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INANNA'S DESCENT AND UNDRESSING THE DEAD AS A DIVINE LAW*

by Dina Katz - Leiden Dedicated to the memory of Prof. Raphi Kutscher (Summary:) Was Inanna tricked by Ere!kigal? A close reading of "Inanna's Descent",

in particular the episode describing the gradual removal of Inanna's attire at the gates the Netherworld, seems to suggest that the gate keeper's reference to the me and the garza was a false assertion, and that Inanna was actually tricked by Ere!kigal. If this suggestion is correct, then there is no basis for the claim that ancient Mesopotamians believed that the dead arrived naked in the Netherworld, nor perhaps that the Netherworld was locked behind seven gates. Since these claims are based on "I!tar's Descent" as well as on "Inanna's Descent", the relationship between these two myths is evaluated here as well.

A current view among scholars is that the dead arrived in the

Netherworld naked.1 This view, no doubt, is based on the Sumerian myth "Inanna's Descent" (ID)2 and its Akkadian version, "I!tar's Descent" (I!D).3 The dependence of the Akkadian myth on the Sumerian is unquestionable, but should we conclude on the basis of their literary evidence that the Mesopotamians believed that the dead always arrived naked in the Netherworld? The textual and the archaeological evidence of the third millennium does not support this conclusion.

1. The archaeological and the textual evidence

Archaeological finds from graves testify that the dead were buried dressed with their personal belongings. To mention just one but obvious example, the grave of Pu-abi in Ur.4 The queen was wearing a crown and the upper part of her body was covered with beads made of gold, silver and precious stones. These were probably attached to a garment. A belt of beads, and more beads arranged in rows from the neck down to the waistline suggest that they were sewn to a bodice garment. Other finds also

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indicate that the bodies which had been placed in this grave were not naked. Since clothes are made of perishable materials, the archaeologist sometimes finds it difficult to identify garments in the excavations. However, the assemblies of objects scattered in graves, in particular weapons and personal possessions such as seals, jewellery and beauty appliances, which symbolise the identity and social status of the deceased, point to a belief that the dead retained their social status in the Netherworld. As the dead were not buried stripped of the objects that symbolised their status,5 it is hard to believe that they were conceived as naked.

A text from presargonic Adab supports the archaeological evidence.6 In a text concerning the sale of land to Eiginimpa'e the énsi of Adab we find two lists of items intended for the grave of Billalla the sanga of the temple of Ke!, and his wife Lalla for when she dies. Each list contains luxurious objects: weapons, jewellery and garments of various sorts. One may argue that at least some of the goods were intended as gifts for the Netherworld's gods (see further "The Death of Ur-Nammu"), but a donkey and a chariot on Billalla's list (i:7-8) would certainly have been given for his use. Some items which the lists have in common imply that they too, were included for the use of the deceased. In particular, the two boxwood beds (l. ii:2 and iii:3) and two articles of cloth, aktumtúg (i:12 and ii:14) and NItúg (i:13 and iii:1).7 The lists differ in content and quantity, and since Billalla's grave goods seem richer and include more weapons while his wife's contain more jewellery, it seems that the contents signify their relative social status. In light of the variety and significance of their grave goods it seems implausible that they were expected to arrive naked in the Netherworld.

The Sumerian composition "Death of Urnammu"8 sheds more light on the question. This text lists the gifts that Ur-Nammu, the dead king of Ur presented to the main gods of the Netherworld. A comparison between this list and the passage in ID describing in detail the process of undressing Inanna is very telling. Ur-Nammu's gifts included garments and other items, some of which were like those removed from Inanna's body upon her entering the gates of the Netherworld. Ere!kigal received three garments (l. 98): túg-dugud, túgsuluhu and túgpàla-nam-nin-a. The third garment, a pala-garment of queenship, was stripped of Inanna as she entered the seventh gate of the Netherworld (ID l. 159-160). Ur-Nammu gave a tu-di-da9 made of gold and silver to ddìm-pi-me-kù-ge10 (l. 121-122). A toggle-pin tu-di-da was removed from Inanna's breast at the fourth gate (ID l. 144-145). Ninazimua, the wife of Ningi!zida, received from Ur-Nammu a

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measuring rod made of lapis lazuli and a reed of one ninda (a measuring reed?, l. 125). These very objects were taken from Inanna as she entered the sixth gate (ID l. 154-155). The Netherworld gods also received other garments and objects which were carried on the body such as weapons, ornaments and seals. The nature of the gifts presented by Ur-Nammu to the gods of the Netherworld proves that the gods themselves were not naked. Inanna, a goddess herself, was not yet dead when she arrived naked before Ere!kigal. Therefore, the issue in ID cannot be a general prohibition of garments in the Netherworld. Since the garments and objects stripped from Inanna were similar to some of Ur-nammu's gifts, the problem must hinge upon their significance to Inanna and her intention to wear them in the Netherworld. The description of Inanna's undressing is, therefore, irrelevant to the state of the dead in general, and can not serve as proof that residents of the Netherworld were naked. This appears to be a unique case of undressing, probably restricted to Inanna only.

2. The description of undressing Inanna and its significance

The idea that undressing Inanna during her entrance to the Netherworld was exclusively designed for her gives rise to three questions: why wasn't she allowed in dressed; why did the gate keeper present this requirement as the fulfilment of the Netherworld's me and garza; and what was the idea behind undressing her in a long process of seven stages?

2.1 Why was Inanna ordered to undress? Considering that Inanna was wearing garments and objects similar to

some of Ur-Nammu's presents to the gods of the Netherworld, it seems that these objects were not the problem as such. Rather, the problem seems to be their symbolic value and divine power in relation to Inanna.

Sladek maintained that Inanna's attire symbolised her sexual powers expressing the creation of life.11 In that case, Inanna's vitality and creativity are portrayed as being opposed to the deathly powers of Ere!kigal. This opposition was certainly part of the literary development of I!D, but it is not central to the plot of ID. The Sumerian myth does not deal with the effect of Inanna's descent on the living (or the dead), nor with the Netherworld, but concentrates on her manoeuvre and the consequences it had for her. Her goal was to seize control over the Netherworld. Sexuality was part of Inanna's divine properties, but for the above mentioned purpose her sexual powers were not required. Applying them she might even risk the

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Netherworld's existence, in which case she would not rule the Netherworld, but overrule it. It seems, therefore, that Inanna's garments, including the divine symbols, vested upon her majestic power, which would enable her to appropriate the command of the Netherworld. Ere!kigal's plan was, therefore, to bring her in subjugated (l.122/164). The importance of this attire to the plot of the Sumerian myth is hinted at the beginning through the detailed description of her dressing up (ID: 14-15, the Akkadian myth I!D omits this description altogether).

This very attire, belonging to Inanna and worn by her, threatened Ere!kigal's supremacy in the Netherworld and put the world order at risk. Hence, it was vital to strip her in order to protect Ere!kigal and the Netherworld from the threat she posed. For this reason, she had to arrive before Ere!kigal naked.

2.2 Why did the gate keeper justify undressing Inanna as a

requirement of the me and the garza of the Netherworld? Other than ID, sources prior to the Old Babylonian period do not

provide evidence that the dead had to arrive naked in the Netherworld. From "Death of Ur-Nammu" we learned that some of the gifts that Ur-Nammu gave to the Netherworld gods were similar to items removed from Inanna's body. Consequently, the instruction to undress could not have been a divine law, sacred rite or a regular procedure, but an order imposed exclusively on Inanna. Why, then, would the gate keeper justify undressing Inanna by the name of the me and the garza of the Netherworld?12

The instructions of the gate keeper were aimed at dismantling Inanna of her divine symbols in order to subjugate her and thereby sabotage her intention of becoming queen of the Netherworld. Justifying it by the me and the garza is a conclusive argument. However, since no one else had to be naked in the Netherworld, it seems that portraying this requirement to Inanna as an obligation forced by the me and the garza of the Netherworld was a trick. Through this deceptive assertion the gate keeper successfully tricked Inanna so that, despite her protests, she agreed to be undressed and consequently abandoned all her divine powers.

2.3 Why was Inanna not undressed at once, but in seven stages?

Different entities, divine or human, descending to the Netherworld probably wear different garments and items. If undressing them is stipulated by me, one would expect that it would be directly and completely fulfilled

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at the first gate. Inanna, however, was undressed gradually. As the me and the garza were used deceptively as the pretext, the question remains why was she not completely undressed at the first gate? The prolonged procedure appear to serve two functions. The first pertains to the plot. Had Inanna been undressed completely at the first gate, she might have realised that her conspiracy could not be accomplished, and so change her mind and return to heaven immediately. In that case Inanna would not have been properly punished for her intrigues and there would not be a story. The second function is literary, an action narrated as a gradual process serves the narrator as an instrument to build interest and suspense in the audience.

The reason seven was chosen as the number of stages was probably because seven is a topological number.

This episode which narrates in such detail how Inanna was tricked by a false assertion to become naked and lose her divine powers have some ironic overtones. The myth begins with an account of the temples and offices that Inanna lost as a result of her descent to the Netherworld (ID:4-13).13 Thus the all-knowing story-teller already hints at the consequences. He then describes the preparations she made: gradually donning her attire (ID:14-26), then instructing Nin!ubur what to do in case she was trapped in the Netherworld (ID:26-68)14. By including instructions for Nin!ubur in the plot, the story-teller signals to the listener that Inanna would indeed be trapped but rescued. The episode recounting the gradual procedure by which Inanna was donning her attire (ID:14-26) directly succeeds the list of things that she lost as a result of her descent to the Netherworld on the one hand (ID:4-13), and parallels the episode describing how she was gradually undressed on the other hand. Therefore, there are at least three counts of irony in the detailed account of her entrance to the Netherworld. Firstly, in her arrival with such glory at the gate, fully dressed for the occasion of becoming queen of the Netherworld. Secondly, because she was losing her divine powers as she lost her temples and offices. Thirdly, because the audience familiar with burial customs know that Inanna is tricked, thus she was punished for her arrogant plan even before she tried to implement it and to force Ere!kigal from her throne.15

There is another, more obvious, element of irony in this episode. It is ironical that just as Ere!kigal succeeded in tricking Inanna to enter the Netherworld and lose her divine powers, so would she herself be tricked later to release Inanna and let her leave the Netherworld.16 The irony is, of course, from the perspective of the all-knowing story teller because

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literarily, the two tricks complement one another and balance the narrative. The literary unit devoted to Inanna's preparations (ID:ll. 14-68) actually hints at both tricks. The effectiveness she sought in her attire failed to help her because of Ere!kigal's trick. However, Ere!kigal did not prevail because, following the instructions given to her by Inanna, Nin!ubur induced Enki to interfere and trick Ere!kigal herself to release Inanna.

The discussion so far has raised some doubts concerning the validity of the conventional view that the Sumerians conceived the dead as naked. It seems to me that we were mislead by the the gate keeper's answer to Inanna, which justifys her undressing as a requirement of the me and the garza of the Netherworld. Thus, archaeological and other textual evidence pointing to different burial practices have been overlooked. As I have tried to show above, the gate keeper's claim was devised especially for Inanna, to force her to lose her divine powers and so bring her subjugated to the Netherworld. If this interpretation is correct, then this claim was formulated exclusively for the literary purpose of a myth about Inanna's descent. It did not apply in general, and did not constitute a part of the Sumerian concept of death and Netherworld. This conclusion however, has repercussions on another conventional view, namely that the Netherworld was encircled by seven walls or had seven gates. Truly, we don't have enough evidence to check the validity of this assumption. However, in view of the literary function of leading Inanna through many gates, to ensure that she falls into the trap set for her, it stands to reason that the designation of seven gates was also devised for the literary purposes of this particular myth. Consequently, Inanna's sequential entrance through seven gates of the Netherworld has clear literary functions: to develop the plot and move it forward; to increase the tension towards the climax; to amuse the audience by ridiculing the arrogant Inanna who conspired to change the world order and failed by an obvious trick. The combination of these three functions may indicate that the episode in question does not reflect the Sumerian concept of death and Netherworld, and even diverges from it intentionally.

3. The relationship between "Inanna's Descent" and "I!tar's Descent"

The dependence of I!D on ID is quite obvious. At face value, I!D seems to be an abbreviated Akkadian version of the Sumerian myth.17 However, a closer look at the compositions reveals some significant differences

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between them.18 It is first worth noting that in I!D the myth ends with I!tar's exit from the last gate.

To clarify the relationship between the two compositions, significant descriptions omitted by I!D, added to I!D and alterations (other than abridgements) made by I!D are listed below.

Six significant sections of ID are omitted from I!D : 1. list of offices and temples the goddess lost as a result of her

descent (ID:4- 13); 2. preparations made by Inanna for the journey; donning her attire

and instructing Nin!ubur (ID:14-72); 3. Ere!kigal's instructions to the gate keeper (ID:116-122); 4. the goddess' judgement by the Anunna and her death (ID:167-

172); 5. the implementation of instructions by Nin!ubur and Enki's

creatures (ID:173-216, 254-282); and 6. the reason for Inanna's desire to descend to the Netherworld. Six significant descriptions are added to I!D, in addition to those carried

over from ID : 1. description of the Netherworld (I!D:5-11); 2. I!tar's threats to break in and raise the dead (I!D:16-20); 3. Ere!kigal's rage and lament (I!D:31-36); 4. the impact I!tar's descent had on the living on earth (I!D:76-80); 5. Ere!kigal's cursing of A"u!unamir19 (I!D:103-108); and 6. the elaborate ceremony for I!tar's release (I!D: 109-125). A list of major alterations made in I!D to episodes carried over from ID: 1. I!tar threatens the gate keeper (I!D:16-20); 2. Ere!kigal's instruction to the gate keeper (I!D:37-38); 3. I!tar is punished by Ere!kigal (not by the Anunnaki) and diseases

are inflicted upon her (I!D:66-75); 4. Papsukkal (not Nin!ubur) is the agent for the I!tar's plea to the

gods (I!D:81-90); and 5. Ere!kigal's reaction to the demand of Ea's agent (I!D:100-109). When one looks at the list of descriptions added by I!D, one easily

notice that they all deal with death and the Netherworld. Additions to an existing story usually serve to stress a point. When they treat with the same

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theme, they reveal and emphasise the objective of the narrator. Therefore, if we take this myth as a whole we can conclude that it focuses on aspects of the Netherworld. By referring to the infertility on earth, mentioning the substitute and alluding to the mourning rite of Dumuzi,20 I!D also touches upon the related theme of the seasonal cycle.

The sections of ID which were omitted from I!D confirm this view. ID concentrate on Inanna herself, her preparations for the journey and the results it had upon her personally. Inanna stands in the centre of the stage while the Netherworld is merely a background, and Ere!kigal plays a secondary role. To clarify this point, discussion of individual omissions and alterations will follow.

The list of temples at the beginning of ID is omitted from I!D. This means that the editor of I!D did not consider the list of temples important to his plot. Consequently it cannot mark the road leading to the Netherworld.21 If it indicated the route, it would have been relevant to the myth concentrating on the Netherworld, and would have been included in it. The detailed description of the preparations Inanna made before she went to the Netherworld is also omitted from I!D. Here the all-knowing narrator of ID hinted at both her failure and rescue. The compelet omission of these components from I!D imply that except for the actual descent, the activities and fate of the goddess were considered irrelevant. Instead we find a description of the Netherworld. At this point the descent serves merely as an instrument to describe the Netherworld and its inhabitants.

Both compositions describe her arrival at the gate of the Netherworld in an unflattering manner. Yet, while ID narrates a dialogue with the gate keeper,22 the editor of I!D omited Inanna's presenting herself and the reason she gave for coming, but develops the theme of her aggressive arrival.

Ere!kigal's instructions to the gate keeper are designed to trick Inanna and trap her powerlessly in the Netherworld by two equally important means: a false assertion (the me and the garza) and a gradual undressing. This episode forecasts the outcome of her descent, and thus stresses Inanna's image as an ignorant in addition to being arrogant individual. I!D reduced this episode to a brief command saying that she should be treated in accordance with the garza. The abridgement of Ere!kigal's instructions, while the gradual entrance is fully drawn-out, emphasizes again that the interest of I!D was to bring I!tar into the Netherworld and points to the importance of her subjugation.

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Immediately after Inanna had pulled Ere!kigal from her throne and took her place, ID relates the appearance of the Anunna as the judges condemning Inanna to death and her subsequent execution. Then follows the account of Nin!ubur's role. This episode generated the view that the Anunna(ki) were the judges of the Netherworld. However, this view is not supported by other texts, Sumerian or Akkadian, not even by I!D23. By removing Ere!kigal from the throne and sitting on it herself, Inanna actually committed an act of usurpation. Thus she offended not only Ere!kigal but also the great gods, whose decision to entrust the me of the Netherworld to Ere!kigal she effectively challenged. She also violated the order of the pantheon and of the whole cosmos. Committing this very crime, Inanna had to be judged not merely by Ere!kigal but by the great gods.24 This episode is fundamental to ID. The usurpation elucidates Inanna's motive for descending to the Netherworld, and its outcome motivates the evolution of the plot: her death, her resurrection and her rescue. If her death had any effect on the fertility in nature, ID fails to mention it. It is beyond the scope of this myth. The editor of I!D, on the other hand, omitted this episode and instead described a judgement by Ere!kigal, executed by Namtar, then immediately gave an account of the effect I!tar's death had on nature. Furthermore, the editor transferred the mission to call for rescue from Nin!ubur, Inanna's personal major-domo, to Papsukkal, the vizier of the great gods. For I!D, the climax is rooted in the effect of I!tar's descent on the living on earth and not on the goddess herself. Further, her rescue is aimed at restoring fertility in nature, and not order in the pantheon. Thus he shifted the focus from the goddess' personal fate to the cosmological outcome of her death. The modification of this scene gives I!D a cosmological value missing in ID: the opposition between the realm of the dead and the realm of the living. To that end, the intervention of the Anunna(ki) is irrelevant to I!D, whereas putting the judgement in the hands of Ere!kigal reasserts her status as the queen of the Netherworld and thus emphasizes the conflict between the two worlds. Whereas this chain of events in ID exposed Inanna's motives, the alterations made in I!D blurred them completely. However, in light of the shift of focus, I!tar's motive is actually immaterial and that is probably the reason for not expressing it more clearly.

The rescue scene in I!D is generally an abridged version of a similar account in ID. However, note that whereas in ID Ere!kigal indifferently told the creatures to take Inanna, in I!D she reacted with a fit of rage followed

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by the cursing of A"u!unamir. The elaboration of Ere!kigal's reaction further stresses her central role in I!D and reflects the bitter conflict between the realm of the dead and the world of the living.

After the goddess had been revived, I!D completely diverges from ID. I!D omits the appearance of the Anunna, thus requiring a substitute for Inanna and giving rise to the the description of the galla who accompanied her, and the whole section dealing with the search for a substitute which culminated in the capture of Dumuzi. Instead we encounter an elaborated literary description of I!tar's ceremonial exit (ll.109-125), and an abrupt demand for a substitute (in the Ninvite version outside the seventh gate l.126, in the Assyrian after she was sprinkled with the water of life, between ll.118-119). The Akkadian myth then concludes with ritual instructions concerning the mourning of Dumuzi (ll. 127-138).

The inclusion of references to the mourning ritual of Dumuzi indicates that whoever composed I!D knew ID in the form we know it from OB manuscripts, that is, including an account of the capture of Dumuzi. The editor probably also knew that the Sumerian myth did not elaborate Inanna's exit. Why then, did he omit one and develop the other? One may conclude that the mourning ritual of Dumuzi which was practised until very late periods was important, while the myth recounting his capture ceased to be of interest.25 The goddess' ascent from the Netherworld, on the other hand, seems to be more important to I!D then it was to the Sumerians. Is seems that focusing on Inanna's descent, ascent and the mourning ritual of Dumuzi emphasizes the theme of seasonal cycle. These last two modifications of the plot clearly indicate that Inanna's fate, as well as Dumuzi's, was of no interest to the editor of I!D, only the cosmological meaning of the events. His concern was with the nature of the Netherworld and the conflict between the realm of the dead and the world of the living. For that purpose he took the materials of ID and reworked them, omitted some, altered some, added new ingredients, and created I!D.

ID is a myth about the fate of Inanna combined with a myth about the fate of Dumuzi. In ID the Netherworld only appears in the background as a venue for Inanna's manoeuvres. I!D is a cosmological myth about the Netherworld with Inanna in the background as an instrument to exemplify its nature and its conflict with the world of the living. Therefore we do not deal here with two versions of one myth but with two separate myths constructed from the same materials.

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* I wish to thank Prof. Edzard for his useful remarks. Any errors, however, remain my responsibility. 1 S.N. Kramer, "Death and Netherworld according to the Sumerian literary texts", IRAQ 22(1960) 65; Jacobsen, The Treasures of Darkness (1976) 57; J. Bottéro, "La mythologie de la mort en Mésopotamie Ancienne" in B. Alster (ed.) Death in Mesopotamia (1980) 33-34 (CRRAI 26e). 2 W.R. Sladek, Inanna's Descent to the Netherworld. Diss. John Hopkins University (1974). 3 CT 15, Pls. 45-48; KAR no. 1; R. Borger, BAL, Heft II, p. 86-93, Heft III taf. 56-59. 4 Woolley, UE vol. II, p. 73-91. 5 J.-D. Forest, Les pratiques funéraires en Mesopotamie du cinquième millénaire au débout du troisième. Etude de cas (1983). See especially pp. 144-146. 6 D.A. Foxvog, "Funerary Furnishings, in an Early Sumerian Text from Adab", in B. Alster (see no. 1) 67-75. 7 These garments were in ordinary use as we learn from their appearance in lists. NItúg see for example MAD 1, 169:4 (payment for bridal price), 187:21. aktumtúg ibid. 187:20. Note that in the latter reference, the two items appear in the same order as they appear in our text. 8 For the last edition of the text see S.N. Kramer, "The death of Ur-Nammu" in M.Mori (ed.) Near Eastern Studies Dedicated to H.I.H. Prince Takahito Mikasa on the Occasion of His Seventy-Fifth Birthday, (1991) 193-214. For previous publications see there note * 9 dudittum = toggle-pin, see H. Klein, ZA 73, p. 255 ff. 10 ddìm-pi-me-kù-ge is still enigmatic. see D. Katz, The Concept of Death and Netherworld in Mesopotamia According to the Sumerian Sources. Unpublished dissertation, Tel-Aviv University, 1993, vol I, p. 117 (in Hebrew). 11 Sladek (see n. 2) 85. 12 For the me's of the Netherworld in the context of ID see D. Katz, (see n. 10) Vol II, pp. **21-**23, no. 1.5.1. 13 W. Buccelati, in "The descent of Inanna as a ritual journey to Kutha?", SMS 4/3(1982) 53 ff. suggested that the list of temples mark the road to the Netherworld. The different number and order of temples mentioned in each manuscript of this list, as well as the inclusion of heaven, earth and two offices at its beginning, proves that this list cannot be the itinerary of her journey to the Netherworld. Sladek has already suggested that the sources for the lists are é-é!-dam lists, see Sladek (see n. 2) 184-186. However, the function of the list ID:4-13 remains problematic. The verb !ub means "to fall", transitive "to drop", "to neglect", yet, according to Enlil's and Nanna's answer to Nin!ubur (ID:190-191,205-206) Inanna wanted the Netherworld in addition to heaven. Bearing in mind Inanna's motive, it seems unreasonable that she would abandon or neglect these temples and offices voluntarily. Therefore, a literal translation of !ub seems unsuitable. Since the plot develops in a linear sequence, this passage cannot describe events that happened during the journey, because in that case it should have been located after the description of her preparations not precede it, and thus deviate from the sequence of the events. Therefore, from a literary point of view, it seems that ID:4-13 belongs with the introduction by the story teller. Consequently I suggest that the function of this list is not to describe what Inanna did on her way (as a part of her preparations which follow this list), but to tell the

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result of her descent. Accordingly, I interpret ID:4-13 as the list of things that Inanna lost as a result of her descent to the Netherworld and her consequence death. For further discussion see D. Katz, (see n. 10) Vol. II, pp. **13-**14, no. 1.1.1. 14 Note that ll. 26-27 parallel ll. 67-68 and thus mark the frame of this whole passage as a literary unit. 15 It was, supposedly, an act of usurpation which constitutes the reason for her death sentence, not merely the entrance to the Netherworld. This supposition is based not only on the ancient's view that usurpation was a serious crime, but mainly on Enlil's answer to Nin!ubur when she was pleading for Inanna's life (ID:191-194). In his answer Enlil implies that Inanna touched the me of the Netherworld. This could only have happened when she grabbed Ere!kigal and sat on Ere!kigal's throne. We should also remember that being a goddess, Inanna was immortal. For her, descent to the Netherworld did not necessarily mean death, and by losing her temples, offices and divine attributes she was already punished for her conspiracy. The fact that she was put to death indicates that she committed a serious crime. By actually trying to establish herself on the throne of the Netherworld she not only committed a severe crime against Ere!kigal, but also against the great gods who entrusted the me of the Netherworld to Ere!kigal. 16 See A. Draffkorn-Kilmer, UF 3(1971) 299-309. 17 See Sladek, (see n. 2) 34. 18 For a detailed comparison between the two compositions see Sladek, (n. 2) 35-51. However, due to different interpretation of various episodes, his conclusions are somewhat different to mine.. 19 W. van Soldt adds the following note. The name A#û!u-namir has generally been interpreted as “His appearance is bright/pleasant'' and has been thought to refer to the assinnu himself (Kilmer, (see n. 16) 300 note 10, 308 note 43; Labat, Les réligions du proche-orient 263; Bottéro, Mésopotamie 236; Dalley, Myths from Mesopotamia 161). Although this is possible in the context of I!D, the situation is quite different in other texts where the name means “His/its rising is brilliant” and refers to the rising of a celestial body. It occurs for the first time during the Kassite period in texts from Nippur, where it is frequently attested (Clay, Cassite Personal Names 142, and Bernhardt, TMH NF 5, 17; see Stamm, Namengebung 184 note 7, and 369, and CAD s.v. a!û 2m). This probably provides us with a terminus post quem for the original version of I!D. It should further be noted that the name A#û!u-namir could be given to both men and women, as is shown by the unpublished Middle Babylonian personnel roster CBS 3472, side B ii’ 5’: munus UD-"ú–zálag-ir dumu.munus pi-na–di-ni–ra-x[…] (note that the sign munus is not repeated in front of the name), and 8’: dumu.gaba pUD-"ú–zálag-ir dumu.a.ni (viz., psum–dAG). This means that in these texts the suffix -"u can only refer to the celestial body and not to the bearer of the name. 20 See now J.A. Scurlock, "K 164 (BA 2, p. 635): New Light on the Mourning rites for Dumuzi?", RA 86(1992), 53-67. 21 For the various reasons see above note 13. 22 Whether Inanna lied to him about her reasons needs more evidence. Gugalanna cannot be identified with Nergal since the latter became a major Netherworld god only in the second millennium, and to this transformation in his divine roles the myth Nergal and Ere!kigal is devoted. I tend to think that she did not lie, that Gugalanna was indeed Ere!kigal's husband, and that he should be identified with Enlil. In some Sumerian literary texts we can find evidence that, in combination, indicate a tradition according to which Ere!kigal was Enlil's spouse.

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Although we know ID from manuscripts dating to the OB period, it must have been composed much earlier, so that it may reflect such early tradition, but more evidence is needed. From a literary point of view it seems illogical that Inanna would lie on an obvious matter. For that kind of false reason the gate keeper could have turned her away immediately. The very fact that he went in to consult Ere!kigal suggests that her reason was not in question but whether a goddess of heaven, and a dangerous one, could be allowed into the Netherworld. 23 Note the order of the events, first Inanna met Ere!kigal, then she attacked her and only then did the Anunna appear. Inanna was not a human being and when she attacked Ere!kigal she was not dead. Therefore, judgement of the dead is not the case here. Furthermore, the Anunna are titled di-ku5-imin-bi "the seven judges" (ID:167) with no reference to the dead nor to the Netherworld. The few texts which refer to judgement of the dead usually mention Utu/Íama! as the judge, not the Anunnaki. In I!D as well as in "Death of Urnammu" Ere!kigal makes the decision. The most comprehensive study of the Anunna in the Sumerian sources is still Falkenstein, AS 16, pp. 127-140. See also D. Katz, (see n.10) Vol I, pp. 118-119, no. 3.3.9.9 24 Compare Enlil's expulsion from Nippur in "Enlil and Ninlil: ll. 56-59. 25 As far as I know no bilingual or translated version of it has yet been recovered.