenerationRegenerative repeater, 76Relative intensity noise (RIN), 227Representative multiplexing and multiple

access schemesCDMA, 352–367SCM/SCMA, 336–352in shared-medium networks, 327–328TDM/TDMA, 106–109, 116–117, 119, 134,

147, 161, 328–335Reservation. See Channel reservationResilient packet ring (RPR), 849, 852Resource discovery, 721Resource management, as optical control

plane function, 721Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP). See

also Resource Reservation Protocol withTraffic Engineering Extensions

basic entities in, 745–746main objects of, 747message types in, 746–748, 750signaling and, 745–749

Resource Reservation Protocol with TrafficEngineering Extensions (RSVP-TE),726, 730

with enhancements for GMPLS support,749–750

objects of, 748–750signaling and, 747–750

Restorationcentralized, 665–666current techniques of, in logical layer,

650–669DCS-based, 665–669distributed, 666–669dynamic, 705by FASTAR system, 665–666objectives of, 648–649path, 668in point-to-point networks, 650–654protection v., 648–649, 704RCA and, 127sender-chooser method of, 667–668signaling for, in optical networks, 750–751in SONET, 650–670in survivability, 647–705






Index 953

ResvConf message, 746ResvErr message, 746Resv message, 745–746, 748, 750ResvTear message, 746–747Return-to-zero (RZ) keying, 229–231Reuse. See Spectrum reuseReverse bias voltage, 216–217Revertive mode, of one-plus-one facility

protection, 653–655RGC. See Raman gain coefficientRIN. See Relative intensity noiseRing cover

algorithms for, 664–665in mesh architectures, 664–665, 669redundancy in, 664, 669trade-offs of, 663

Ring topology. See also Bidirectional ring;Cycle double cover; Interconnected rings;Ring cover; Self-healing ring;Shared-protection ring; Unidirectionalpath-protected ring; Unidirectionalpath-switched ring; Wavelengthdivision-multiplexed ring

advantages of, 458arbitrary connectivity on, 457–458collapsed, 703–704decomposition of mesh networks and,

458–462in MANs, 844–845, 850–851as Moore graph, 452RCA and, 452–462, 599–600RPR, 849, 852SONET, 452–453, 598–602, 654–663, 672SONET/SDH, 842–843with sparse wavelength interchange, 494,

496switching and, 674wavelength assignment and, 456–457wavelength requirements for full

connectivity and, 456RIP. See Routing Information ProtocolRipple effect, in interconnected rings, 663RITE-Net, 418ROF. See Radio-over-fiberRooted routing, 534

LDCs in, 564–565on tree, 564–566

Root node, 140, 145Routers. See also Static routers

core, 817–818cross-talk of, 286–288

edge, 723–725, 816IP, 4, 83–84Latin, 45, 265LER as, 723–725LSR as, 85, 723–724, 727in OPSnet, 816–817static, 123–124, 442–484terminology of, 734

Router/selector switch, 284–285Routing. See also Deflection routing; Routers;

Routing and channel assignment;Routing and waveband assignment

address shift, 591, 623–625AWG properties of, 265channel assignment compared with, 124characterization of, 485–486constraints on, 135–140, 509, 548–549deflection, 807–808distributed, 737evolution of, 19fortuitous destinations in, 135–136, 513,

515garbling in, 137within given waveband, 546–550, 558–560in GMPLS, 730, 734–742header, 624hybrid model for, 718–719, 751–752joint, 451limited deflection, 768–770link properties and, 737in LLNs, 135–140, 507–568, 890–892of multicast connections, 497–507, 558–567in multihop network design, 591–593multiple waveband, 555–557in OBS, 801OC table for, 517operational considerations in, 736–737as optical control plane function, 721overlay model for, 718, 751–752path protection and physically diverse paths

in, 736–737peer model for, 718, 751–752permutation, 463protocols for, 734–736resource discovery and path computation

function of, 721rooted, 534, 564–566rules of, 566, 591SP, 767–768tree, 561–566, 634–636waveband, 553–555






954 Index

Routing and channel assignment (RCA). Seealso Dynamic routing and channelassignment; Static routing and channelassignment

algorithms for, 51–52, 127, 139, 455–468,474–591, 623–625, 637

in bidirectional ring, 129–132channel assignment constraints on,

125–128, 131, 138–139as control problem, 127decoupling of, 452dedicated connections in, 124–125, 127examples of, 128–133fiber topology/spectrum trade-off in, 133implementation of, 124in LLNs, 890–892in mesh network, 131–133, 494–495Monte Carlo approach to, 479–484nonblocking stations in, 128–129, 131–132,

448–449OPs created in, 443–444path admissibility in, 450–452, 485path interference graph in, 467–468physical topology and, 444rearrangeability in, 124–126restoration and, 127ring topology and, 452–458, 599–600routing constraints on, 135–140shortest path routing in, 131switched connections in, 124–125, 127traffic requirements and, 443in wavelength-routed networks, 124–133,

433, 442–544in WDM rings, 599–600

Routing and waveband assignment (RWA),508

algorithms for, 544–568blocking probability measuring

performance of, 545channel allocation in, 550–551channel assignment in, 516–518in hypernets, 635–637with multicast OPs, 522–525ONMs in, 520–521, 545of OPs, 509–516, 526–528on Petersen networks, 518–519, 521–528in waveband-routed networks, 442–484waveband selection in, 545–546

Routing Information Protocol (RIP), 735RP. See Reception processorRPR. See Resilient packet ring

RS codes. See Reed-Solomon codesRS formulation, for optimization problem,

471–474R-SOA. See Reflective semiconductor optical

amplifierRSVP. See Resource Reservation ProtocolRSVP-TE. See Resource Reservation

Protocol with Traffic EngineeringExtensions

RWA. See Routing and waveband assignmentRZ. See Return-to-zero keying

SA. See Saturable absorber; Source addressSaD switch. See Split-and-deliver switchSAN. See Storage area networkSaturable absorber (SA), 279Saturation degree, 872Saturation, gain, 194–195SBS. See Stimulated Brillouin scatteringScalability, 122

of MEMS, 250–251of OLS, 808for optical control plane, 716n2spectrum reuse and, 31n3, 122, 162

Scattered wavelength path, 798SCH. See Set covering heuristicScheduling. See also Channel allocation

schedule; Fixed-frame scheduling; Fixedscheduling algorithm; Packet scheduling

efficiency of, 332–333heterogeneous traffic, 379with loss, 403–405lossless, 405–407perfect, 407–408transmission, 785uncontrolled, 401–403void-filling, 802–803

Schrodinger equation, nonlinear, 187SCM. See Subcarrier multiplexingSCMA. See Subcarrier multiple accessSCM/SCMA. See Subcarrier

multiplexing/subcarrier multiple accessSCM/WDMA/SCMA. See Subcarrier

multiplexing/wavelength divisionmultiple access/subcarrier multipleaccess

SCS. See Single-crystal siliconSDDP. See Segment, Deflect, and Drop PolicySDH. See Synchronous digital hierarchySDP. See Segment and Drop PolicySegment and Drop Policy (SDP), 807






Index 955

Segment, Deflect, and Drop Policy (SDDP),807

Segment protection, 679, 700–702, 705SelfHealing Network, 666–667Self-healing ring (SHR). See also

Shared-protection ringBLSR, 655, 656–657, 659–663interconnection techniques of, 657–663optical-layer protection in, 672–677SONET, 654–663, 672SPRING, 673–677survivability and, 649UPPR, 672–673UPSR, 655–656, 659–663in WDM, 672–677

Self-phase modulation, 185Self-saturation, of amplifiers, 195Semiconductor laser amplifier in a loop

optical mirror (SLALOM), 280, 789Semiconductor laser diode, 18, 205–207Semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA),

201–203, 279development of, 190drawbacks of, 202–203electron-hole recombination in, 201–202PDG impacting, 205quantum dot, 203reflective, 423structure of, 201using MZIs, 788, 814–815wavelength conversion based on, 790

Semiconductor technology. See alsoSemiconductor optical amplifier

controllable directional couplers and,245–246

laser diode as, 18, 205–207PCFs combined with, 190SLALOM as, 280, 789

Sender-chooser restoration method, 667–668Sender node, 667–668Service level agreements (SLAs)

with ISPs, 5–6requirements of, 648traffic engineering and, 6

Service rate, 385Service selector, 658, 659, 662Session Attribute object, 748Set covering heuristic (SCH), 502SFP module. See Small form factor pluggable

moduleShared backup path protection, 693–697

Shared medium networks, 103, 117, 324–327Shared optical protection

advantages of, 679–680by CDCs, 680–687by generalized loopbacks, 690–692in mesh architectures, 679–692path v., 651–652by p-cycles, 688–690switching, 657, 674

Shared path-based protection, 693–697Shared-protection ring (SPRING)

four-fiber, 453–458, 673–675trade-offs of, 677two-fiber, 454–455WDM, 453–458, 673–675

Shared risk groups (SRGs)classification of, 698–699ILPs for, 700in optical path-based protection, 697–700

Shared risk link group (SRLG), 736–737,740

Shared wavelength converters, 781–782Shortest path algorithm. See k shortest path

algorithmShortest path tree (SPT) heuristic, 501–502

advantages of, 561color clashes caused by, 562–564

Shortest path with deletions (SPD) algorithm,487–488

Short leap shared protection (SLSP), 700–701Shot noise, 196, 220, 227, 235SHR. See Self-healing ring (SHR)ShuffleNet, 154, 586–589

bidirectional ring, 155–156deflection probability in, 770directed Kautz hypernets compared with,

630–631disadvantages of, 588, 630edge grouping and, 614–615embedding of, 155, 594–595end systems communication in, 588folded bus, 155internodal distances in, 439–440Kautz digraphs compared with, 630–631LCG of, 593LSNs in, 157maximum throughput per node for, 588–589as multihop network, 587–589undirected Kautz hypergraph compared

with, 628–630wavelength assignments for, 156






956 Index

Signalingin GMPLS, 730, 742–751in JIT protocol, 804–806for label distribution, 745LSRs exchanging information through, 727NNI and, 742–745as optical control plane function, 721, 727for protection and restoration in optical

networks, 750–751RSVP and, 745–749RSVP-TE and, 747–750UNI and, 742–745

Signal power divergence, 239–240Signal regeneration

all-optical 2R or 3R, 788BER in, 274–275devices for, 279–281, 789as enabling technology, 274–281, 788islands of transparency and, 856levels of, 274–275opaque wavelength conversion and,

278–281Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), 167, 219–221Silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafer, 252Single-access ring interconnection

configurations, 657–663Single-crystal silicon (SCS), 252–253Single fiber pair access, 129–130, 456–457Single-frequency lasers, 181, 207–211Single longitudinal mode operation, 207SLALOM. See Semiconductor laser amplifier

in a loop optical mirrorSLM. See Spatial light modulatorSLOB. See Switch with large optical buffersSlot-by-slot channel reservations, 406Slotted networks

ALOHA, 402–403dump-and-insert buffering in, 775packet synchronization in, 788slot synchronization in, 793unbuffered, 761–763

Slow light, 790–791SLSP. See Short leap shared protectionSmall form factor pluggable (SFP) module,

850Smectic crystal, 254Snell’s law, 169–170SNR. See Signal-to-noise ratioSOA. See Semiconductor optical amplifierSoft permanent connection, 744SOI wafer. See Silicon-on-insulator wafer

Solitons, 187–188SONET. See Synchronous optical networkSONET/SDH standard, 841–843, 893Source address (SA), 114Source-destination light-tree, 498Source grooming, 597Space dilation, 51, 288Space division multiplexing, 34Space switches, 281–285Spanning subgraph, 870Spanning trees, 560–561, 697, 871Span switching, 657Sparse multicasting, 505–507Sparse wavelength interchange, 469–470

in mesh networks, 460–461rings with, 494, 496

Spatial light modulator (SLM), 254–255,269

SPD algorithm. See Shortest path withdeletions algorithm

Spectral inversion, midsystem, 182Spectra, subcarrier, 535Spectrum partitioning, 34–39

in LLNs, 557–558one-tiered approach to, 37optical spectrum usage increased by, 557two-tiered approach to, 37–38waveband, 35, 38–39wavelength, 34–35, 38

Spectrum reusein bidirectional ring, 93, 150–151DCA preventing, 103as key to scalability, 31n3, 122, 162in mesh networks, 133, 150–151minimization of, 140multistar, 150–151physical topology and, 41, 642scalability and, 122, 162static routers and, 45, 123–124throughput increased by, 538wavelength selectivity influencing, 123–124

Speed-up factor, 627Split-and-deliver (SaD) switch, 498, 501–502Splitter placement in wavelength-routed

network (SP-WRN), 506Splitters. See Optical splittersSplitting losses, 504–505Spread-spectrum technique, 352SPRING. See Shared-protection ringSP routing, 767–769SPT. See Shortest path tree heuristic






Index 957

SP-WRN. See Splitter placement inwavelength-routed network

Squelching, 656–657SRGs. See Shared risk groupsSRLG. See Shared risk link groupSRS. See Stimulated Raman scatteringSSFBG. See Superstructure fiber Bragg

gratingStar couplers, 40–41, 140

Banyan structure of, 43, 50connectivity layers of, 104–105dynamic directional, 43–44LDC as, 54nonreflecting v. reflecting, 141static router replacing, 44

Stark effect, 194Star networks. See also Broadcast star

network; Multistar networkbroadcast, 44, 103–106, 109–110, 112–113,

117, 122, 140–142, 145–147, 158, 160directed, 45, 103n7physical topology of, 41, 91–93static, 102–103undirected, 103n7wavelength-routed, 123–124, 149

State processes, 880State transition, 880–882Static directional couplers, 42–44Static filter, 267Static multipoint networks, 103–111

broadcast star, 103–106, 324–327capacity allocation for dedicated

connections and, 371–389constraints on, 367–371, 424demand-assigned connections and, 389–399NAS role in, 324packet switching in optical layer and,

111–121, 399–409PON, 409–425randomness in, 424representative multiplexing and multiple

access schemes in, 327–367Static networks, 162–163. See also Static

multipoint networksconnection management in, 102embedding problem in, 594LAMBDANET as, 20limitations of, 95, 122NAS in, 102–103, 324NCs in, 94–95, 102–122nodes in, 40–46, 432

ONN functionality in, 133packet switching in, 111–121, 399–409physical layer in, 102point-to-point, 103–111star, 102–103wavelength assignment rule in, 44–46

Static nodes, 40–45directional couplers building, 42–44in N-node static network, 432static routers and, 44–46

Static RCA. See Static routing and channelassignment

Static routersin directed star networks, 45, 103n7as permutation switches, 45power transfer relations and, 45spectrum reuse and, 45, 123–124star coupler replaced by, 44static nodes and, 44–46wavelength-routed networks and, 442–484

Static routing and channel assignment (RCA)algorithms for, 465–468, 474–486dynamic RCA v., 557–558as graph coloring problem, 449–452grooming in, 600–602heuristics for, 474–486LLN rules for, 507–544logical and physical topologies matched in,

444–448in multistar WRNs, 462–464nonblocking stations in, 448–449as optimization problem, 443, 464–474,

493–494rings and, 452–462in waveband-routed networks, 507–544in wavelength-routed networks, 442–484,

507–544Static shared medium network, 103Static single-waveband networks. See Static

networksSteiner forest, 635Steiner tree, 501–502, 635Step-index fiber

intermodal dispersion in, 177–178rays in, 168–170

Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS), 184Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS), 183–184,

186–187, 198STOLAS. See Switching Technologies for

Optimally Labeled SignalsStorage area network (SAN), 858






958 Index

Stream trafficconnection management of, 101–102fixed-frame scheduling for, 371–383packet traffic v., 101–102in SONET, 101

Strict-sense nonblocking switchesconversion and, 59cross-points in, 51

Stripe geometry, 207STS. See Synchronous transport signalSubcarrier multiplexing/subcarrier multiple

access (SCM/SCMA), 348–349Subcarrier multiple access (SCMA),

345–352modulation in, 71, 337–339packet switching using, 347–348principles of, 336–339SCM/SCMA, 348–349SCM/WDMA/SCMA, 349–352trade-offs of, 339, 352transmitting and receiving stations in,

337–339Subcarrier multiplexing (SCM), 348–352,

811–812Subcarrier multiplexing/wavelength division

multiple access/subcarrier multipleaccess (SCM/WDMA/SCMA), 349–352

Subcarriersadvantages of, 336channels of, 346–347in dispersion, 181frequency of, 336microwave, 227for multiplexing v. multiple access, 349in OLS, 811–812OSSB, 809packet switching using, 347–348receiver array, 535SCMA, 71, 336–339, 345–352SCM/SCMA, 348–349SCM/WDMA/SCMA, 349–352spectra of, 339–345, 535TDM/T-SCMA, 345–347tunability of, 351–352

Subgraphs, 869–870Subrate tributaries, 583Suggested label object, 749Supercontinuum generation, 208–209Superhub, 845–846, 850–851Superstructure fiber Bragg grating (SSFBG),

365–366

Survivability. See also ProtectionFITNESS protocol for, 667line-based, 651–652, 657, 674, 678–692,

705of logical topology, 649of multicast connections, 702–703path-based, 678, 695–697, 705of physical topology, 649redundancy influencing, 649–650rerouting around fault conditions ensuring,

649restoration in, 647–705ring covers for, 664–665SHRs and, 649taxonomy of schemes for, 677–678topology influencing, 649

Switch controllertransmission scheduling by, 785in unbuffered networks, 763

Switch delay line architecture. SeeFeed-forward line delay architecture

Switched connectionsdedicated connections v., 124development of, 166in RCA, 124–125, 127rearrangement of, 125terminology of, 744

Switches. See also Guided-wave switches;Multiwavelength switch; Permutationswitches

AWG-based, 271–273Benes, 49–51, 66, 285–288comparisons of, 243crossbar, 48, 52, 55, 281–284cross-talk in, 52, 62, 247, 286–288early examples of, 242–243generalized, 52–53hybrid, 296–297IOS, 857liquid crystal architectures of, 254–255,

269–270MC-LGS, 637–639MEMS, 20, 242, 250–253, 270–271MI filter-based, 271–272O-E-O, 59, 78, 275, 294–295, 582–583, 585O-O-O, 58–59, 78, 294–296, 583, 585, 733optical, 2, 13–14, 13n7, 21, 78, 242–255,

857as optical and photonic device technology,

242–255in packet scheduling, 775






Index 959

router/selector, 284–285SaD, 498, 501–502SLOB, 795–796space, 281–285with tunable wavelength converters,

779–781WASPNET optical packet, 796–797wavelength-dilated, 273–274wavelength-selective, 288–297

Switch fabricsBenes, 49–51, 66, 285–286cost reduced by, 55cross-talk reduced by, 52, 62large-scale free-space integrated, 250–253multistage, 48–50of OXCs, 59, 243power transfer relations of, 50transceivers and, 59Y-branch, 248, 284

Switching Technologies for OptimallyLabeled Signals (STOLAS), 813–815

Switch with large optical buffers (SLOB),795–796

Synchronizationcircuit, 762packet, 788slot, 793timing, 108–109

Synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH), 4history of, 19point-to-point connections in, 80in SONET/SDH standard, 841–843, 893

Synchronous optical network (SONET), 4,679–680

ADM in, 79–81, 598–599in ATM-over-SONET structure, 82–83concatenated frame of, 894–896cost issues of, 833–835DCS in, 79–81, 582–583granularity in, 81grooming in, 896n1history of, 19linear APS in, 650, 653LP v., 651as LRN, 79–81in multilayered networks, 6–8paths in, 651, 659, 893point-to-point connections in, 80protection in, 650–669restoration in, 650–670ring, 452–453, 598–602, 654–663, 672

SHRs in, 654–663, 672in SONET/SDH standard, 841–843, 893stream traffic in, 101STS as building block of, 893–896terminology of, 651over WDM rings, 598–602WDM terminals in, 80–81

Synchronous transport signal (STS), 79concatenated, 894–896in LRNs, 580as SONET building block, 893–896

TCP. See Transmission Control ProtocolTCP/IP suite

network interface layer of, 83OSI compared with, 83–84UDP and TCP in, 727

TDM. See Time division multiplexingTDMA. See Time division multiple accessTDM/TDMA. See Time division

multiplexing/time division multipleaccess

TDM/T-SCMA. See Time divisionmultiplexing/time-subcarrier multipleaccess

TDM/T-WDMA. See Time divisionmultiplexing/time wavelength-divisionmultiple access

TE. See Traffic engineeringTelecommunications Management Network

(TMN), 839TeleManagement Forum (TMF), 859Telephone networks

circuit-switched mode of, 4history of, 18–19POTS provided by, 6Public Switched Telephone Network as, 647

Tell-and-go protocol, 403–405Ten-gigabit Ethernet, 847–848TE polarization. See Transverse electric

polarizationTerminal connection point, 33Testbeds, of optical networks, 21, 39, 787

AON Consortium, 839contention resolution and, 791–798CORD, 791–793early OLS, 811–813European, 839–840IP/WDM optical label-switching, 812KEOPS, 793–796MONET, 840–841






960 Index

Testbeds, of optical networks (cont.)for multihop packet transmission and

multirate payload, 819–820in multiwavelength optical networking, 828,

838–841, 861National Transparent Optical Network

Consortium, 840NGI, 812OLS, 811–820ONTC, 838OPERA, 811–813OPS, 787, 791–798, 818–821OPSnet, 815–818STOLAS, 813–815telecommunications infrastructure driven

by, 840–841WASPNET, 796–798

T-F-CDMA. See Two-dimensionaltime-frequency code division multipleaccess

Threefold multicast connections, 531Three-wave mixing, 64Threshold current, 207Time division multiple access (TDMA). See

also Time division multiplexing/timedivision multiple access

frame schedule for, 108guard times for, 108multiple access schemes and, 328–335ranging and, 108–109TDM/TDMA example of, 106–109,

116–117, 119, 134, 147, 161, 328–335techniques for, 106–109, 122n16time scales of, 106–107

Time division multiplexing (TDM), 36,836–837

CAS for, 328–332circuit-switched cases of, 106–107downside of, 336DWDM/TDM PON and, 422–424frame schedule for, 108, 110guard times for, 108multipoint cases of, 106–107propagation delay in, 535ranging and, 108–109scheduling efficiency in, 332–333TDM/TDMA example of, 106–109,

116–117, 119, 134, 147, 161, 328–335TDM/T-SCMA, 345–347TDM/T-WDMA, 109–111, 116–119, 135,

147, 161, 328–335, 395–399

techniques for, 106–109, 122n16time scales of, 106–107transmission channel assignment and,

532transmission constraints in, 333–335

Time division multiplexing/time divisionmultiple access (TDM/TDMA), 106–109,116–117, 119, 134, 147, 161, 328–335

Time division multiplexing/time-subcarriermultiple access (TDM/T-SCMA),345–347

Time division multiplexing/time-wavelengthdivision multiple access(TDM/T-WDMA), 109–111, 116–119,135, 147, 161, 328–335, 395–399

Time division techniques. See Time divisionmultiple access; Time divisionmultiplexing

Time domain contention resolution, 770–778Time processes, 880Time slot continuity, 61Time slot interchange (TSI), 61, 656Time-subcarrier multiple access (T-SCMA),

345–347Time-wavelength division multiple access

(T-WDMA). See also Time divisionmultiplexing/time-wavelength divisionmultiple access

blocking calculations and, 395–399for broadcast star network, 109–110CAS for, 328–332downside of, 336frame schedule for, 110scheduling efficiency in, 332–333TDM/T-WDMA example of, 109–111,

116–119, 135, 147, 161, 328–335,395–399

transmission constraints in, 333–335Time/wavelength domain contention

resolution, 778–782TM. See Transmission matrixTMF. See TeleManagement ForumTMN. See Telecommunications Management

NetworkTM polarization. See Transverse magnetic

polarizationTopology. See Logical topology; Physical

topologyTotal internal reflection, 169–170TOWC module. See Tunable optical

wavelength converter module






Index 961

TP. See Transmission processorTraffic. See also Fixed-frame scheduling;

Packet switching, in optical layer; Packettraffic; Traffic constraints; Trafficengineering

add/drop, 78–79balance factor of, 369–370, 388, 611–612carried, 387, 389, 391, 471–474, 539–540demand-assigned, 538–540in fiber-optic transmission systems, 647fixed-frame scheduling for, 371–389, 593heuristic algorithms for, 600–602, 604–605intensity of, 385, 387, 389, 393–395loss of, in UPPRs, 673Markovian models for, 391matrix scaling of, 379–380, 593in multihop network design, 591–593networks reconfigurable in response to,

596offered, 387, 389, 391OSPF for, 737–738RCA and, 443stream, 101–102, 371–383in switches with tunable wavelength

converters, 780unbalanced, 370–371

Traffic constraintsbalance factor of, 369in fluid-flow traffic, 367–371synchronous v. asynchronous, 367–370tunability and, 368

Traffic engineering (TE)ISIS-TE for, 730link, 739MPLS applications for, 729OSPF-TE for, 730, 738–742RSVP-TE for, 726, 730, 747–750SLAs and, 6

Transceiversin broadcast star networks, 112in CDMA, 358–359functionality of, 85–86LC port interface of, 67NAS functions implemented by, 67,

77OLP interface with, 75switch fabrics and, 59tunability of, 109–111types of, 109

Transient chirp, 213Transimpedance amplifier, 219

Translucent networks, 77, 296Transmission bands, 35Transmission channel, 107. See also

End-to-end transmission channelchannel assignment and, 532–535as dedicated pipe, 101LCs and, 31nonlinear functionality inserted at, 75in static routing rules, 507

Transmission constraints, 333–335Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), 727Transmission impairments, of optical fibers

attenuation, 175–177dispersion, 177–183fiber geometry and fiber cables, 174–175nonlinear effects, 183–187in WANs, 75

Transmission matrix (TM), 875Transmission processor (TP)

functionality of, 85–86logical signal converted in, 31, 67–68OLPs and, 69, 75in overlay processor, 69

Transmission scheduling, 785Transmission signal, 31, 68Transmitter edge, 606Transparent networks, 87

advantages and disadvantages of, 10–11,59

definition of, 10–11, 11n6fault isolation in, 733hardware of, 58with logically routed overlay, 94MAN, 844–845multicast connections in, 500National Transparent Optical Network

Consortium and, 840ONNs in, 12opaque networks v., 296origins of, 20OSPF in, 741–742OXC, 58, 293–295physical topology of, 12, 30, 41waveband basis of, 60wavelength-routed, 122WDM, 829, 852–853

Transparent wavelength conversion,275–278

Transponder, 63, 76Transport networks, 91–93, 715Transport plane, 714






962 Index

Transversal filter equalizer, 233Transverse electric (TE) polarization, 267Transverse magnetic (TM) polarization, 267Tree decomposition

illustration of, 564–565LDCs and, 566using MBFS-d, 562–563objectives of, 561procedure for, 560–561

Tree topology, 41, 85–86, 95, 100, 103. Seealso Light-tree; Tree decomposition

for APS, 697broadcast star emulated by, 145–146channel allocation on, 566–567choosing of, for connection, 566coloring of, 522edge-disjoint, 560–561embedded in mesh network, 140–142,

147–149fiber-disjoint, 634–636in hypernets, 158, 634–636in LLNs, 513–515MBFS-d generating, 567multicast, 100, 559–560, 631–632in optical path-based protection, 697in Petersen networks, 521–528realization of, 145–149routing and, 561–566, 634–636spanning, 560–561, 697, 871Steiner, 501–502, 635waveband disjoint, 522

TSI. See Time slot interchangeTT-FR. See Tunable transmitters with fixed

receiversTT-TR. See Tunable transmitters with tunable

receiversTunability

of FBGs, 264in fixed-frame scheduling, 373–376of FP filters, 261of lasers, 210–212of MI filters, 262of ORs, 73–74, 110–111, 258of subcarriers, 351–352traffic constraints and, 368of transceivers, 109–111of transmitters, 109, 118–119, 331, 346,

394–395of TT-FRs, 118–119, 331, 346, 394–395of TT-TRs, 118–119, 331, 346, 394–395VCSEL, 212

in wavelength conversion, 276, 779–782,793–794

of wavelength converters, 793–794Tunable optical wavelength converter (TOWC)

module, 779–782, 793–794Tunable transmitters with fixed receivers

(TT-FR), 109, 118–119, 331, 346,394–395

Tunable transmitters with tunable receivers(TT-TR), 109, 118–119, 331, 346,394–395

Tunable wavelength converters, 779–782,793–794

Tunnel Identification, 748T-WDMA. See Time division

multiplexing/time wavelength-divisionmultiple access

Twisted Benes switch fabric, 66Twisted nematic crystal, 254Two-dimensional time-frequency code

division multiple access (T-F-CDMA),353

Two-fiber bidirectional line-switched ring(BLSR), 656–657, 676

Two-fiber shared-protection ring (SPRING),454–455

Two-fiber unidirectional path-switched ring(UPSR), 660

Two-fiber UPSR. See Two-fiber unidirectionalpath-switched ring

Two-tier networksadvantages of, 583grooming in, 582–583protection model in, 584

UDP. See User Datagram ProtocolUltralong-haul networks

commercial network deployments and,856–858

mesh architectures and, 856WADM architectures and, 854–856, 862

Unamplified systems, 185–186Unbalanced traffic, 370–371Unbuffered networks

general packet format for, 762–763nodes in, 760–763OPS in, 759–764slotted, 761–763switch controller rule in, 763unslotted, 761, 763, 784–785

Unconstrained algorithms, 486






Index 963

Uncontrolled networks. See Static networksUncontrolled scheduling, 401–403Undirected hypergraphs, 613, 623, 625,

628–630, 639–640, 873–874Undirected hypernets, 608–610, 635–636Undirected Kautz hypergraph

address shift routing in, 625constructed from Kautz digraph, 639–640converted to directed, 623ShuffleNet compared with, 628–630

Undirected star network, 103n7Unfairness factor, 490Unfeasible paths, 511UNI. See User-Network InterfaceUnidirectional path-protected ring (UPPR),

672–673Unidirectional path-switched ring (UPSR)

BLSR-UPSR interconnected architecturesof, 659–663

BLSR v., 655–657fiber cuts and, 655–656nonrevertive v. revertive switching in, 655two-fiber, 660UPSR-UPSR interconnected architectures

of, 659, 663Unsaturated gain, 194–195Unslotted networks

performance advantages of, 763unbuffered, 761, 763, 784–785

UPPR. See Unidirectional path-protected ringUPSR. See Unidirectional path-switched ringUpstream label object, 749User Datagram Protocol (UDP), 727User-Network Interface (UNI), 720

parameters requested for, 743signaling and, 742–745in wavelength-on-demand, 858

Variable bit rate payload, 818Variable optical attenuator (VOA), 241VC. See Virtual connectionVCI. See Virtual channel identifierVCSEL. See Vertical cavity surface emitting

laserVertex coloring, 450–451Vertical cavity surface emitting laser

(VCSEL), 205structure of, 211tunability of, 212

Virtual buffering, 765Virtual channel identifier (VCI), 82

Virtual connection (VC), 11multicast, in hypernets, 631–632in multitier networks, 582

Virtual path identifier (VPI), 82Virtual private network (VPN)

MPLS allowing, 722, 728optical, 858–859requirements of, 5–6, 8

Virtual private optical network (VPON),858–859

VOA. See Variable optical attenuatorVoice-over IP (VoIP), 5–6, 8Void-filling scheduling algorithms, 802–803VoIP. See Voice-over IPVPI. See Virtual path identifierVPN. See Virtual private networkVPON. See Virtual private optical network

WADM. See Wavelength add/drop multiplexer(WADM)

Walks, of graphs, 870–871, 874WAN. See Wide area networksWASPNET testbed. See WAvelength Switch

optical Packet NETwork testbedWaveband multiplexing, 37–38Waveband reuse factor, 635Waveband-routed networks (WRNs), 28,

37–39constraints on, 38multistar, 542–543NCs in, 133–151RWA in, 442–484static RCA in, 507–544wavelength requirements of, 432–434

Waveband routing, 553–555Waveband-selective directional couplers, 57Waveband-selective switch (WSS), 37, 56–57Waveband-space switch (WSS)

dynamic nodes and, 56–60hardware realization of, 58three-stage realization of, 56–57time scale of, 60–61

Waveband spectrum partitioning, 35,38–39

Waveband switching layer, 60, 296–297Waveguide dispersion, 173Waveguide grating, 259, 263–265Waveguide imperfections, 176Wavelength add/drop multiplexer (WADM),

58AWG-based, 271–272






964 Index

Wavelength add/drop multiplexer (cont.)long-haul networks and, 854–856, 862Mach-Zehnder, 264–265in MANs, 842MEMS-based, 270–271MZ, 264–265NAS combined with, 58, 70, 131physical-layer simulation of, 301–302vendor generic node architecture for, 851

Wavelength assignmentin double fiber pair access, 456NAS/ONN connection determining, 128rule for, in static networks, 44–46for ShuffleNet, 156in single fiber pair access case, 456–457

Wavelength bands, 176Wavelength-brokering operational model,

859–860Wavelength bypass edge, 606Wavelength continuity, 37–38

channel assignment constrained by, 127,139, 450

λ-channels and, 63through OLPs, 76

Wavelength conversion (WC), 801. See alsoWavelength converters

all-optical, 275–278contention resolution by, 778–783by DFC, 65, 276–277, 281as enabling technology, 274–281, 789in OBS, 801opaque, 278–281optical header processing combined with,

790optoelectronic, 275packet loss probabilities in, 767–770,

780–781shared, 781–782transparent, 275–278tunability in, 276, 779–782, 793–794waveband switching layer implemented by,

274Wavelength converters, 63–67

DFC as, 65, 276–277, 281linear, 64shared, 781–782transponders as, 63tunable, 779–782, 793–794

Wavelength cross-connect (WXC), 846Wavelength demultiplexer (WDMUX), 44–45Wavelength-dilated switch, 273–274

Wavelength division multiple access(WDMA), 390–395. See also Subcarriermultiplexing/wavelength divisionmultiple access/subcarrier multipleaccess; Time divisionmultiplexing/time-wavelength divisionmultiple access

cost issues for, 833–836economic case for, 836electronic cross-connect in, 835

Wavelength division-multiplexed (WDM)mesh network

algorithms for, 603–606grooming in, 602–607ILP for, 603–604lightpath edges in, 606

Wavelength division-multiplexed (WDM) ringalgorithms for, 600–602asymptotic relative costs for, 602cost issues for, 832–834cross-connect capabilities of, 602economic case for, 834fiber exhaust in, 832–833grooming in, 598–602interconnected, 302–308RCA in, 600self-healing, 672–677SONET over, 598–602as SPRING, 453–458, 673–675as UPPR, 672–673

Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM), 34,37, 93. See also Dense wavelengthdivision multiplexing; Wavelengthdivision-multiplexed mesh network;Wavelength division-multiplexed ring

advantages of, 828–829amplets and, 204–205coarse, 17, 177, 205cost issues for, 831–832deflection routing and, 767equalization in, 233–234fiber link capacity increased by, 2, 10history of, 18–20in MANs, 35–36, 843–847, 851–854modulation formats in, 229noise power and, 48OBS and, 800–801OLS network example of, 808–809open v. closed installations of, 835–837OPS in, 61physical-layer simulation of, 301–311






Index 965

in PONs, 416–420, 422–424in SONET, 80–81SPRINGs in, 673–675supercontinuum light in, 209transparency and, 829, 852–853in transparent networks, 852–853trend toward, 80UPPR in, 672–673WMUX for, 44–45, 56

Wavelength grid, 35Wavelength interchange. See also

Wavelength-interchanging cross-connectblocking improved by, 497bridges in, 460–462fairness improved by, 491, 494, 498–499full, 468–469, 470–471, 493–495limited, 469–470in Monte Carlo approach to RCA, 484by OLPs, 76–77as optimization problem, 465–471,

493–494in SONET over WDM rings, 599sparse, 460–461, 469–470, 494, 496

Wavelength-interchanging cross-connect(WIXC), 63, 766

arbitrary connectivity and, 457–458bottlenecks removed by, 274implementation of, 65–66OXCs and, 65

Wavelength-link edge, 606Wavelength list, 486–487, 499Wavelength mixing, 789Wavelength multiplexer (WMUX), 44–45,

56Wavelength-on-demand, 858Wavelength requirements

extra fibers reducing, 476–477for full connectivity, 456of LLNs, 433of logical topology, 444of LRNs, 433of waveband-routed networks, 432–434of wavelength-routed networks, 432–434,

471Wavelength-routed networks (WRNs), 23, 28,

36, 38–39, 66–67, 94–95, 135–136,162–163

backward compatibility in, 461λ-channels recognized in, 122connection rearrangement in, 124–126dynamic RCA in, 484–507

as dynamic single-wavelength-per-waveband networks, 133

embedding problem in, 594full connectivity in, 479geographical reach limitation in, 577–578growth of, 440, 478–479LLNs compared with, 150–151, 527multicast-capable, 498, 501–505multifiber links v. multiple wavelengths in,

126multipoint connection set up in, 122–123,

122n16multistar, 462–464NCs in, 94–95, 122–133ONN functionality in, 133optical connection set up in, 443physical topology of, 434–442point-to-point connections in, 122–123purely optical approaches in, 577, 578RCA in, 124–133, 433, 442–544reconfiguration in, 432splitter placement in, 506star, 123–124, 149static RCA in, 507–544topologies of, 434–442transparent, 122wavelength requirements of, 432–434,

471Wavelength-routed optical burst switching

(WR-OBS), 805–806Wavelength-selective coupler (WSC), 191Wavelength-selective cross-connect (WSXC)

formation of, 855in OPS networks, 57

Wavelength-selective switch (WSS), 288–297conversion of, 273design of, 259MEMS-based multiwavelength, 270–271OADM, 289–293in optical filtering technology, 258–259OXC, 293–297

Wavelength selectivity, 123Wavelength spectrum partitioning, 34–35, 38WAvelength Switch optical Packet NETwork

(WASPNET) testbed, 796–798Wavelength terminal multiplexer (WTM), 80,

830Wavenumber, 172WC. See Wavelength conversionWDM. See Wavelength division multiplexing






966 Index

WDM mesh network. See Wavelengthdivision-multiplexed mesh network

WDM ring. See Wavelengthdivision-multiplexed ring

WDMUX. See Wavelength demultiplexerWide area networks (WANs)

amplifiers in, 190–191current architecture considerations in,

854–856hybrid approaches to, 14–16MWNA in, 29–30OPS and, 61optical approaches to, 14–16physical topologies of, 438–439transmission impairments in, 75

Wide-sense nonblocking switches,51–52

WIXC. See Wavelength-interchangingcross-connect

WMUX. See Wavelength multiplexerWRN. See Waveband-routed networks;

Wavelength-routed networksWR-OBS. See Wavelength-routed optical

burst switchingWSC. See Wavelength-selective couplerWSS. See Waveband-selective switch;

Waveband-space switch;Wavelength-selective switch

WSXC. See Waveband switching layer;Wavelength-selective cross-connect

WTM. See Wavelength terminal multiplexerWXC. See Wavelength cross-connect

Y-branch switch, 248, 284






Documents

Index [assets.cambridge.org] · 2008. 11. 13. · T-WDMA scheme for, 109–110 BS. See Base station B&S OADM. See Broadcast and Select optical add/drop multiplexer Bubble switch,