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Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science

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Exploring the Relationship Between Athletes’Perceptions of the Motivational Climate to TheirCompassion, Self-Compassion, Shame, and Pridein Adult Recreational Sport

Mario S. Fontana, Mary D. Fry & Emily Cramer

To cite this article: Mario S. Fontana, Mary D. Fry & Emily Cramer (2017) Exploring theRelationship Between Athletes’ Perceptions of the Motivational Climate to Their Compassion, Self-Compassion, Shame, and Pride in Adult Recreational Sport, Measurement in Physical Educationand Exercise Science, 21:2, 101-111, DOI: 10.1080/1091367X.2017.1278698

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1091367X.2017.1278698

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Exploring the Relationship Between Athletes’ Perceptions of the MotivationalClimate to Their Compassion, Self-Compassion, Shame, and Pride in AdultRecreational SportMario S. Fontanaa, Mary D. Fryb, and Emily Cramerc

aDepartment of Health and Physical Education, Northern State University, Aberdeen, South Dakota, USA; bDepartment of Health, Sport, and ExerciseScience, University of Kansas, Manhattan, Lawrence, Kansas, USA; cMedical Center, School of Nursing, University of Kansas, Kansas City, Kansas, USA

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between athletes’ perceptions of themotivational climate (caring, task-, and ego-involving) to their levels of compassion, self-compas-sion, pride, and shame in a recreational sport setting. Athletes (N = 164) in a competitive WiffleBall tournament completed a survey. A canonical correlation analysis revealed one significantfunction indicating that athletes’ perceptions of a caring and task-involving motivational climatewere associated with higher levels of authentic pride and lower levels of hubristic pride. Resultssuggest adult recreational sport participants may benefit from experiencing a positive andsupportive team climate.

KEYWORDSCaring climate; compassion;motivational climate; pride;shame

Introduction

Adults participating in physical activity experience anumber of benefits ranging from better mental andphysical health to improved social relationships andinteractions (Chodzko-Zajko, 2000; Malina, 2001).Additionally, regular physical activity participationcan help individuals have longer lifespans and reducedmedical complications as they age (Moore et al., 2012;Reimers, Knapp, & Reimers, 2012). While the advan-tages are clear, adults’ participation rates in physicalactivity decline significantly as they age (Haskell et al.,2007). The increased sedentary lifestyle of the modernworld makes participating in recreational sports evenmore critical (Woods & Mutrie, 2012). For adults withextensive responsibilities (e.g., family, work), exercisefrequently becomes a lower priority, particularly if indi-viduals have not had positive physical activity experi-ences in their past (Coakley, 2004). Adults are morelikely to withdraw from recreational activities if enjoy-ment decreases or if negative experiences occur whileparticipating (Hogue, Fry, Fry, & Pressman, 2013).Athletes may have a more positive outlook on partici-pating in recreational sports if the sport occurs in asupportive environment where they experience affirm-ing emotions. The purpose of this study was to examinethe relationship between recreational athletes’

perceptions of the climate on their sport teams totheir compassion, pride, and shame as it relates totheir sport experience.

Perceptions of the motivational climate are part of theconceptual framework of Nicholls’ achievement goal per-spective theory (AGPT, Nicholls, 1989; Seifriz, Duda, &Chi, 1992). Nicholls maintained that individuals’ percep-tions of the motivational climate play a key role in deter-mining the experiences that individuals have inachievement group settings. Specifically, individuals canperceive either a task-involving climate where the focus ison effort, improvement, and mastery of skills, or an ego-involving climate where the focus is on performance out-comes and only the best are recognized. Research hasrevealed that these distinct constructs of the climateexist in sports (Newton, Duda, & Yin, 2000; Sarrazin,Vallerand, Guillet, Pelletier, & Cury, 2002).

Those perceiving a task-involving climate are muchmore likely to persist, give more effort, report higherself-esteem, and seek new challenges than athletes inego-involving climates (Reinboth & Duda, 2004).Additionally, athletes tend to excel in an environmentwhere they feel their opinion and involvement isequally valued when compared to other teammates.Vazou, Ntoumanis, and Duda (2005) surveyed adoles-cent boys and girls in a variety of sports and found thatathletes who perceived a task-involving climate and

CONTACT Mario S. Fontana mario.fontana@northern.edu Department of Health and Physical Education, Northern State University, Gerber 118, 1200S. Jay Street, Aberdeen, South Dakota 57401Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/HMPE.

MEASUREMENT IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND EXERCISE SCIENCE2017, VOL. 21, NO. 2, 101–111http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1091367X.2017.1278698

© 2017 Taylor & Francis

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were involved equally in team decision-making hadgreater feelings of self-determination. These researchersalso found that the athletes valued the opinion of theirpeers and that a task-involving environment was moreconducive to good will among teammates.

Conversely, ego-involving climates can lead to negativeoutcomes for athletes. Research has revealed that partici-pants in these climates are less likely to be persistent withchallenges that arise, and are more likely to withdraweffort (Solmon, 1996). In ego-involving climates, athletesare more likely to experience distress and to report lowerlevels of self-esteem (Pensgaard & Roberts, 2000;Reinboth & Duda, 2004). Kavussanu, Roberts, andNtoumanis (2002) found that a perceived ego-involvingclimate is associated with athletes engaging in moreimmoral behaviors in their sport, such as cheating.

Another aspect of the motivational climate environ-ment that has received research attention over the lastdecade is the caring climate, which assesses the extentthat athletes feel nurtured, cared for, valued, andrespected by their coaches and teammates (Fry &Gano-Overway, 2010; Iwasaki & Fry, 2013). Caringclimates have been shown to increase enjoyment andthe likelihood that athletes will continue their sportparticipation. Additionally, young adults experiencinga caring climate have reported increased self-confi-dence in their abilities (Harwood, Keegan, Smith, &Raine, 2015; Hogue et al., 2013). Caring, task-involving,and ego-involving motivational climates are key inpredicting athletes’ experiences on sports teams.Previous research has explored how these motivationalclimates can affect various athlete emotions and beha-viors when playing sports (Fry & Newton, 2003;Kavussanu et al., 2002; Pensgaard & Roberts, 2000;Smith, Fry, Ethington, & Li, 2005).

Good will and respect for teammates have also beenprevalent in perceived caring climates. Fry and Gano-Overway (2010) measured how the caring climateaffected young soccer athletes’ perceptions of theirenjoyment and commitment to their sport. These ath-letes reported more positive attitudes toward their coa-ches and teammates, more enjoyment, and greatersoccer commitment when a caring climate was per-ceived. A caring climate has also been shown to posi-tively affect emotional regulation and psychologicalwell-being (Fry et al., 2012). The researchers notedthat these young athletes who perceived a caring cli-mate felt more comfortable being themselves andexpressing their emotions in front of others than ath-letes who perceived an ego-involving climate. Thatcomfort level may be partially attributed to teammatescaring for one another and accepting that faults andmistakes are part of the learning process and being

human. The notion that mistakes are part of learningis evident in two other constructs; compassion and self-compassion, each of which has received limited atten-tion in sports research.

Lazarus (1991) defined compassion as being com-pelled to care about another’s well-being due to his orher suffering. Goetz, Keltner, & Simon-Thomas (2010)described the evolution of compassion and found thatthose who experience compassion are distinctly attunedto individuals facing undeserved suffering. Sprecherand Fehr (2005) took the definition further by definingcompassionate love as:

. . .an attitude toward other(s), either close others or stran-gers or all of humanity; containing feelings, cognitions, andbehaviors that are focused on caring, concern, tenderness,and an orientation toward supporting, helping, and under-standing the other(s), particularly when the other(s) is(are) perceived to be suffering or in need. (p. 630)

Though compassion has not been explored in sports,the construct seems relevant. In sport, many athletesdevelop strong bonds with their teammates over thecourse of a season and across seasons. Athletes spendmany hours bonding together on the practice fields, tra-veling to competitions, and competing with one another.It follows that athletes who perceive a caring and task-involving climate on their teams may be more inclined tofeel and express compassion for their teammates due tothe supportive and encouraging nature of the climate.Athletes that perceive that every member of the team isvalued and encouraged are more likely to spread thatencouragement and care to one another (Fry & Gano-Overway, 2010; Vazou et al., 2005). Athletes who perceivean ego-involving climate may be less likely to experiencecompassion because they are constantly compared to oneanother, punished for mistakes, and given praise only forperformance outcomes rather than effort or improve-ment. In a culture where only a select few are consideredimportant, athletes may be less likely to care for theirteammates as they see those teammates as competitors,rather than peers.

In addition to enhancing compassionate feelingstoward others, being involved in a caring and task-invol-ving climate might also enhance athletes’ compassionatefeelings toward themselves. Self-compassion is a methodfor attaining inward stability that promotes the idea thatall people deal with suffering (Neff, 2003a). People whohave higher levels of self-compassion may be more likelyto recognize that humans are not perfect and, instead,focus on personal highlights rather than comparing them-selves to others. Self-compassion is beneficial to indivi-duals because it allows them to become less overwhelmedby standard negative emotions by promoting a more

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present positive state of mind (Neff, Hsieh, & Dejitterat,2005). Athletes experiencing self-compassion may bemore likely to overcome the strife associated with makingmistakes. It stands to reason that athletes who makemistakes in a caring and task-involving climate may bemore likely to see those mishaps as another part of theroad to improvement and, therefore, be more able toforgive themselves for the errors.

In caring and task-involved climates, coachesemphasize that mistakes are part of the learning pro-cess. Alternately, in an ego-involving climate wheremistakes are punished, athletes would likely experienceless self-compassion because they would potentially feelas if the mistake reflected poorly on their overall abilityand value to the team. People experiencing self-com-passion have been found to have a reduced likelihoodof fearing negative evaluation from others (Mosewich,Kowalski, Sabiston, Sedgwick, & Tracy, 2011). Thiswould suggest that a caring and task-involving climatewhere teammates are supported would help promotehigher self-compassion. While athletes would benefitfrom feeling compassion for their teammates, coaches,and themselves, other emotions, like shame, could hin-der the overall experience of playing on a team.

Those experiencing shame typically feel as if they haveviolated a cultural standard (Tangney & Dearing, 2002).Individuals experiencing shame are reacting to what theyperceive as not living up to a social norm and beinglooked down upon by those around them. Shame is lessabout a transgression (which may or may not have beenwitnessed by others) andmore about reflecting about self-value due to the perceived offense (Tangney, 1999). On asports team, athletes may feel shame because they playedpoorly or did not perform well at a key point in a game.Athletes may tend to feel that they have let their coachesand teammates down and, because of that, have less valueas a member of the team. Research suggests that shameoccurs for athletes when they play a key role in undesiredoutcomes (e.g., failing to get a hit in a key situation;making a fielding error; Conroy, 2001).

Athletes most often experience shame when theyperceive they have failed. Conroy’s (2001, 2004) workwith Fear of Failure found that one reason athletesdevelop fear of failure is because they actually fearexperiencing shame and embarrassment. Athletesexperiencing this fear envision doing poorly on theplaying fields and are concerned that they have letcoaches, teammates, and/or other significant onesdown due to their poor performance. McGregor andElliot (2005) also reported that shame is at the root offear of failure, and athletes with high fear of failure thatperformed poorly were much more likely to experienceshame. It should be noted that experiencing shame is

distinctly different than experiencing guilt (Tangney &Dearing, 2002). Individuals experiencing guilt focusmore on an act (“I did a bad thing”), while thoseexperiencing shame focus more on how an act repre-sents their sense of self-worth (“I am a bad person”).Shame is a powerful emotion that can affect the experi-ence that athletes have on the field, and it may belinked to perceptions of an ego-involving climate.

Perceived ego-involving climates focus on outcomessuch as winning and losing, and athletes are punishedwhen they make mistakes (Seifriz et al., 1992; Walling,Duda, & Chi, 1993). It is possible that solely valuingwins and losses on the playing field leads athletes to bemuch more likely to experience shame when perceivedfailure occurs. As a result, it is likely that athletesperceiving caring and task-involved climates would beless likely to experience shame because the focus is onthe process rather than the outcome of the competition(Fry & Gano-Overway, 2010; Harwood et al., 2015;Tangney & Dearing, 2002). While athletes that perceiveego-involving climates may experience shame after fail-ure, they also may experience a different emotion,pride, when things go well.

Events eliciting pride are usually positive for the personexperiencing them, but the type of pride that one experi-ences can vary. Tracy and Robins (2007b) found thatpride can be either authentic or hubristic. Authenticpride is thought to stem from internal controllable causes(e.g., “I was successful because of hard work”). Hubristicpride comes from internal, uncontrollable causes such asfeeling pre-ordained greatness. Those with high authenticpride levels tend to feel more confident and fulfilled andhave greater feelings of self-worth while those experien-cing hubristic pride report more arrogance, pompous-ness, and egotistical feelings.

Mosewich et al. (2011) found that authentic pridehad a positive and strong correlation with self-esteemamong female athletes while hubristic pride was nega-tively correlated. Similarly, in a study with paintballplayers, Bureau, Vallerand, Ntoumanis, and Lafrenière(2012) found that those high in authentic pride weremore harmonious and showed less obsessive tendenciestoward the game. In addition, it was discovered thatthose with higher levels of hubristic pride were muchmore likely to cheat while playing.

Literature examining pride supports two themes:Those greater in authentic pride are process-oriented,and those greater in hubristic pride are concerned morewith the outcomes (Tracy & Robins, 2007a). A caring,task-involving climate promotes effort and improve-ment leading toward eventual mastery of a skill, whileego-involving climates promote outcomes. It followsthat athletes experiencing a caring and task-involving

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climate would be much more likely to experienceauthentic pride when they are successful, because thefocus is less on the outcome and more on the processleading to that outcome. Conversely, it is likely thatathletes perceiving an ego-involving climate would bemore likely to experience hubristic pride when success-ful due to the high emphasis on performance outcomes.

Compassion, self-compassion, shame, and pride allhave potentially strong theoretical ties to motivationalclimate in sport. The purpose of this study was toexamine the relationship between motivational climate,compassion, self-compassion, shame, and pride(authentic and hubristic) among adult recreational ath-letes. It was hypothesized that athletes perceiving acaring and task-involving climate would report greaterlevels of compassion, self-compassion, and authenticpride, while reporting lower levels of hubristic prideand shame. Additionally, it was hypothesized that ath-letes perceiving an ego-involved climate would reportlower levels of compassion, self-compassion, andauthentic pride, while reporting higher levels of hubris-tic pride and shame.

Method

Participants

Adult athletes playing in a Wiffle Ball tournamentbenefitting a national foundation (N = 164,M = 31.5 years) were invited to complete a question-naire measuring motivational climate, compassion, self-compassion, pride, and shame. The sample was com-prised of 131 males, 10 females, and 23 individuals thatchose not to report their gender. Over 95% of theparticipants lived in the Northeastern United States,most from within 300 miles of the tournament location.Only eight participants listed their race as somethingother than Caucasian. The median income for thosewho chose to report wages was $85,000.

There were 24 teams in the tournament, but threeteams did not participate in the study. Two teams werecomprised of members all less than 18 years of age (andthus, could not participate), and one other team declinedto participate. The remaining 21 teams participated andcompleted the surveys. Fifteen of these 21 teams hadplayed in the annual event at least six times, having fairlyregular rosters with only a few changes from year to year.The athletes reported being involved with their teams foran average of 5.14 years. While the rules of Wiffle Ballcan vary (e.g., distance of the pitching mound, optionalbase running, number of players on a team), the rules ofthis event closely mirror the standard rules of baseball,making the tournament unique from others. Still, many

participants practice and play some form of the game(recreational and competitive) in the months leading upto the tournament. The tournament also features localumpires who volunteer their time for the cause. In somecases, officials might use video replay to decide a closeplay (the games are taped and broadcast on the Internet).The tournament champions get their name inscribed ona trophy that is passed along from the previous winnerand the winning team’s name chiseled into a large rockon the property where the event is located.

Participants were asked to complete the survey afterplaying their first game in the tournament (each of theteam played a minimum of three games). Approval toconduct this study was provided by the institutionalreview board at the researchers’ university, the tourna-ment steering committee, and the foundation. Allparticipants provided their informed consent prior tocompleting the survey.

Procedure

The survey was administered at the tournament to partici-pants over the age of 18 years. Athletes were informed thatthe purpose of the study was to examine factors that helppeople have positive sport experiences. They were assuredanonymity and encouraged to answer as honestly andthoughtfully as possible. Completion of the survey tookapproximately 25 min. Because captains were also mem-bers of their teams, we felt they should take the survey aswell. The leader role is different than a traditional coach, inthat for many of these teams, the designated leader was theperson responsible for submitting paperwork, filling outthe team roster, communicating with the tournamentdirector, and so on. The team captains were less involvedwith more traditional coaching duties, such as givingtechnical instruction, recruiting athletes, etc.

Questionnaire

Perceived Motivational Climate in SportsQuestionnaire (PMCSQ)The PMCSQ (Seifriz et al., 1992) was administered to assessthe players’ perceptions of the climate on their team. Thesurvey was created to measure the extent to which athletesperceive the climate as task- (12 items) and ego-involving (9items). For the purpose of this study, the term “coach” inthe itemswas changed to read, “teamcaptain.”The teams inthe tournament did not have a coach; instead, each teamhad a team captain that was responsible for organizing theirteams, submitting batting lineups, and making game deci-sions, but unlike traditional coaches, the majority of teamcaptains also played in the games. Having team captainsserve as coaches is typical in adult recreational sport.

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Individuals responded to the items using a 5-pointLikert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree).Examples of items include, “On this team, doing betterthan others is important” (ego) and, “On this team, thefocus is to improve each game” (task). Researchersrevealed reliability coefficients of α = .88 (task-invol-ving) and α = .87 (ego-involving) in previous literature(Seifriz et al., 1992).

Caring Climate Scale (CCS)The 13-item CCS (Newton et al., 2007) was included tomeasure the athletes’ perceptions of how they are trea-ted by the coaches. The items were slightly adaptedfrom the CCS to refer specifically to team captains(rather than the coaches) and athletes. For example,instead of “The coach accepts kids for who they are,”the item instead read, “The captain accepts the playersfor who they are.” The CCS also has items that pertainto teammate relationships (e.g., “players like oneanother for who they are”). The 13-item scale measuresthe participants’ perceptions of multiple caring ele-ments including support, concern, and acceptance.Individuals were asked to respond to the items usinga 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to5 = strongly agree). The CCS was found to have stronginternal reliability (α = .92) in the original study. Inaddition, it had convergent validity with a task-invol-ving climate (r = .56) and discriminant validity with anego-involving climate (r = –.36).

The Compassionate Love ScaleThe 21-item Compassionate Love Scale (Sprecher & Fehr,2005) was administered to measure the athletes’ feelingstoward their team captains and teammates. The research-ers created the measure to examine how people experi-ence compassion and how that particular emotion isexpressed to others. They had participants fill in theblanks for a romantic partner or very close friend (“I tryto put myself in _________’s shoes when he or she is introuble). For the purpose of this study we had the athletesenvision their teammates (e.g., “I try to put myself in myteammate’s shoes when he or she is in trouble).

Four items from the original scalewere omitted fromusefor this study. A panel of sport psychology researchers metprior to the study taking place and decided that items suchas, “One of the activities that provides me with the mostmeaning to my life is helping others with whom I have aclose relationship,” would not necessarily apply to measur-ing overall experience on sports teams. Other deleted itemsinclude: “I often have tender feelings towardmy teammateswhen they seem to be in need,” “I want to spend time withmy teammates so that I can find ways to help enrich theirlives,” and “I feel considerable compassionate love for my

teammates.” Individuals responded to the items using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = stronglyagree). The measure was found to have an internal relia-bility of α = .95 in Sprecher and Fehr’s initial study.

The Self-Compassion ScaleThe Self-Compassion Scale (Neff, 2003b) was used tomeasure the athletes’ compassion that they directtoward themselves. The scale measures the extent thatparticipants can be kind toward themselves in times ofstruggle or failure while keeping a greater world-per-spective and not feeling isolated. Participants wereasked to consider each item solely with regard towhen they are playing a Wiffle Ball game. Examplesof items include, “I’m tolerant of my own flaws andinadequacies,” and, “I try to see my failings as part ofthe human condition.” Individuals responded to theitems using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = almost never to5 = almost always). Neff (2003b) found that the 26-itemmeasure had strong internal consistency (α = .92).

Pride ScaleFeelings of authentic and hubristic pride while enga-ging in sport were assessed using the Pride Scale (Tracy& Robins, 2007b). The scale measures the extent thatpride is of a hubristic (seven items) or authentic (sevenitems) nature. The original measurement involved traitand state pride, and for the purpose of this study onlythe trait measure was employed. The measure focusedthe athletes on their general play (e.g., “When playingWiffle Ball, I feel like I am egotistical [sample hubrisitem];” “When playing Wiffle Ball, I feel like I amaccomplished [sample authentic item].” Individualsresponded to the items using a 5-point Likert scale(1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). Tracy andRobins (2007b) reported internal consistency of α = .88(authentic pride) and α = .90 (hubristic pride).

Fear of Experiencing Shame and EmbarrassmentThe Fear of Experiencing Shame and EmbarrassmentSubscale was taken from Conroy’s (2004) PerformanceFailure Appraisal Inventory (PFAI), a six-question surveymeasuring how much shame athletes are experiencingwhen they are failing in sport. Examples of items include,“When I am failing, I worry about what others thinkabout me,” and, “When I am not succeeding, I am lessvaluable than when I succeed.” Participants were asked toanswer the items with specific regard to playing WiffleBall, using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Do not believe at allto 5 = Believe 100% of the time). The original subscale hadan alpha coefficient of α = .87 (Conroy, 2001).

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Results

Statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS 20 andMplus 7.0. Means, standard deviations, and Cronbach(1951) alpha coefficients were calculated for each ofthe scales and are provided in Table 1. Cronbachalpha coefficients revealed internal consistency foreach of the scales, and all but task-involving climate(α = .63) demonstrated satisfactory results. Aftereliminating question 18 (i.e., Most of the playersplay in the game), the task-involving climate scale(Seifriz et al., 1992) had an improved and acceptablebut marginal Cronbach reliability coefficient(α = .69). All further analyses were conducted afterthe removal of this question. The item was less rele-vant because most of the teams had few players onthe bench, and because every athlete typically playedin the games, this item did not differentiate theathletes’ perceptions of their team climates.

Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated for allthe scales. Perceived caring- and task-involving motiva-tional climates were positively correlated with compas-sion and authentic pride while being negatively associatedwith hubristic pride. Conversely, athletes who perceivedan ego-involving climate reported less compassion andmore feelings of hubristic pride and shame (see Table 1).

To explore the multi-construct validity of the climate,pride, shame and compassion scales, a confirmatory fac-tor analysis (CFA) was performed. In the initial CFA, theself-compassion construct was not significantly correlatedto the climate constructs as hypothesized. As a result, thedecision was made to remove the self-compassion con-struct from the model and to rerun the CFA with theremaining seven constructs. Overall fit of the model wasdetermined by the comparative fit index (CFI; Hu &Bentler, 1998), Tucker–Lewis index (TLI; Tucker &Lewis, 1973), root mean square error of approximation(RMSEA; Steiger & Lind, 1980), and standardized rootmean square residual (SRMR; Hu & Bentler, 1998).

Values approaching 1 (specifically, .9 or higher) indicateacceptable model fit for CFI and TLI while valuesapproaching 0 (specifically, lower then .08) representacceptable model fit for RMSEA and SRMR. The resultsof the 7-factor model showed acceptable fit indices(CFI = .90; TLI = .89; RMSEA = .08; SRMR = .07).

It should be noted that items in the climate scales andthe compassion scale were parceled in order to improve themodel fit; the parcels were paired with strong and weakvariables (Little, 2013; Little, Cunningham, Shhar, &Widaman, 2002). Although the use of parcels has been asource of controversy, carefully constructed parcels thatbalance both theoretical content andmeasurement proper-ties can have higher reliability and greater communalitywhile reducing sources of sampling error and the likeli-hood of correlated residuals or dual-loadings resulting inlower Type II error rates overall (Little, Rhemtulla, Gibson,& Schoemann, 2013). The climate and compassion scalesare well-established instruments with known psychometricproperties, such that parceling would be an acceptablemethod to improve model fit. Modification indicesrevealed the compassion parcels were sharing residual var-iance in the model. In order to account for the sharedvariance, compassion Parcel 1 was allowed to correlatewith compassion Parcel 4, and compassion Parcel 2 wasallowed to correlate with compassion Parcel 3. Overall, theCFA provides evidence for the validity of these measuresused in a sport context.

Finally, a canonical correlation analysis (CCA) wasconducted to examine the relationship between the cli-mate variables (caring, task-, and ego-involving scales) tothe compassion for teammates, pride, and shame mea-sures. This data was conducted using weighted factorscores from the CFA data. CCA are helpful for examin-ing the relationship between two sets of variables. TheCCA revealed one significant function (Wilks’slambda = .18, F[12] = 30.36 [p < .001]). The canonicalcorrelation was .84 with 71% overlapping variance (seeFigure 1). The effect size can be determined using the

Table 1. Wiffle Ball tournament descriptive statistics

Variable

Pearson Correlations

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Caring 1.002. Task .41** 1.003. Ego −.31** .07 1.004. Compassion .57** .40** −.25** 1.005. Self-Compassion −.10 −.01 −.12 .14 1.006. Authentic Pride .40** .51** .04 .44** .08 1.007. Hubristic Pride −.53** −.29** .31** −.37** −.14 −.25** 1.008. Shame −.05 −.02 .38** −.05 −.44** −.04 .11 1.00Mean 4.28 3.55 2.31 3.89 3.06 3.69 1.80 2.65SD .80 .60 .73 .73 .45 .82 .82 .45Min–Max 1–5 1–5 1–5 1–5 1–5 1–5 1–5 1–5Alpha .96 .69 .84 .95 .84 .87 .87 .83

**p < .01, 2-tailed.*p < .05, 2-tailed.

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squared canonical correlation (R2s = .71), a commonmeasure of effect size in CCA. Based on Cohen’s(1994) rule this is a large effect. The loadings revealedthat perceptions of a moderate caring and high task-involving climate were associated with participantsreporting higher authentic pride levels and less hubristicpride. All standard canonical coefficients were consistentwith hypothesized directions.

Discussion

The intent of this study was to explore the relationshipbetween adult recreational athletes’ perceptions of themotivational climate (caring, task-involving, and ego-involving) on their teams to their compassion, self-compassion, shame, and pride levels as they relate totheir sport experiences. Overall, the results revealedsupport for the hypothesized relationships based onAGPT and a caring framework. Specifically, a CFAshowed that motivational climate, compassion forteammates, pride, and shame are valid measures in asport setting. Additionally, the CCA revealed that acaring/task-involving climate was positively associatedwith athletes’ authentic pride and negatively associatedwith their hubristic pride.

The strong link from climate to compassion forteammates indicated in the Pearson correlations wasexpected, as it follows that athletes who perceive theirteam environment as caring, where everyone is treatedwith kindness and respect, and where the focus is onhelping each member of the team reach his/her poten-tial are more likely to extend those same feelings ofcompassion toward their teammates and coaches. This

would suggest that an environment where athletes feellike they are a part of the team, nurtured, and haveequally valued opinions would have a positive effect onthe extent that athletes care for the well-being of theirteammates, both on and off the field. These findings areconsistent with Noddings’ (1995) argument that com-passion may be a likely by-product of a caring andsupportive environment. These results also suggestthat athletes observing teammates committing errors(i.e., physical or mental) would be more likely to sym-pathize with and respond with encouragement, ratherthan blame a teammate for the misstep.

Conversely, Pearson correlations also revealed thatcompassion for teammates had a negative relationshipwith the ego-involving climate. In ego-involving climatesmistakes are punished and the focus is solely on outcomes(Seifriz et al., 1992). An athlete experiencing an ego-invol-ving climate might be less likely to forgive a teammate’sfailures on the playing field because mistakes are detri-mental to the stated priority of winning the game. Theseresults are in line with research indicating that youngathletes who perceive a caring and task-involving climateare more likely to engage in caring behaviors with theirteammates and coaches (Fry & Gano-Overway, 2010;Iwasaki & Fry, 2013). Specific behaviors that lead to aculture of compassion in sport will be an importantavenue for future research.

While the compassion for teammates measure fol-lowed the hypothesized expectations with the climatescales, such was not the case for the self-compassionmeasure. It is difficult to speculate why self-compassiondid not emerge as a key factor in the study, but there areseveral important points to make in this regard. To begin,

Caring

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ompassion

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Figure 1. Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA). Athletes experiencing a more caring and task-involving climate reported greaterauthentic pride and lower hubristic pride.

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the self-compassion measure was adapted from a broaderglobal measure that assesses individuals’ bigger pictureviews of the extent that they are able to feel compassionfor themselves in difficult circumstances. It may be thatathletes did not perceive the items as pertaining directly totheir sport experience. For examples, items such as “InWiffle Ball,” “I’mkind to myself when I experience suffer-ing,” or “I try to be loving toward myself when I’mexperiencing emotional pain” may have been interpretedby athletes as being too melodramatic or extreme. It ispossible that a self-compassion measure developed speci-fically for sports might better reveal the relationships withthe motivational climate. It also may be the case that maleathletes find it much easier to express compassion fortheir teammates and coaches than for themselves. Workby Magnus, Kowalski, and McHugh (2010) andMosewich et al. (2011) was exclusively with female exer-cisers and athletes, respectively, while the population forthis research was predominately male. Research on self-compassion in sports provides another interesting areafor future inquiry.

In addition to considering compassion for team-mates and self-compassion in relation to athletes’perceptions of the climate, also of interest was therelationship between climate to authentic pride.Results were as hypothesized in that athletes whoperceived a caring and task-involving motivationalclimate were significantly more likely to experienceauthentic pride. This relationship was further sup-ported by the canonical correlation. Authentic prideis very much about athletes’ feeling good about theprocess of giving effort, improving, and ultimatelybeing happy with their accomplishments regardlessof the game outcomes and performance standards.While athletes experiencing authentic pride mayhighly value winning outcomes, those outcomes donot singularly define the athletes’ journey. This mind-set is directly in line with task-involving climateswhere effort, improvement, and mastery are highlyvalued. The relationship between perceiving a caringclimate and authentic pride also suggests that athletescan experience authentic pride via the experiences oftheir teammates. Having teammates succeed andbeing proud of their good fortune and hard work isa likely by-product of a caring and task-involvingclimate. Interestingly, previous research has not con-sidered the relationship between motivational climateto pride, and the results reveal that continuedresearch may provide a fruitful line of inquiry.

While authentic pride was positively associated withthe caring and task-involving climate scales, there wasno significant negative association with an ego-invol-ving climate as hypothesized. Results suggest that the

features of an ego-involving climate are not likely to setthe stage for athletes to experience authentic pride, butthey also do not necessarily lead to a negative associa-tion. Clearly, coaches who want their athletes to experi-ence authentic pride would be less likely to observe it ina climate where outcomes and being considered thebest are highly valued.

While authentic pride had no association with ath-letes’ perceptions of an ego-involving climate, hubristicpride revealed a strong negative relationship ashypothesized. Athletes perceiving an ego-involving cli-mate were much more likely to report feeling pride dueto performance outcomes and being the best. Becausethe focus of an ego-involving climate is on winning andoutperforming opponents, it follows that athletes whospend extensive time in such an environment wouldexperience greater pride in achievements related toperformance outcomes. One underlying facet of hubris-tic pride is feeling superior to others (Tracy & Robins,2007a). Athletes experiencing hubristic pride are com-paring themselves to others, as is done in ego-involvingmotivational climates. Ego-involving climates are detri-mental because they can encourage a “survival of thefittest” atmosphere, which can lead to lower participa-tion rates. Hubristic pride may be a detrimental out-come of ego-involving motivational climates. Tracy,Shariff, and Cheng (2010) note a very strong linkbetween hubristic pride and narcissism. In futureresearch it would be worthwhile to explore the ego-involving climate’s effect on narcissism, and also howego goal orientations (Nicholls, 1989) are related toboth hubristic pride and narcissism.

While hubristic pride was positively associatedwith an ego-involving climate, both Pearson correla-tions and the canonical correlation reveal that thecaring and task-involving climate were negativelyassociated with this form of pride. This finding isparticularly interesting. The hubristic pride measurehas athletes indicate how much they feel particularadjectives (i.e., snobbishness, smugness, pompous-ness, stuck-up, egotistical) when they play. Clearly,the features of an ego-involving climate would bemore likely to elicit emotions of arrogance that maybe valued by coaches who want to instill a sense ofsuperiority in their athletes. It is likely that coachesattempting to foster caring and task-involving cli-mates would be striving to instill the opposite quali-ties from those that define hubristic pride, and thusthe strong negative correlation is logical. These find-ings would suggest that coaches who are attemptingto create caring/task- versus ego-involving climatesare maneuvering along different paths that are likelyto lead to very different outcomes with their athletes.

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In addition to hubristic pride being positively asso-ciated with an ego-involving motivational climate,shame also revealed a positive Pearson correlation asoriginally hypothesized. This relationship was expectedgiven the ego-involving climate’s high emphasis onoutcomes. Experiencing an ego-involving motivationalclimate gives athletes a very real chance of feeling as ifthey’ve let others down or that they are somehow lesserpeople because they did not perform as desired on theplaying fields. A perceived ego-involving climate is notlikely to be enjoyed by every member of a team. In thiscase, shame occurs due to the fear of poor outcomes(e.g., a errant throw or striking out in a crucial situa-tion). Performing poorly can cause athletes experien-cing an ego-involving climate to feel as if they are notworthy of being on the team. Perceived ego-involvingclimates cause athletes to worry about making mistakesrather than focusing on trying to be successful(Reinboth & Duda, 2004). This research further sup-ports the importance of caring and task-involving cli-mates for keeping athletes involved and engaged.

Limitations and future directions

While this study had numerous strengths, the limita-tions should be noted. First, athletes were surveyedduring the tournament at a single time point. Had itbeen possible, having the athletes complete the surveybefore the tournament started could have ruled out thepossibility that their responses were influenced by theirperformance or their teams’ win/loss records. The com-passion, pride, and shame assessments all measure traittendencies, but removing the situational aspects of thetournament would have been preferred.

In addition, researchers might explore how athletes’compassion, pride, and shame might change acrossseasons, depending on the extent that athletes experi-ence more caring and task-involving versus ego-invol-ving climates on their teams. Smith, Smoll, andCumming (2007, 2009) found that athletes in a mas-tery-focused climate report lower trait anxiety andhigher task orientation from pre- to post-sport season,suggesting that the structure of sport teams has thepotential to impact athletes’ well-being and quality oflife.

Another limitation of this study has to do with thenature of the sport. The Wiffle Ball tournament in thepresent study is an annual charity benefit that typicallyinspires good will. While anecdotal observations sug-gest that participants take the competition part of thetournament very seriously, these measures will also beof interest to consider with athletes who participate in atournament where the focus is more typically

competitive, and where teams might be participatingin more structured practice leading up to the event. Amulti-level approach would have been an interestingway to further explore the climate on each team.Future research would require a larger sample size inorder to accomplish this.

A further limitation of this study is that sport spe-cific measures of the outcome variables (i.e., compas-sion, self-compassion, pride, and shame), were notavailable. More general measures of these constructswere employed in this study, and some items wereremoved from scales in order to account for the uniquenature of the event (a Wiffle Ball tournament to benefita charity). While deleting items from established mea-sures is not typically recommended, the panel ofresearchers consulted ultimately recommended that itwas the best option given the exploratory nature of thisstudy. With the deletion of a few items, the constructshad strong psychometric properties and served well inthis research. However, in future research, it may beimportant to consider whether the development ofmore sport specific measures of these constructs maybe needed.

Another limitation of the study that should be notedis the alpha level for the task-involving climate (.69)was slightly low. Decades of research has shown thePMCSQ to be a reliable and consistent instrument (Fry& Newton, 2003; Hogue et al., 2013; Iwasaki & Fry,2013; Newton et al., 2007). While it is unclear why thereliability of this scale was low, it is possible that task-involving items on the survey did not resonate withparticipants because the captain does not typically teachthe players as a coach would on a more traditionalteam. Additionally because of the uniqueness andshort duration of the event, seeing improvement maynot be a goal that resonates with the athletes.

The captains completed the climate measuresbecause they were considered full members of theirteams. However, it is important to note that this smallpercentage of the overall respondents (the captains) wascompleting a few items on the CCS that referred tothemselves. Even though this could potentially intro-duce impression management bias, the data that cap-tains provide is critical for this unique sample. Howmotivational climate may differ between traditionalcompetitive sport and recreational sport will be impor-tant to consider in future research.

In terms of future research, in addition to exploringthe motivational climate among adult recreational ath-letes, these constructs would also be beneficial if admi-nistered longitudinally among young athletes. Whileconsiderable literature explores youth athletes’ percep-tions of the motivational climate operating on their

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teams, no studies explore the relation of climate to theirexperiences with compassion, self-compassion, shame,and pride. It would be beneficial to see how childrenand adolescents experience these constructs in order tofurther understand their relationship to sport, as well asto consider how these constructs influence athletes ofall ages’ participation or withdrawal from sports. Usinga qualitative research design could provide a beneficialapproach to examining athletes’ specific experienceswith feeling compassion, pride, and shame on theirsport teams. This rich data source could providedetailed information about the optimal and harmfulbehaviors that coaches and teammates engage in thatshape athletes’ sport experiences.

Additionally, this study has implications for profes-sionals and volunteers involved in adult recreationalsports. The results suggest that a caring and task-invol-ving motivational climate, and not an ego-involvingclimate, is more likely to be linked to athletes’ keepingtheir personal and team’s sport’s performances in per-spective, experiencing compassion and authentic pride,and avoiding feelings of shame and hubristic pride.This study opens the door for sport psychology profes-sionals to further examine how sports can be structuredin a way to foster positive emotional states that helpathletes develop not only as athletes, but also as heal-thier human beings.

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