In-Cylinder Soot Particle Distribution in Squish Region of ... · combustion data from Kiva-3v computational fluid dynamics ... and typical diesel engine. At earlier combustion in

International Journal of Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering IJMME-IJENS Vol:14 No:05 51

144105-2929-IJMME-IJENS © October 2014 IJENS I J E N S

Abstract— The size and distribution of in-cylinder soot

particles affect the sizes of soot particles emitted from exhaust

tailpipes as well as the soot in oil. The simulation work reported

in this paper focuses on the study of soot formation and

movement inside a diesel engine with in-depth analysis of soot

particles in the squish region. Soot particles in the squish region

have high potential to be deposited onto the cylinder wall, and

subsequently penetrate into engine lubrication system and

contaminate the oil. The prediction of a soot particle pathline and

size distribution was performed using post-processed in-cylinder

combustion data from Kiva-3v computational fluid dynamics

(CFD) simulations with a series of Matlab routines. Only soot

oxidation and soot surface growth process were considered in this

study. Coagulation and agglomeration of soot particles were not

taken into account. Soot particles were tracked from 8 crank

angle (CA) degree after top dead center (ATDC) as soot starts to

form in high concentration until 120 CA degree ATDC at exhaust

valve opening (EVO). The soot particle size and its distribution

were analyzed at different crank angles. In the squish region, the

most dominant soot particle size was 20-50 nm at earlier crank

angle and in 10-20 nm range at 120 CA ATDC. The percentage of

soot loss in the squish region was analyzed to be 23.2 % and the

soot loss was higher at earlier crank angle until 10 CA degree

ATDC due to high rate of oxidation.

Index Term— soot, particle tracking, squish region, in-

cylinder soot size

I. INTRODUCTION

The study and investigation of combustion and soot inside a

diesel engine cylinder had been conducted by researcher via

experiment [1], [2] and simulation [3], [4]. This research

gains the attention of the researcher due to the rule, restriction

and regulation enforcement to reduce the exhaust gas emission

produce by diesel engine [5]. The exhaust gases produced can

lead the severe health complication to human [6]-[8] and plant

This work was supported in part by the the Ministry of Higher Education

of Malaysia and Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia under FRGS/1/2013/TK01/UKM/02/2 and GGPM-2011-055 research grants.

Muhammad Ahmar Zuber. is with Department of Mechanical and

Materials Engineering, National University of Malaysia 43600 Bangi, Malaysia (e-mail: [email protected]).

Wan Mohd Faizal Wan Mahmood is with Department of Mechanical and

Materials Engineering, National University of Malaysia 43600 Bangi, Malaysia (e-mail: [email protected]).

Zulkhairi Zainol Abidin is with Department of Mechanical and Materials

Engineering, National University of Malaysia 43600 Bangi, Malaysia (e-mail: [email protected]).

Zambri Harun is with Department of Mechanical and Materials

Engineering, National University of Malaysia 43600 Bangi, Malaysia (e-mail: [email protected]).

[9], sulfation of building stones [10] and damage the engine.

Soot damage the engine by increase the engine wear by

degrading the oil that reduces the flow ability of the oil and

cause the need to change the oil frequently [11]-[14]. Thus it

is important to understand soot formation, behavior and

movement inside the engine cylinder until emission so counter

measure action can be taken to reduce the soot and exhaust

gases emission.

Exhaust gas emission from a direct injection diesel engines

consist of carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxide (NOx),

sulfur dioxide (SO2), unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) [15] and

particulate matter (PM) [16], [17]. Particulate matter

composed of 10 % of fuel, 16 % of oil, 10 % of combination

sulfuric acid and water and, 64 % of soot [18].

A modelling of soot formation with detailed chemistry and

physics had been conducted by [1] and a series of model

containing the gas-phase reaction, aromatic chemistry, soot

particle coagulation, soot particle aggregation and surface

growth were produce. According to [19] the soot formation

can divided to four major processes: homogeneous nucleation

of soot particles, particle coagulation, particle surface

reactions and particle agglomeration. On the other hand, some

researcher focus on the soot properties [20], soot mechanism

[2], [4], in-cylinder soot particle movement [3] and soot size

[21]. While [22] characterize the soot formation reaction by

four steps: 1.Particle nucleation, 2.Particle surface growth,

3.Particle surface oxidation, 4.Particle coagulation 5.PAH

deposition on the particle surface.

Various experimental studies had been conducted by [1],

[2], [20], [21], [23]-[25] to understand the formation and

behavior of soot inside engine cylinder. An in-cylinder soot

formation and oxidation had been carried out by [23] using the

two-dimensional Laser-Induced Incandescence (LII) and the

result showed that at 2° CA ATDC the soot start to form and

soot concentration start to increase at 6° to 12° CA ATDC.

But after 12° CA ATDC soot concentration intensity start to

decrease. An experiment was conducted to study the

hygroscopic properties of carbon and diesel soot particles by

[20]. They use diesel engine to produce soot particle and spark

discharge between two graphite electrodes to produce carbon

particle. The particle size found to be at 20-500 nm and the

primary carbon particle at 10 nm and primary soot particle at

25 nm.

Soot particle mass, size and distribution were effected by

engine load, operation mode and type of fuel. A study by [21]

In-Cylinder Soot Particle Distribution in Squish

Region of a Direct Injection Diesel Engine

Muhammad A. Zuber, Wan Mohd F. Wan Mahmood, Zulkhairi Zainol Abidin. and Zambri Harun., Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti

Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia



on the particle size distribution during emission concluded that

the engine that operate at higher load produce larger soot

particle size with wider size distribution. This happened due to

the nucleation process, condensation in exhaust emission,

coagulation and agglomeration of soot particle with water

content in exhaust gases. At higher engine load, more soot

were produce because of the increase of sulfur, ash, heavy

hydrocarbon and aromatic content. While [24] recorded that

soot embedding with hydrocarbon (e.g., Polycyclic Aromatic

Hydrocarbon, PAH) can produce soot particle with smaller

size. The different in-size of soot particle by different

researcher is due to the different type of measurement

techniques or machines use. Each measurement technique or

machines has its own merit.

As oppose to the experimental method, some of the

researcher [1], [3], [4], [22], [25]-[34] study the soot formation

and behavior by conducting a simulation with mathematical

modeling. Pang et al. [30] conducted a simulation on the soot

precursor formation mechanism using CFD software Ansys-

Fluent with chemistry solver, Chemkin-CFD. A detailed

chemistry soot models for internal combustion engine were

used in a CFD simulation using Kiva reported by [1]. As PAH

was treated as a soot precursor in the simulation and the soot

particle size was 2 nm with 667200 numbers of soot particle

were recorded at 60° CA ATDC. Another research by [4] was

performed with various injections timing model result shown

that the soot concentration is high at 0-30° CA ATDC for all

cases and the multidimensional model they used was very

helpful. Puduppakkam et al. [28] use moment method with

FORTE CFD software to track soot formation and evolution

inside a direct injection diesel engine. The findings showed

that the density of soot particle was peak at 10° CA ATDC

and decrease afterward. While at 30-40° CA ATDC soot with

larger size were found and the size decrease afterward. The

drop of soot density after 10° CA ATDC is contributed by

three factors, firstly lower soot nucleation after CA 10° that

decrease soot density, second is the soot coagulation occur

that reduce the soot particle number and lastly soot oxidation

occur that reduce the soot density.

A simulation on soot formation characteristic using Kiva-

3v2 were conducted by [22] and state that soot density and

soot particle size significantly increase at earlier engine

combustion and drop down until it stabilize at certain number.

Soot with smaller size in range 5-40 nm were produce at

earlier engine combustion due to the pyrolysis reactions and

polymerization of the hydrocarbon fuel. In middle engine

combustion the numbers of large size of soot particle increase

rapidly due to the coagulation, condensation, surface growth

and deposition of PAHs as PAHs contribute to increase of soot

particle surface growth. At late engine combustion the size

distribution stabilizes at peak of 5-20 nm under the influence

of continues oxidation reaction. Rao & Honnery [32] use a

multi-step soot model to predict the soot formation and

mechanism inside the diesel engine cylinder. They found both

soot particle number and diameter increase at earlier crank

angle to the peak and start to decrease after that. They also

found that average particle diameter is in the range of soot

particle diameter found in the literature and typical diesel

engine. At earlier combustion in engine, soot formation in the

head of spray can be neglected due to high temperature and

soot formation is limited to the beginning of diffusion burn

phase but after that oxidation will take place.

Work on the soot formation in the diesel engine and their

interest is in the crevice near the cylinder wall were studied by

[31], [33], [34]. At start of the ignition the soot and at the end

of expansion stroke the soot more likely to be transported to

the wall liner and crevice region by the squish motion. The

soot transport to the wall liner is depended on the soot density

and recirculation of charge this can be reduced by early

injection of fuel [34].

The prediction the soot particle size and distribution in this

paper was achieved by post processing the result obtained

from simulation using CFD software, Kiva-3v. Kiva-3v

software was chosen due to its flexibility to be adapted and

modified according to the user preference model. The Kiva-3v

CFD code has open architecture that allows researchers to

understand, investigate and amend the codes [29]. Kiva-3v can

be used to simulate air flow, fuel sprays, and combustion in

practical combustion devices. Originally, Kiva was intended

for three dimensions simulation for modelling flows in

gasoline and diesel engine. It was then expanded on other

combustion devices such as turbines and furnaces. Kiva

features the ability to calculate air flows in complex

geometries with fuel spray dynamics and evaporation, mixing

of fuel and air, and combustion with resultant heat release and

exhaust-product formation [35]. Hong et al. [36] used Kiva-3v

to develop soot model using realistic physical and chemical

equations as bases with reasonable cost and produced

excellent agreement with experiment.

This simulation is in the limit of expansion stroke using a

series of algorithm to predict it size and pathline. It is expected

from this paper that soot particle size distribution in the squish

region at different crank angles can be determined so that

further investigated on soot deposition onto the cylinder wall

can be performed.

II. METHOD

The simulation of combustion inside the engine cylinder

was perform by using Kiva-3v CFD software. The result of the

simulation can be found on [29] as this paper is the extended

work from [3]. The details on the sub-model, mesh

configuration, fuel injector specification and test condition is

available at [29]. The specification of engine used in Kiva-3v

as shown in Table I and type of bowl use in this simulation is

bowl in type as in Fig. 1. All the important parameter from

Kiva-3v result such as temperature, pressure, bulk gas

velocity, soot, diesel fuel and oxygen concentration were

extracted to be used in Matlab routine to calculate soot

pathline and size.

The prediction of soot pathline and size is limited to the

domain of stroke expansion only. The domain is at inlet valve

closing until before exhaust valve opening.



A. Soot Pathline

The assumptions made to calculate and predict the soot

particle pathline are that the soot particle movement follows

the velocity vector of bulk flow field at the point where the

particle is located and the soot was massless. Since the soot is

assumed to be massless, the effect of gravity or drag forces

can neglected. The position of soot is identify by crank angle

(CA) were calculated by using the velocity vector solved in

Kiva-3v. In the model used to calculate the soot particle

pathline, the fourth-order Runge-Kutta method and trilinear

technique were employed for better accuracy. Equation for the

next time step soot particle position can be described as

follows;

(1)

where donated as the current particle position and as the

current time step. represents the time interval

between the current time and the next time step. Soot particles

are counted as deposited at the cylinder wall at their last

location if the calculated position to be out of the calculation

domain.

B. Soot Particle Size

In the calculation of soot particle size, the assumptions

made are, soot particle to be in spherical shape with uniform

density of 2 g/cm3 for the entire time step and the soot mass

spread uniformly onto the surface of existing soot particle

considered as the surface growth process. The radius of soot

particle at a given time step can be obtained by rearranged the

density formula as follows;

(2)

where is the soot particle radius, is the soot particle mass

and is the soot particle density at that time step.

The soot particle mass, , at each time step was calculated

by using a combination of Hiroyasu’s soot formation and

Nagle-Strickland Constable soot oxidation models. The rate

for soot formation according to Hiroyasu’s model as below;

(3)

where is the concentration of soot formed and is the

time step interval. is donated a soot particle formation

multiplication factor. represents the concentration of fuel

vapor, which was considered the source of soot formation, and

is the pressure. Activation energy for soot formation is

12500 cal/mole denoted by , and is the temperature

inside the engine cylinder with gas constant, = 1.987

cal/mole-K. The current time step is represented by i.

Nagel-Strickland Constable (NSC) soot oxidation process

equation can be written as follows;

(4)

where, in this NSC formula, assumptions are made based on

two types of side on the carbon surface, a more reactive side

namely A, and a less reactive side, B. is the fraction of

surface covered by A and 1- is the fraction covered by B.

The following values are adopted for the constants [29]:

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

Similarly, mass loss due to surface oxidation was assumed to

occur uniformly on the surface of soot particles.

Soot particle size calculated in this paper depended on two

parameters. The first parameter is the starting size of soot

particle radius and in this paper the value for soot particle size

at 8° CA ATDC was taken as 10×10-9

m. This value was chose

as in literature it was in the size range [22]. The second

parameter is the soot particle formation multiplication factor

and the value was set to 2×10-11

similar to the coefficient set

by [29]. The value of 2×10-11

is an indication of the inverse

value of soot particle density (particle/cm3) as each tracked

Fig. 1. Half side of engine cylinder showing the bowl configuration

TABLE I SPECIFICATION OF THE ENGINE USE

Parameter Specification

Engine type 4 valve DI diesel

Bore Stroke 86. 0 86. 0 mm

Squish height 1. 297140330 mm

Compression Ratio 18. 2 : 1

Displacement 500 cm3

Piston Geometry Bowl-in-piston



soot particle was assumed to be a single particle among a

cluster of soot particles in a cubic volume.

Fig. 2 showed the domains for selected starting point of

soot at 8° CA ATDC within the combustion volume engine

chamber. The 8° CA was chose based on the high rate of soot

formation in the engine cylinder at this time frame [3]. The

shaded area with tones of grey to black represents the soot

concentration distribution from the result of CFD simulation.

The points selected inside the domain were calculated to

predict the pathline and size distribution.

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A. Soot Pathlines

Fig. 3 shows the pathlines of soot inside the cylinder and

the pathlines were selected at one of the spray location as a

representative to all the pathlines. It was too confusing to

determine which particle of interest that went to the squish

region near cylinder wall by just looking at these pathlines. It

is almost impossible to show all the pathlines in one figure as

there are too many lines that mix together and become too

dense to distinguish from one another. The soot particle

pathlines followed the swirl direction in bulk gas motion.

In this paper squish region was defined as the region above

and outside of the cylinder bowl near the cylinder wall. The

squish region was defined as an area bigger than 3.4 cm radius

from the engine cylinder central axis up to cylinder wall. The

soot particle pathlines for the particles that travelled into the

squish region was shown in Fig. 4. Soot that travelled to the

squish region was observed to have originated from the

cylinder bowl but most of soot came from the bowl rim area.

B. Soot Particle Size

The size of soot particles represents soot diameter in

nanometers (nm). Soot particles of different sizes were

classified to the respective size ranges with different bin

numbers as shown in Table II.

Soot particle size distribution inside the engine cylinder as

shown in Fig. 5 and 6. Fig. 5 showed the soot size distribution

in the whole cylinder and Fig. 6 showed the soot size

distribution in the squish region. From the Fig. 5 and 6, it can

be observed that at 8° CA ATDC the concentration of soot is

high and packed near the center of the cylinder following the

spray profile. In the case of squish region in Fig. 6, the soot

particle spread out near the cylinder wall. After that soot

concentration start to decrease and the soot dispersed out to

the entire area in the cylinder due to the increasing combustion

chamber volume. The decrease of soot concentration and

particle number was influence by the soot oxidation that

occurred afterward [22], [28], [32]. This can be further

explained in Fig. 7 and 8. The surface growth in the whole

cylinder (Fig. 7) and squish region (Fig. 8) showed that at

earlier crank angle, the surface growth was dominant but was

taken over by oxidation as early as 10° CA degree ATDC

[22].

As earlier as 30 ° CA ATDC it can be seen that smaller soot

particles went near to the wall boundary and these particles

may be deposited at the cylinder wall boundary layer via soot

deposition mechanism [3], [34]. About 59.1 % of soot

transported near wall boundary was from bowl rim area and

40.9 % was from the inside the cylinder bowl area but very

close to the bowl rim. The comparison between the whole

cylinder and squish region size distribution at later crank

angle, found that in squish region the soot particles were in

smaller size range near cylinder wall and larger soot particle

size can be found in the bowl region or farther from cylinder

wall. This shows that in squish region the soot surface mass

was loss due to the high oxidation as explained before and as

in shown in Fig. 8. Table III and IV show the distribution and

the percentage of soot particle quantities in each soot size bin

with average soot particle size. Soot particle average size at

start of the crank angle was 25 nm and increase to 40 nm

through the combustion and reached 30 nm just before the

exhaust valve opening. Fig. 9 shows the soot particle size

distribution at 8° CA ATDC and Fig. 10 shows the

TABLE II

SIZE RANGE BIN

Bin number Size range (nm)

1 < 2

2 2 – <10

3 10 – <20

4 20 – <50

5 50 – <100

6 >100

The size range bin used to classified the soot particle

into group according to size for easier understanding.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 2. Half side and full top view of the in-cylinder volume for the

selection of starting points in at 8° CA ATDC



start of the crank angle was 25 nm and increased to 40 nm

Fig. 3. Soot particle pathline inside the engine cylinder at selected point and crank angle. The pathline shows soot particle movement through time.

Fig. 4 Soot particle pathline inside the engine cylinder at selected point and crank angle in the squish region. The pathline shows the soot movement inside the

squish region

Fig. 5 Soot particle size distribution inside the whole engine cylinder at selected crank angle. The size range bin show at the bottom of the figure. Smaller

particle size in small circle with black color and the size increase with color get lighter to grey.



distribution at 120° CA ATDC. In the whole cylinder the size

distribution at crank angle 8° the soot particle size shows

Gaussian distribution characteristic with size peak at 20-50 nm

and about 69.29 % of soot particle were in the size range. At

the start of combustion, the soot particle size distribution fall

near the initial diameter of soot particle set. As the crank angle

progress, the soot particle move around and experience

oxidation process. Thus at 20° CA ATDC to late crank angle

the soot particle size peak shifted to 10-20 nm with second

peak at size higher than 100 nm and shows a bimodal

characteristic. About 47.54 % of soot particles were in size

range of 10-20 nm at crank angle 20-120 and this can be

considered as the primary size of soot [20]. The soot

distribution range widens but the number of soot particle

decreases as combustion progresses.

To further understand the relation between soot particle

number and time step or crank angle, Fig. 11 was provided.

The soot particle number started at around 3500 particles, then

the number dropped to below 1500 particles at 30° CA ATDC.

After that soot particle number slowly decreased until around

Fig. 7 Surface growth rate and oxidation rate versus crank angle in whole

cylinder. The data recorded in this paper start at 8° to 120° CA ATDC.

TABLE III SOOT PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION IN THE WHOLE CYLINDER

CA Percentage of soot size distribution in nm (%) Soot

average size

(nm) <2 2-10 10-20 20-50 50-100 >100

8 0.00 0.33 24.74 69.29 5.25 0.39 25.8

30 1.34 9.93 50.88 18.16 5.36 14.32 38.5

60 3.47 16.85 48.68 13.59 5.83 11.58 33.7

90 5.47 17.56 48.76 12.51 5.40 10.31 30.9

120 6.72 17.63 47.54 12.72 6.14 9.25 29.8

Soot particle size distribution according to the size bin at selected crank

angle. The value showed in percentage of particle number at that instant CA.

TABLE IV

SOOT PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION IN THE SQUISH REGION

CA

Size (nm) (%) Average

Size (nm) <2 2-<10 10-<20 20-<50 50-<100 >100

8 0.00 0.00 4.61 93.00 0.85 1.54 25.2

30 2.27 18.18 54.34 22.31 1.03 1.86 18.5

60 8.81 20.04 50.22 19.60 0.88 0.44 15.5

90 7.32 22.62 50.11 19.07 0.44 0.44 15.1

120 7.33 23.33 49.56 18.89 0.44 0.44 14.9

Soot particle size distribution according to the size bin at selected crank angle. The value showed in percentage of particle number at that instant CA.

Fig. 8 Surface growth rate and oxidation rate versus crank angle in squish

region. The data recorded in this paper start at 8° to 120° CA ATDC.

Fig. 6 Soot particle size distribution inside the squish region in the engine cylinder at selected crank angle. The size range bin show at the bottom of the figure.

Smaller particle size in small circle with black color and the size increase with color get lighter to grey.



1000 particle at 120° CA ATDC. For the squish region soot

particle number started at around 500 particle and dropped

significantly to 120 particles at 120° CA ATDC. Fig. 12

explains the soot particle average size in the squish region and

in the entire cylinder. At earlier combustion process in the

squish region, the soot oxidation rate increases rapidly after 8°

CA ATDC [4] to overcome the surface growth of soot. Soot

particle average size in the squish region slowly decreased

from 25 nm at 8 CA ATDC to 15 nm at exhaust valve

opening (EVO). Soot particle size in the whole cylinder

displayed a different result, where the soot particle average

size at inlet valve closing (IVC) was 25 nm and increase to 40

nm at 30° CA ATDC. Beyond that the soot average size starts

to decrease to 30 nm at EVO. The oxidation process started to

dominate the overall soot formation process at higher crank

angle, namely 30º CA ATDC, thus reduced the overall soot

intensity, size and particles.

IV. CONCLUSION

Soot particle distribution with different size bins in an

engine cylinder with a focus on soot in the squish regions has

been successfully predicted by post-processing CFD

simulation data using sets of Matlab routines. Surface growth

and soot oxidation were the only processes considered in the

present Investigation. The soot particle size in the squish

region decreased rapidly from the start of tracking calculation

to about 30° CA ATDC. After that the soot particle size

decreased slowly due to the slower rate of soot oxidation

process. The dominant soot size at the start was in the range of

20-50 nm and shifted to 2-10 nm at the end of the cycle. Soot

particles near the wall cylinder were observed to be in smaller

size range compare to other regions inside the engine cylinder.

The soot particles in the squish region have high possibilities

to be deposited onto the cylinder walls through one or various

transfer mechanisms.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors would like to express their gratitude to the

Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia and National

University of Malaysia for supporting this research through

their research grants of GGPM-2011-055 and

FRGS/1/2013/TK01/UKM/02/2.

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