Increasing Opportunities for Learning in Small Classes

Maurice Galton

Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge

Teaching in Small Classes

• There is a perception gap: Teachers claim individuals given more attention but research shows more use of class instruction

• There is a relatively small increase in interactions known to improve performance (open questions, sustained dialogue, increased feedback etc.)

• No marked increase in pupil-pupil conversations

“A persistent stubborn continuity in the character of instruction” (Cuban 1984)

Teaching is not only a rational activity it is also an emotional one.

Unclear terminology: active learning, experiential learning, meaningful learning etc.

Theory not internalized so abandoned in the face of expediency

Too many external constraints

Pre and Post Literacy Hour Questions (KS2)

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Teaching & Learning as Emotional Work

Both teaching and learning involves the heart as well as the head. Pupils can worry about what the teacher or their peers might think of them if the fail to get the ‘right’ answer.

Teachers also want the respect of colleagues, parents, pupils etc by maintaining an orderly classroom with ‘good’ results.

Sometimes pupils bargain their good behaviour for easier work or for considerable guidance.

Three Views about Learning As an outcome: enduring change in knowledge, skill

etc. resulting from exposure to some experience. Short term gains in knowledge as opposed to development leading to understanding

As a process: transformation of information in solving cognitive problems

As an apprenticeship: doing in the community as a way of becoming a full member of that community

Teachers’ Perceptions of Learning

• Internalizing knowledge, skill

• working with rules and patterns

• concrete v abstract representations

• Understanding and organizing ideas

• |Reasoning

• understanding casual relationships

• Planned systematic enquiry

• Problem solving

• Creativity

• Value grounded thinking

Moseley et al’s (2003) Classification of thinking

4 Families identified from 55 approaches:1 Integrated models (7): Sternberg’s model of

developing expertise; Demetriou’s model of mind, personality and self

2 Instructional models (24): Bloom’s revised taxonomy; Biggs & Collis’ Solo Taxonomy

3 Critical thinking models (11): Halpern’s thinking criteria and dispositions

4 Cognitive Structure models (13): Guilford, Piaget, Gardner etc.

Cognitive Skills for Learning (Moseley et al. 2003)

In fo rm ation sk illsA ccess in g s to red

& record ed kn ow led g e

B as ic U n d ers tan d in gfo rm in g con cep tsO rg a in iz in g id eas

A d d in g to m ean in g

P rod u c tive th in k in gR eason in g

P rob lem -so lvin gC rea tive th in k in g

S tra teg ic &R eflec tive Th in k in g

Watkins’ Three Ways of Learning1 Learning as being taught (LBT): a process of

knowledge acquisition

2 Learning as Individual Sense Making (LIS): making sense of experience (as in the accumulation of wealth, property etc.)

3 Learning as building knowledge with others (LBKO): meaning constructed through social activity, especially talk.

Failure to LearnLBT LIS LBKO

Lack of ability Lack of suitableexperience

Constructedknowledge not linkedto accepted norms,standards etc.

Lack of correctdisposition

Inappropriatethinking

Lack of well plannedlesson structure

No reflection onprevious experience

No application toother contexts

Some Principles for Learning and Teaching

• We need working theories as with science where particle or wave theory of matter is applied to specific situations. It is not a question of teaching for transmission vs. understanding but of using both as appropriate.

• The main determining factor will be the knowledge demands of the instructional task: whether procedural, conceptual or metacognitive.

Ideas About Learning

In fo rm ation p rocess in g'm in d as com p u ter'

C on s tru c tivism'sh ared u n d ers tan d in g

o f ou r world an d th ose in it ''ta lk d rives learn in g '

E xp ertise'A u tom atic ity'

'E xecu tive C on tro l'

L earn in g

Ways of Knowing I

kn ow in g th is o rth a t ab ou t som eth in g

teach in g asin s tru c tion

kn ow in g ru lesfo r u se o f

in fo rm ation

kn ow in g h owto u se

in fo rm ation

in fo rm ation p rocess in g

P roced u ra l kn ow led g e

Teaching as Instruction

Provide an Advanced Organizer Check what pupils know with quick, snappy

question & answer session Present new knowledge Provide for practice which emphasises application Extend practice by homework Give feedback which is informative Review new learning

Learning by Direct Instruction I

The findings are most relevant when the object is to teach explicit procedures,

concepts or a body of knowledge

The findings are less relevant where skills to be taught cannot be broken down

into explicit steps

(Rosenshine 1987)

Uses of Direct Instruction

• Mathematical procedures

• English grammar• Scientific information• Historical facts• Using maps• Practical skills

• Mathematical problem solving

• Extended writing• Scientific

investigations• Discussing

controversial social science topics

Ways of Knowing II

kn ow led g e o fid eas

teach in g asen q u iry

u n d ers tan d in g an dap p lica tion o f

p rin c ip les

recog n it ion o fc lasses

'b e lon g in g ''n o t b e lon g in g '

con s tru c tivism

con cep tu a l kn ow led g e

Teaching as EnquiryEngaging in complex cognitive processes requires thoughtful discourse. Pupils are invited to make predictions, debate alternatives, etc. This can take place during interactive whole class teaching or during peer interaction in pairs or groups and should involve:

Placing the topic in the wider, meaningful context (big picture)

Using ‘open ended’ questions Allowing suitable ‘wait times’ Encouraging explanations or elaboration of

answers.

Ways of Knowing III

kn ow led g e o fon e 's cog n it ive

p rocesses

teach in g assca ffo ld in g

ap p lica tion o fap p rop ria te

th in k in gs tra teg ies

M on ito rin gp rocesses an d

id en tifyin gerro rs

D eve lop in g E xp ert p e rfo rm an ce

M etacog n it ive kn ow led g e

Teaching as ScaffoldingHelping pupils to learn how to ‘think for themselves’ requires temporary frameworks. They reduce ‘the degrees of freedom a child must manage in the task to prevent error rather than induce it’. (Bruner)

Several scaffolds have been identified from the teacher effectiveness literatureProviding models of appropriate response (e.g. model answers, demonstrations etc.)Providing prompts and feedback as in guided discoveryIdentifying potential problems from the outset

Teaching as Scaffolding

As identified in the cognitive strategy research these latter scaffolds appear more effective in teaching higher cognitive skills.

Rehearsing an argument (pupils explain to class/group in words their reasoning e.g.their answer to a maths problem) Cue Cards ( as in writing frames ) Self-evaluation checklists (requires pupils to check through the process by which they reached a conclusion and to indicate how it might be improved

8 Key Characteristics of an effective small class

1 Pupil Exploration usually preceded formal presentation.

2 Initially, tasks were structured to limit the range of alternatives pupils could explore.

3 There was a high proportion of pupil talk, much of it occurring between pupils.

4 The metaphors “teacher as a listener” and teacher as “guide on the side rather than sage on the stage” were characteristic.

8 Key Characteristics of an effective small class

5 Pupils used a variety of means and media to communicate their ideas

6 pupils’ questions and comments often determined the focus of classroom discourse

7 the ethos encouraged pupils to offer speculative answers to challenging questions.

8 lessons often required pupils to reflect critically on the procedures and methods used

A Poem as a Final Thought

Sent as a present from Annam

A red Cockatoo

Coloured like the peach blossom

Speaking with the speech of men

And they did what they always do to the learned

and the eloquent

They took a cage with stout bars

And they shut it up inside

(8th Century Chinese Poem)

Some Key References

Wood, D. (1998) How Children Think and Learn,Oxford: Blackwells

Moseley, D et al.(2003)Thinking Skill Frameworks for Post 16 Learners, An Evaluation Report to Learning Skills Development Council: University of Newcastle Upon Tyne.

Watkins, C (2003) Learning: A sense-makers guide, London: Association of Teachers and Lecturers (ATL).