“In Tulsa, Oklahoma and Salem, Oregon, New York City, and Sioux Falls, South Dakota and in cities and towns throughout this nation, a deaf or hard of hearing child sits in a classroom, full of promise, energy, and intelligence. This child like all other children in this nation, hungers to learn, has dreams to pursue, and has the native ability and determination to become a productive adult and partake in our American democracy. This student may be profoundly deaf and uses American Sign Language (ASL) as her native language or he may be hard of hearing and relies exclusively on aural/oral language.” National Agenda, 2004

Bilingual-Bicultural=Success for Deaf Children ?

Ryan Commerson, BARyan Commerson, BAMott Community CollegeMott Community College

Yasmina Bouraoui, MPH and Kylie SharpYasmina Bouraoui, MPH and Kylie SharpMichigan Department of Community HealthMichigan Department of Community Health

Early Hearing Detection and Intervention ProgramEarly Hearing Detection and Intervention Program

Faculty Disclosure Information

In the past 12 months, I have not had a significant In the past 12 months, I have not had a significant financial interest or other relationship with the financial interest or other relationship with the manufacturer(s) of the product(s) or provider(s) of manufacturer(s) of the product(s) or provider(s) of the service(s) that will be discussed in my the service(s) that will be discussed in my presentation. presentation.

This presentation will (not) include discussion of This presentation will (not) include discussion of pharmaceuticals or devices that have not been pharmaceuticals or devices that have not been approved by the FDA or if you will be discussing approved by the FDA or if you will be discussing unapproved or "off-label" uses of pharmaceuticals unapproved or "off-label" uses of pharmaceuticals or devices.or devices.

Current Deaf Education:A Dismal Failure

19651965: Congressional Babbidge Report : Congressional Babbidge Report declares Oral Education a failure.declares Oral Education a failure.

19881988: The Commission on Education of the : The Commission on Education of the Deaf – “the results of deaf education have Deaf – “the results of deaf education have failed to live up to our expectations and failed to live up to our expectations and investments.”investments.”

Why?

Basically, in layman terms, Deaf children Basically, in layman terms, Deaf children have been traditionally viewed as to have a have been traditionally viewed as to have a hearing disability as opposed to being hearing disability as opposed to being “bilingual.”“bilingual.”

When seen through a pair of disability When seen through a pair of disability lenses, American Sign Language is often lenses, American Sign Language is often viewed as an inhibitor to speech viewed as an inhibitor to speech development. (ie: SimCom)development. (ie: SimCom)

Misconceptions Debunked

Contrary to age old belief, American Sign Contrary to age old belief, American Sign Language Language isis a language. In 1955, Dr. a language. In 1955, Dr. William Stokoe conducted research and William Stokoe conducted research and proved “scientifically and unequivocally proved “scientifically and unequivocally that [ASL] meets the full criteria of that [ASL] meets the full criteria of linguistics phonology, morphology, syntax, linguistics phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and use of language to be semantics and use of language to be classified a fully developed language.”classified a fully developed language.”

Misconceptions con’t

Modes and Languages are two different things.Modes and Languages are two different things. Simultaneous Communication (SimCom) is not a Simultaneous Communication (SimCom) is not a

language. language. Total Communication (TC) is an educational Total Communication (TC) is an educational

philosophy which became, in practice, “SimCom.”philosophy which became, in practice, “SimCom.” English is not a mode of communication, it is a English is not a mode of communication, it is a

language. Therefore, ASL is not a mode of language. Therefore, ASL is not a mode of communication, it is a language.communication, it is a language.

Modes of Communication vs. Languages

SpeakingSpeaking WritingWriting SigningSigning GesticulatingGesticulating DrawingDrawing Signing Exact EnglishSigning Exact English Cued SpeechCued Speech

EnglishEnglish SpanishSpanish FrenchFrench American Sign Language American Sign Language

(ASL)(ASL) British Sign Language (BSL)British Sign Language (BSL) Lengua de SeLengua de Seññas de Costa Rica as de Costa Rica

(LESCO)(LESCO)

Simultaneous Communication:What does it look like?

Example #1: TELL SAY HORSE RABBIT NOExample #1: TELL SAY HORSE RABBIT NO Tell… tell the Easter Bunny … He said, “No, he’sTell… tell the Easter Bunny … He said, “No, he’s

Example #2: [-------unintelligible-------] YELLOW FLOWER [----] OTHER 1Example #2: [-------unintelligible-------] YELLOW FLOWER [----] OTHER 1 Those are purple flowers. I said yellow flowers. Get another oneThose are purple flowers. I said yellow flowers. Get another one ..

English made visible on hands (Signed English) is not accessible linguistically. (S.E.E. is English made visible on hands (Signed English) is not accessible linguistically. (S.E.E. is not a language). The child (4not a language). The child (4 thth grader) will need to be competent in English in order to grader) will need to be competent in English in order to understand “English on Hands” utterances. Spoken English is not readily accessible due understand “English on Hands” utterances. Spoken English is not readily accessible due to child’s varying degrees of deafness. Even with Cochlear Implants, the child does not to child’s varying degrees of deafness. Even with Cochlear Implants, the child does not hear 100%. hear 100%.

Examination by Dr. Robert Johnson and Examination by Dr. Robert Johnson and Dr. Carol Erting, “Unlocking the Curriculum:Dr. Carol Erting, “Unlocking the Curriculum:Principles for Achieving Access in Deaf Principles for Achieving Access in Deaf Education” (1989)Education” (1989)

Deaf Students Reading and Writing Scores:

Average 18-19 year old deaf student is reading at Average 18-19 year old deaf student is reading at the level of an average 8-9 year old hearing the level of an average 8-9 year old hearing student (Traxler, 2000)student (Traxler, 2000)

Deaf students increase their reading level about Deaf students increase their reading level about 0.3 grade levels per year compared to 1.0 grade 0.3 grade levels per year compared to 1.0 grade level for many public school hearing students level for many public school hearing students (Paul, 2003, citing Allen, 1986)(Paul, 2003, citing Allen, 1986)

Background: 1960’s - researchers recommend bilingual/bicultural 1960’s - researchers recommend bilingual/bicultural

approaches utilizing deaf student’s preferred/dominant approaches utilizing deaf student’s preferred/dominant language – American Sign language (ASL) and Englishlanguage – American Sign language (ASL) and English

1990’s – Deaf Educational professionals meet to 1990’s – Deaf Educational professionals meet to discuss ways to achieve bilingualismdiscuss ways to achieve bilingualism

2000 – Jim Cummins ‘Linguistic Interdependency 2000 – Jim Cummins ‘Linguistic Interdependency model’ developed – suggests that when a student’s first model’ developed – suggests that when a student’s first language (both spoken and written) is well developed, a language (both spoken and written) is well developed, a second language may be easily acquired and learnedsecond language may be easily acquired and learned

Background: Deaf studentsDeaf students

Typically have significant gaps in early Typically have significant gaps in early language acquisition and developmentlanguage acquisition and development

By age 5, are often just beginning the language By age 5, are often just beginning the language acquisition and development processacquisition and development process

Deaf students of Deaf parents-develop their Deaf students of Deaf parents-develop their bilingualism simultaneously; ASL often bilingualism simultaneously; ASL often becomes preferred or dominant languagebecomes preferred or dominant language

Deaf Students of Hearing parents-develop their Deaf Students of Hearing parents-develop their bilingualism sequentiallybilingualism sequentially

Background: Deaf students have one pathway (visual) to utilize in Deaf students have one pathway (visual) to utilize in

acquiring language(s)acquiring language(s)

Hearing students have two pathways (aural/oral and Hearing students have two pathways (aural/oral and visual) to acquire and learn language(s)visual) to acquire and learn language(s)

Hearing monolingual students Hearing monolingual students Use one language in both school and home Use one language in both school and home

environmentsenvironmentsLearn first language through auditory/oral pathways Learn first language through auditory/oral pathways

supported by visual pathwayssupported by visual pathwaysAt age 5 begin to develop reading and writing skillsAt age 5 begin to develop reading and writing skills

Background: Hearing students Hearing students

pick up conversational (oral) English spontaneously – at pick up conversational (oral) English spontaneously – at home, school, playground, sports events, television, radiohome, school, playground, sports events, television, radio

Hearing students use conversational (oral) English as Hearing students use conversational (oral) English as scaffold to learn more complicated academic language scaffold to learn more complicated academic language used in schoolused in school

Deaf students Deaf students use conversational (written) English through e-mail, TTY use conversational (written) English through e-mail, TTY

calls, or note writingcalls, or note writing Social or conversational English involves reading and Social or conversational English involves reading and

writing, more similar to academic language than social writing, more similar to academic language than social languagelanguage

Must make exceedingly concerted effort to acquire Must make exceedingly concerted effort to acquire English through reading and writingEnglish through reading and writing

Issue: Deaf students have one pathway (visual) to utilize Deaf students have one pathway (visual) to utilize

in acquiring language (s)in acquiring language (s)

The educational system demands Deaf students The educational system demands Deaf students adopt English without an internalized linguistic adopt English without an internalized linguistic resource, ie: strong first language baseresource, ie: strong first language base

Deaf student has many more challenges than the Deaf student has many more challenges than the hearing bilingual student in the process of hearing bilingual student in the process of attaining English as a second languageattaining English as a second language

Deaf children of hearing families:

Often exposed to visual language such as ASL Often exposed to visual language such as ASL only after other methods have failedonly after other methods have failed

Current practices include trial and error Current practices include trial and error approaches over 3-5 yearsapproaches over 3-5 years

Result is delay in ASL and English language Result is delay in ASL and English language acquisitionacquisition

Deaf children of deaf families:

Have accessible primary language provided at Have accessible primary language provided at home (ASL)home (ASL)

Often have rich language and communication at Often have rich language and communication at homehome

Communication meaningful and accessibleCommunication meaningful and accessible

Feeling of normalcy being deafFeeling of normalcy being deaf

Therefore…

ASL/English Bilingual EducationASL/English Bilingual Education

On Bilingualism

““Bilinguals are those people who use two or more Bilinguals are those people who use two or more languages (or dialects) in their everyday lives. This languages (or dialects) in their everyday lives. This includes people who have spoken skills in one language includes people who have spoken skills in one language and written skills in the other (a situation that is akin to the and written skills in the other (a situation that is akin to the Deaf who sign one language and read/write the other), Deaf who sign one language and read/write the other), people who speak two languages to varying degrees of people who speak two languages to varying degrees of proficiency, all the way to people who have complete proficiency, all the way to people who have complete skills in their two (or more) languages.” Franskills in their two (or more) languages.” Franççois ois Grosjean (1992)Grosjean (1992)

On Biculturalism

Biculturals are characterized by at least three Biculturals are characterized by at least three traits: traits:

(a) they live in two or more cultures, (a) they live in two or more cultures, (b) they adapt, at least in part, to these cultures (b) they adapt, at least in part, to these cultures

(their attitudes, behaviors, values, etc.), and (their attitudes, behaviors, values, etc.), and (c) they blend aspects of these cultures.(c) they blend aspects of these cultures.

FranFrançois Grosjean (1992)çois Grosjean (1992)

Star Schools Project

1997 – New Mexico School for the Deaf (NMSD) 1997 – New Mexico School for the Deaf (NMSD) proposes ASL/English bilingual framework for proposes ASL/English bilingual framework for teaching two languagesteaching two languages Developed an ASL/English Bilingual staff Developed an ASL/English Bilingual staff

development modeldevelopment modelProvided teachers with opportunity to study Provided teachers with opportunity to study

bilingual theories, first & second language bilingual theories, first & second language acquisition, literacy development, action acquisition, literacy development, action research projectsresearch projects

Star Schools Project

Established Center for American Sign Language/English Established Center for American Sign Language/English Bilingual Education and Research (CAEBER) at NMSDBilingual Education and Research (CAEBER) at NMSD

Research-based center promoting:Research-based center promoting: Effective ASL/Bi-lingual classroom instructional Effective ASL/Bi-lingual classroom instructional

policiespolicies Current research to teachersCurrent research to teachers Research-based and consistent with emerging Research-based and consistent with emerging

philosophyphilosophy Provide accurate information to parentsProvide accurate information to parents Share teaching model with other schools for the deafShare teaching model with other schools for the deaf

Involves 11 residential schools for the deafInvolves 11 residential schools for the deaf

Theoretical Foundations

Engaged Learning PrinciplesEngaged Learning Principles Children are engaged in authentic and multidisciplinary Children are engaged in authentic and multidisciplinary

taskstasks Assessments are based on student’s performance on real Assessments are based on student’s performance on real

taskstasks Students participate in interactive modes of instructionStudents participate in interactive modes of instruction Students work collaborativelyStudents work collaboratively Students are grouped heterogeneouslyStudents are grouped heterogeneously The teacher is a facilitator in learningThe teacher is a facilitator in learning Students learn through explorationStudents learn through exploration

Theoretical Foundations (cont’d)

ASL/English Bilingual Staff Development ModelASL/English Bilingual Staff Development Model Two-year (four semesters) program for teachers Two-year (four semesters) program for teachers

of deaf students (K-12)of deaf students (K-12) Reading assignments, reflective writing Reading assignments, reflective writing

assignments, discussions on bilingualism, first assignments, discussions on bilingualism, first and second language acquisition, literacy and second language acquisition, literacy theories and practices, bilingual assessmenttheories and practices, bilingual assessment

Theoretical Foundations (cont’d)

Bilingual Approach (ASL dominance and codeswitching)Bilingual Approach (ASL dominance and codeswitching) ASL Signacy AbilitiesASL Signacy Abilities

Watching or attending (receptive)Watching or attending (receptive) Signing (expressive)Signing (expressive)

English Literacy/oracy abilitiesEnglish Literacy/oracy abilities FingerreadingFingerreading FingerspellingFingerspelling Reading (English Text)Reading (English Text) Writing (English text)Writing (English text) Typing (English text)Typing (English text) LipreadingLipreading SpeakingSpeaking ListeningListening

Theoretical Foundations (cont’d)

Development of ASL/English Bilingual Learning Development of ASL/English Bilingual Learning CommunityCommunity Allowed for discussion of sensitive sociopolitical Allowed for discussion of sensitive sociopolitical

issues re schools, curriculum, language use, and issues re schools, curriculum, language use, and faculty selection (Wrigley, 1992)faculty selection (Wrigley, 1992)

Schools for the deaf had historically forbidden the Schools for the deaf had historically forbidden the use of sign language (Baynton, 1996; Nover,2000)use of sign language (Baynton, 1996; Nover,2000)

Curriculum had often reflected the value of Curriculum had often reflected the value of assimilating the deaf child into the hearing world assimilating the deaf child into the hearing world without attention to deaf culture (Keefe, 1982)without attention to deaf culture (Keefe, 1982)

Theoretical Foundations (cont’d)

Development of ASL/English Bilingual Learning Development of ASL/English Bilingual Learning CommunityCommunity Instructional techniques developed for

hearing students were used for instructing deaf children without consideration for their visual learning needs (Nover, 2002)

English-only instructional paradigm hindered progress in finding creative solutions to English underachievement of deaf students (Nover, 2002)

Theoretical Foundations (cont’d)

Cultural process of Deaf Child’s acquisition and learning of ASL and Cultural process of Deaf Child’s acquisition and learning of ASL and English addressedEnglish addressed Language learning for children is part of their enculturation Language learning for children is part of their enculturation

process (Saville-Troike, 1985):process (Saville-Troike, 1985): Language is part of culture and is transmitted from one Language is part of culture and is transmitted from one

generation to the nextgeneration to the next Language is the primary medium through which other Language is the primary medium through which other

aspects of culture are transmittedaspects of culture are transmitted Language is a tool that children use to explore their social Language is a tool that children use to explore their social

environment and establish their status and role environment and establish their status and role relationship within it.relationship within it.

Deaf Culture integrated into all aspects of language and Deaf Culture integrated into all aspects of language and literacy instruction, including as part of school curriculumliteracy instruction, including as part of school curriculum

Findings The deaf students who had teachers participating in the The deaf students who had teachers participating in the

ASL/English bilingual staff development project ASL/English bilingual staff development project significantly improved their scores on the Stanford-9 significantly improved their scores on the Stanford-9 subtests of English vocabulary and English language subtests of English vocabulary and English language over three yearsover three years

The younger group of the ASL/English bilingual The younger group of the ASL/English bilingual students (ages 8-12years) scored significantly higher students (ages 8-12years) scored significantly higher than the national norms for deaf students on the each of than the national norms for deaf students on the each of the three Stanford-9 English achievement subtests (i.e., the three Stanford-9 English achievement subtests (i.e., English vocabulary, reading comprehension, and English vocabulary, reading comprehension, and English language).English language).

Findings Parental hearing status did not significantly affect Parental hearing status did not significantly affect

performance on the Stanford-9 English achievement performance on the Stanford-9 English achievement subtests for the younger group (ages 8-12years) of subtests for the younger group (ages 8-12years) of ASL/English bilingual students. Parental hearing status ASL/English bilingual students. Parental hearing status did significantly affect the performance for the older did significantly affect the performance for the older group (ages 13-18 years) of ASL/English bilingual group (ages 13-18 years) of ASL/English bilingual students. The older students with deaf parents produced students. The older students with deaf parents produced significantly higher scores on all three Stanford-9 significantly higher scores on all three Stanford-9 English achievement subtests than did the older English achievement subtests than did the older students with hearing parents.students with hearing parents.

Findings

The younger group of the ASL/English The younger group of the ASL/English bilingual students entered a residential school at bilingual students entered a residential school at a significantly younger age than the older group a significantly younger age than the older group of the ASL/English bilingual students. The of the ASL/English bilingual students. The younger group entered a residential school at an younger group entered a residential school at an average age of 6.2 years (ranging from 1 to 11 average age of 6.2 years (ranging from 1 to 11 years of age), while the older group entered a years of age), while the older group entered a residential school at an average age of 9.6 years residential school at an average age of 9.6 years (ranging from 5 to 17 years of age).(ranging from 5 to 17 years of age).

Findings

Profiles of ASL/English bilingual students who Profiles of ASL/English bilingual students who were “high achievers” and “high gainers,” in were “high achievers” and “high gainers,” in terms of their Stanford-9 scores, revealed an terms of their Stanford-9 scores, revealed an association with these characteristics: high IQ, association with these characteristics: high IQ, deaf parents, use of sign at home, hereditary deaf parents, use of sign at home, hereditary deafness, severe or profound hearing loss, and deafness, severe or profound hearing loss, and more years with a teacher involved in the more years with a teacher involved in the ASL/English bilingual staff development ASL/English bilingual staff development project.project.

Findings

The greater overall length of time that teachers The greater overall length of time that teachers were involved in the project, the more advanced were involved in the project, the more advanced were their levels of use of the ASL/English were their levels of use of the ASL/English bilingual training, as revealed by a quasi-bilingual training, as revealed by a quasi-experimental design with teacher interviews and experimental design with teacher interviews and the rating scale, “Levels of Use of the the rating scale, “Levels of Use of the Innovation” (Hall, Loucks, Rutherford, & Innovation” (Hall, Loucks, Rutherford, & Newlove, 1975). Mentors who were in the Newlove, 1975). Mentors who were in the project the greatest number of years showed the project the greatest number of years showed the most advanced levels of their use of the most advanced levels of their use of the innovation (the ASL/English bilingual staff innovation (the ASL/English bilingual staff development project).development project).

Findings from the Indiana School for the Deaf

Implemented Bilingual-Bicultural philosophy in Implemented Bilingual-Bicultural philosophy in 1989; students were graduating at a 31989; students were graduating at a 3 rdrd-4-4thth grade grade levellevel

By 2003 the average reading level for By 2003 the average reading level for graduating seniors at ISD had jumped to 8.6 graduating seniors at ISD had jumped to 8.6 gradegrade

Average reading level for ALL Indiana Average reading level for ALL Indiana graduating seniors was 8.25 grade levelgraduating seniors was 8.25 grade level

By 2003 59% of ISD students received a By 2003 59% of ISD students received a diploma and of those students 100% of them diploma and of those students 100% of them went to collegewent to college

Findings from the Indiana School for the Deaf

Improved English skillsImproved English skills Increased hearing aid useIncreased hearing aid use Increased number of students with cochlear Increased number of students with cochlear

implantsimplants Increased demand for auditory servicesIncreased demand for auditory services

“At the heart of both the wonderful capabilities of these children and the systemic failure to serve them is a fundamental issue of human rights, one that illuminates the truly unique nature of deaf and hard of hearing children: the need and right to develop and be exposed to communication and language. Without communication there can be no educational growth and no personal, emotional, and social development. The need and right to communicate must become the foundation of any educational system for deaf and hard of hearing children for it is so “tightly woven into human experience that it is scarcely possible to imagine life” without it.” National Agenda, 2004

Contacts

Ryan Commerson, BARyan Commerson, BA

chimprock@aol.comchimprock@aol.com

Yasmina M. Bouraoui, MPH and Kylie SharpYasmina M. Bouraoui, MPH and Kylie Sharp

Michigan Department of Community HealthMichigan Department of Community Health

Early Hearing Detection and Intervention Early Hearing Detection and Intervention

bouraouiy@mi.govbouraouiy@mi.gov

sharpk@mi.govsharpk@mi.gov

Bibliography

Allen, T., Allen, T., Patterns of Academic Achievement Among Hearing Impaired Patterns of Academic Achievement Among Hearing Impaired Students; Deaf Children in AmericaStudents; Deaf Children in America, San Diego, CA: Little Brown, 1986, San Diego, CA: Little Brown, 1986

Baynton, D.C. Baynton, D.C. Forbidden Signs: American Culture and the Campaign Forbidden Signs: American Culture and the Campaign Against Sign LanguageAgainst Sign Language, Chicago: The University Press, 1996, Chicago: The University Press, 1996

Grosjean, FranGrosjean, Franççois “The Bilingual and the Bicultural Person in the Hearing ois “The Bilingual and the Bicultural Person in the Hearing and in the Deaf World”, and in the Deaf World”, Sign Language StudiesSign Language Studies, Volume 77, Winter 1992, Volume 77, Winter 1992

Indiana School for the Deaf: Indiana School for the Deaf: No Deaf or Hard of Hearing Child Left Behind: No Deaf or Hard of Hearing Child Left Behind: They Can Have It AllThey Can Have It All, ASHA Convention, Power Point Presentation, , ASHA Convention, Power Point Presentation, November 2003November 2003

Johnson, Robert K., et al: Johnson, Robert K., et al: Unlocking the Curriculum: principles for Unlocking the Curriculum: principles for Achieving Access in Deaf EducationAchieving Access in Deaf Education, 1989, 1989

Keefe, J.F., Keefe, J.F., Cultural Reproduction and the Hidden Curriculum: An Cultural Reproduction and the Hidden Curriculum: An Investigation into Preschool Programs for the Deaf.Investigation into Preschool Programs for the Deaf. (Doctoral (Doctoral Dissertation, Boston University) 1982Dissertation, Boston University) 1982

Bibliography

The National AgendaThe National Agenda: Moving Forward on Achieving Educational Equity : Moving Forward on Achieving Educational Equity for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students, June 2004for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students, June 2004

Nover, Stephen M. Nover, Stephen M. Star School USDLC Engaged Learning Project No.5 Star School USDLC Engaged Learning Project No.5 ASL/English bilingual staff development project in Deaf Education; ASL/English bilingual staff development project in Deaf Education; Evaluation and Impact Study; Final Report 1997-2002Evaluation and Impact Study; Final Report 1997-2002

Saville-Troike, M. Saville-Troike, M. Input in Second Language Acquisition: Series on Input in Second Language Acquisition: Series on Issues in Second Language ResearchIssues in Second Language Research, Cambridge, MA: Newbury , Cambridge, MA: Newbury House Publishers, 1985House Publishers, 1985

Traxler, C. Traxler, C. The Stanford Achievement Test, 9The Stanford Achievement Test, 9thth Edition: National Edition: National Norming and Performance Standards for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Norming and Performance Standards for Deaf and Hard of Hearing StudentsStudents, , Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf EducationJournal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 2000, 2000

Wrigley, O.P. Wrigley, O.P. Sound Knowledge: The Political Meaning of DeafnessSound Knowledge: The Political Meaning of Deafness, , (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Hawaii) 1992(Doctoral Dissertation, University of Hawaii) 1992