PERCEIVBD CONTROL AND PARENT-CHILD COERCTVE EXCHANGESt A DYNAMIC SYSTBMS ANAI,YSIS

Christine Yvette Tardif

A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts

Department of Human Development and Applied Psychology Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the

University of Toronto

@copyright by Christine Yvette Tardif 1997

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Perceived Control and Parent-Child Coercive Exchanges:

A Dynamic Systems Analysis

Masters of Arts 1997

Christine Yvette Tardif

Human Development and Applied Psychology

ontario Institute for Studies in Education

University of Toronto

To expand on paît inquires regarding parent-child coercive

exchanges this study adopted a dynamic systems approach. Parent

and child were regarded as a self-organizing system, and the

emergence of communicative patterns in real time interaction was

highlighted. Specifically, this study was designed to explore

differences in communicative patterns among parent-child dyads

during a stressful situation, and to explore the relation of

these differences to both parental and child perceptions of

control. Eight parent-preadolescent dyads were videotaped while

discussing three topics: (1) a pleasant topic, (2) an unpleasant

topic ( L e . , stressful situation), (3) a pleasant topic. Al1

verbal utterances were coded for affect and content. Results are

consistent with the expectation that the onset of a stressful

situation reveals systematic differences in the intensity, timing,

and stability of negative parent-child communication patterns, as

a function of perceptions of control. The theoretical and clinical

implications of these findings are discussed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

As I contemplate the many steps taken in order to

successfully complete this research ptoject, my thoughts steer

invariably toward those who have offered their support and

assistance throughout my endeavour. 1 now embrace the

opportunity to thank these individuals. First, 1 would like to

thank al1 the parents and children who participated in this

study. Their contributions have made this research project

possible, and their enthusiasm has made it an interesting and

exciting venture. 1 would like to express my appreciation for

the academic support offered to me by Dr. Marc Lewis's research

group, and 1 am also thankful for the assistance that Simon

Williams offered regarding the development of appropriate coding

systems. Moreover, 1 would like to thank Dr. Marc Lewis for his

insightful suggestions, guidance, and support while completing

this research project. 1 would also like to express my gratitude

toward Dr. Daniel Keating for extending his insightful comments

on an earlier version of this report. Lastly and perhaps most

importantly, 1 would like to thank my family and friends for

offering their support, patience, and understanding. Thank you

for believing in me, and for teaching me t h a t with a lot of

perseverance and hard work 1 can realize my dreams and attain my

goals.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................... vii Chapter :

I INTRODUCTION* ............................................. 1 parent-Child Coercive Exchanges: The Role of ........................................ Perceived Control 3 A Look at the Conceptual and Methodological Limitations Inherent in Previous Investigations .......... 6 Dynamic Systems Theory: A Brief ~ntroduction ............. 9 Perceived Control and Parent-Child Coercive Exchanges: A Dynamic Systems Analysis .................. A 2 The Present Study ....................................... 16

................................................... II . METHOD 19 Subjects ................................................ 19 Procedure ..............................m................ 19 Measures ................................................ 20

Parenting Locus of Control Scale ..................... 20 Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External Control Scale for Children ................................... 21 Defining External and Interna1 Parent-Child Dyads .... 22 Frames of Conversation ............................... 24 Transcribing and Coding Videotaped Conversations ..... 25 Coding Verbal Content of Parent-Child Conversations .....................................me. 26 Coding Affect Associated with Parent-Child Conversations ........................................ 28

Data Analysis Procedures ................................ 28 Conventional Analysis ................................... 30

Question #l Exploring Differences in Level of Coerciveness ............... 30

Dynamic Systems Analyses ................................ 30 Question 12 Detecting Phase Transitions ............ 30 Graphical and Visual Report ........................ 30 Exploratory Report ,. ........................ ....... 31 Questions #3. and #4 Measuring Latency ..................................... and Hysteresis 33 .................................................. . III mSULTS 34

Conventional Analysis ................................... 34 Question #1 ......................................... *34

Interna1 and External Parents ................... 34 Interna1 and External Children .................. 34

Dynamic Systems Analyses ................................ 40 Question 82 .......................................... 40 Graphical and Visual Report .......................... 40

Verbal Content .................................. 40 .......................................... Affect 44

Exploratory Report e . . . . . . ; e e . . e e ~ e ~ ~ e e e e e e e e e e ~ ~ ~ e e e ~ 4 8 ............ Interna1 Dyads ...................... 50 ................................. Dyads #l and #4 50

Dyad #8--Child ..............e......e...ee*.4.. *.53 External Dyads ...................... .......... .*55 Dyads #3, 15, and #7 ............................ 55

Exploring the Correspondence Between Changes in Affect and Phase Transitions in Verbal Content .... 60 .................................. Interna1 Dyads 60 ............ External Dyads ......ee.....~.....4. * 6 4 Question $3 .......................................... 68 Question #4 ......................................... *70

IVm D I S C U S S I O N . e e a e e e . e e e o e e e e o e m m e . e e e . e c . e . - o e . e o o o o o m e . o e o e 7 2 Perceptions of Control and Parent-Child Coercive Communication. .......................................... 77

Dynamic Systems Theory as an Enpirical Guide ......... 77 ........................... A Dynamic Systems Analysis 78

Some Clinical Implications of This Study ................ 81 Some Limitations of This Study and Future Directions .... 83 Concl~sion.~. .............m............................. 85

APPENDICES ..................................................... 96 (A) Parental Letter ............................m..e..... *.96 (B) fnfomed Consent F o m .......................m.e....... 97

............................ (C) Demographic Questionnaire - 9 8 .................. (D) The Parenting Locus of Control Scale 99 (E) The Nowicki-Strickland Internal-Externa1 Control

Scale for Children ...............m................... 102 (F) 8-Item Subscale of the Nowicki-Strickland

Internal-External Control Scale for Children ......... 107 (G) Gottman's (1979) Couples Interaction Scoring System .......................................... (C.I.S.S.) .IO8 (H) Floating Variance Graphs f o r External Dyad #2 and

................................... Interna1 Dyad #6 ..log (1) Floating Variance Graphs for the Internal Parent #8 .. 110

LIST OP TLEBLES --

Table #:

Distribution of Perceived Control Scores for Parent-Child Dyads Categorized as External................23

~istribution of Perceived Control Scores for Parent-Child Dyads Categorized as Internal................24

Coding Scheme For Verbal Content.............. ....m....m . . 2 6 Coding Scheme for Verbal Content: Some Examples ........... 27 Coding Scheme for Affect (Nonverbal Behaviour) .........* ..29 Total Number of Verbal Utterances From the Beginning of Frame B to the Onset of Phase Transitions for Interna1 and External Dyads. .............. ......O.e. .*69 Total Number of Verbal Utterances From the Beginning of Frame C to the Second Phase Transition for Internal and External Dyads ...........m.... .............m..........71

LIST OB BZGüRES

Figure #:

1. Histogram Depicting the Average Affect Scores of Internal and External Parents Across Conversation Frames A, 8, and C........................*...............36

2 . Histogram Depicting the Average Verbal Content Scores of Internal and External Parents Across Conversation Frames A, B, and C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... ..J7

3. Histogram Depicting the Average Affect Scores of Internal and External Children Across Conversation Frames A, B, and C..........................-......t......38

4. Histogram Depicting the Average Verbal Content Scores of Internal and External Children Across Conversation Frames A, B, and C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 39

5. Time Series Graphs Depicting Verbal Content and Affect Scores for Internal Dyads #1 and #4................42

6. Time Series Graphs Depicting Verbal Content and Affect Scores for Internal Dyads #6 and #8 . . . . . . .......... 43

7. Time Series Graphs Depicting Verbal Content and Affect Scores for External Dyads #3 and # 5 . . . . . . . . . ....... 46

8 . Time Series Graphs Depicting Verbal Content and Affect Scores for External Dyads #7 and #2................47

9. Dyad #1: Floating Variance Graph and Phase Space Maps Of Verbal Content Scores.............. .....m.. .51

10. Dyad #4: Floating Variance Graph and Phase Space Maps Of Verbal Content Scores.............. .....-.. -52

11. Dyad #8 Child: Floating Variance Graph and Phase Space Maps Of Verbal Content Scores................ ....... 54

12. Dyad #3: Floating Variance Graph and Phase Space Maps Of Verbal Content Scores.......................56

13. Dyad #5: Floating Variance Graph and Phase Space Maps Of Verbal Content Scores.......................57

14. Dyad #7: Floating Variance Graph and Phase Space Maps Of Verbal Content Scores.. ..................... 58

15. Dyad #1: Floating Average Graphs of Affect Scores and Floating Variance Graphs of Verbal Content Scores............................................61

16. Dyad $4: Floating Average Graphs of Affect Scores and Floating Variance Graphs of Verbal Content S~ores........................~...................62

17. Dyad 1 8 Child: Floating Average Graphs of Affect Scores and Floating Variance Graphs of Verbal Content S~ores..........................................~.63

18. Dyad #3: Floating Average Graphs of Affect Scores and Floating Variance Graphs of Verbal Content Scores....................~.~.~.~.................65

19. Dyad #5: Floating Average Graphs of Affect Scores and Floating Variance Graphs of Verbal Content Scores.......s....................................66

20. Dyad 17: Floating Average Graphs of Affect Scores and Floating Variance Graphs of Verbal Content Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 7

v i i i

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

During the past decade, interest concerning the phenomenon

of child maltreatment has resulted in an abundance of inquiries

investigating the intricate nature of, and issues related to,

parent-child conflict (Blos, 1989 ; MacKinnon, Lamb, Belsky &

Baum, 1990; Marini, 1993; Minuchin, 1992; Snyder, Edwards,

McGraw, Kilgore & Holton, 1994; Steinberg, 1990). Despite recent

focus on the negative aspects of parent-child conflict, and its

contribution to child maltreatment, theorists contend that

conflictual episodes among parents and their children can be

dealt with constructively or destructively, hence leading to

either functional or dysfunctional outcomes (Deutsch, 1973).

Contemporary views emphasize that, when dealt with

constructively, conflict is a normal and inevitable process often

giving sise to positive states and outcomes. (Blos, 1989; Cooper,

1988; Cooper, Grotevant & Condon, 1983; Marini, 1993).

Nevertheless, it rernains critical to note that a substantial

degree of destructive conflict continues to delineate some

parent-child relationships (Montemayor, 1982). It has been

estimated that one in five families is characterized by parents

and their children engaging in prolonged, intense, and repeated

conflict (Montemayor, 1982). Also, it has been reported that

over 10% of children are targets of parental aggression, ranging

from severe spankings to attacks with knives and guns (Gelles &

Straus, 1988) .

2

Moreover, a number of reviews have indicated that prolonged

parent-child conflict can have adverse consequences for the

developing child (Minuchin, 1992). Such negative consequences

may include arrested social development, low self-esteem, and

aggressive behaviour directed at both peers and adults (Mueller &

ilv ver man, 1989; George & Main, 1979).

Accordingly, it remains particularly important to explore

those circumstances in which parent-child conflict becomes

typically dysfunctional and destructive in nature.

Investigations have suggested that, although parent-child dyads

may experience similar levels of conflict, these dyads may differ

vastly and with profound consequences, regarding the strategies

they employ when attempting to resolve conflict (Snyder et al.,

1994). For example, Snyder et al. (1994) demonstrated that

aggressive children and theit mothers were more likely to employ

escalation as a means to resolve conflict, whereas non-aggressive

children and their mothers were more likely to employ de-

escalation as a means to resolve conflict.

From a social learning perspective, researchers (Snyder et

al., 1994) have concluded that the frequency and functional

utility of escalation in terminating conflict serve to

differentiate aggressive and non-aggressive dyads. For instance,

when mothers gave in to their children as the child was

escalating the level of aversiveness during a conflict, they were

negatively reinforcing their chilàrenrs behaviour, thus making it

more likely that their child would engage in escalation in

subsequent conflicts. While Snyder et ale's (1994) mode1

illustrates how the use of escalation within a parent-child

serves to influence coercive exchanges, it does not explore

3

dyad

the

factors predisposing individual parent-child dyads to frequently

engage in coercive exchanges from the outset.

parent-~hild ~oercive Exchanaes: The Role of Perceived Contra1

In recent attempts to differentiate dyads susceptible to

engaging in coercive exchanges, numerous inquiries have examined

parental traits, parenting styles, as well as parental and child

causal attributions (Dix & Grusec, 1985; Dodge, 1980; Janssens,

1994; MacKinnon et al., 1990; Newberger & White, 1989; Patterson,

1986). Of particular interest in the present thesis is the

recent work exploring the role of perceived control, or locus of

control, as a moderator of adult reactivity to child behaviour

(Bugental, Blue & Cruzcosa, 1989) . Locus of control has been defined by Rotter (1966) as a

generalized expectancy or belief for internal versus external

control of reinforcement. When individuals believe events to be

contingent on their own behaviour, they are said to hold interna1

expectancies for control of reinforcement. Conversely, when

individuals believe events to be the result of luck, chance,

fa te , or I1powerful othersm (Le., physicians) they are said to

hold external expectancies for control of reinforcement.

The importance of perceived control over one's environment

has been demonstrated by many researchers ( e . g . , Langer & Rodin,

1976; Krause, 1987). Numerous investigations have demonstrated

4

that individuals with low perceptions of control (i.e., external

locus of control) over the outcome of events are more reactive to

hard-to-control (i. e. , stressful or Wif f icultmr) situations, and are more prone to the debilitating effects of Vearned

helplessness~ (Dweck & Repucci, 1973; Lefcourt, Hogg, Struthers,

& Holmes, 1975) . In light of these findings, Bugental and Shennum (1984) have

argued that when parents believe they are victims (Le., external

locus of control) of a difficult or stressful event (e.g., child

misbehaviour), they are likely to develop feelings of

helplessness. Further, in believing their efforts are futile,

these parents may develop apathetic feelings about child-rearing

and may come to feel threatened by child uuncontrollability.~

Hence, in an attempt to re-establish and maintain a sense of

control with respect to their role as a parent, these adults may

be more likely to make use of coercive discipline tactics and may

be less likely to use cognitive-rational appeals, such as

providing explanations and negotiating.

Alternately, Bugental and Shennum (1984) have argued that

when parents hold high perceptions of control over the outcome of

events (Le., interna1 locus of control), they will be less

likely to experience feelings of helplessness when disciplining

child misbehaviour. Further, they rnay feel less threatened by

child uncontrollability, and hence feel less compelled to re-

establish and maintain a sense of control and power with respect

to their role as a parent. Consequently, these parents will be

5

less likely to use coercive discipline tactics and will be more

likely to make use of cognitive-rational appeals.

Recently, investigators have proved successful in

demonstrating a link between parental perceptions of control and

parental discipline strategies, For example, Loeb (1975) found

that "externalW parents used highly controlling strategies when

teaching their children, in contrast with Vnternaln parents who

made use of less controlling and more persuasive styles. Also,

abusive mothers have been found more likely than non-abusive

mothers to believe they can do little to prevent negative

caregiving outcomes (Bugental et al., 1989). Furthemore,

external parents, as opposed to interna1 parents, were found to

be more authoritarian when controlling their child, especially

when they perceived their child as an internaliser (Le.,

withdrawing from problems) or an externaliser ( e , acting out

to resolve problems, e.g., aggressiveness) (Janssens, 1994).

To demonstrate the importance of adult perceptions of

control as a moderator of the effects that child behaviour has on

adults, researchers have experimentally varied child

llresponsivenessf~ and ~unresponsivenessl~ (Bugental, Caporael, &

Shennum, 1980; Bugental & Shennum, 1984; Bugental & Cortez,

1988). It was demonstrated that adults with low perceived

control over caregiving outcomes respond with greater negative

affect, greater elevated arousal, and higher levels of

helplessness to difficult or unresponsive children, than do

adults with high perceived control. Adults with high perceived

control over caregiving outcomes have been found to display

little differential reactivity to responsive, versus

unreçponsive, children (Bugental & Cortez, 1988).

In yet another investigation, mothers of seriously il1

infants have been found to cope in a less adaptive manner if they

believed their childrs condition was outside of their control and

was under the control of other individuals in the environment

( e . g . , physicians, nurses, etc.) (Affleck, Allen, McGrade, &

McQuenney, 1982). Thus it appears that low perceptions of

control act in a sensitizing role, whereas high perceptions of

control act in a buffering role.

A Look a t the Conceptual and Methodoloaical Limitations

Inherent i n Previous fnvesticrations

The preceding findings suggest that parental perceptions of

control over the outcome of stressful or difficult events (Le.,

negative caregiving outcomes) play a critical role in influencing

the quality of parental discipline strategies. While these

findings are both revealing and meaningful, it is noteworthy that

the methodology employed in previous studies has been limited in

a number of important respects.

For the most part, past researchers have failed to

acknowledge that parent-child coercive exchanges arise as a

result of, and should be examined as, a dyadic process. For

instance, these researchers ( e . g . , Affleck et al., 1982; Bugental

et al., 1989; Janssens, 1994; Loeb, 1975) have often implicity,

if not explicitly, assumed a direct linear causal relationship

7

between parental perceptions of contxol and parental discipline

strategies. By not considering parent-child coercive exchanges

as a dyadic event, this relationship has traditionally been

measured in isolation with little regard to the possibility that

children's perceptions of control may act in a dynamic,

reciprocal fashion to shape parent-child coercive exchanges

(Affleck et al., 1982; Bugental et al., 1989; Janssens, 1994;

Loeb, 1975).

Additionally, previous inquiries have often relied on

correlational methods, thus allowing for an investigation of

parent-child coercive exchanges following their formation in real

time (Le., outcome). However, little consideration has been

accorded to the unfolding of parent-child coercive exchanges, or

to the processes by which these exchanges emerge and stabilize in

real time (Le., immediate moment to moment interactions).

Moreover, past inquiries have typically accorded

insufficient importance to the context in which parent-child

exchanges are embedded in real time (e.g., stressful or calm

event). When context has been considered, it has once again for

the most part been correlated retrospectively with reports of

parental discipline sttategies, with little consideration granted

to the question of how contextual influences serve to alter the

quality of parent-child exchanges in real time (Janssens, 1994;

Loeb, 1975).

Implicit within previous studies is the opinion that

retrospective correlational approaches are a useful means of

8

addressing the study of individual differences in parent-child

exchanges. However, by ignoring the role of contextual

influences in real tirne, previous inquiries often overlook

individual differences in the quality of exchanges among

particular parent-child dyads. For instance, even parents who

hold low versus high perceptions of control do not engage in

coercive exchanges with their children at al1 times and in al1

contexts; rather, they do so within particular contexts.

While it has been a common approach for investigators to

either control for context, or to Ifround off1' the enormous

variability in parent-child exchanges, the behaviour of most

parent-child dyads is nevertheless highly variable and context

specific. Hence, it should be a primary goal of investigators to

begin identifying those contextual factors leaving parent-child

dyads susceptible to engaging in coercive exchanges at a given

moment in time.

As a consequence of these conceptual and methodological

limitations, I feel that several meaningful questions remain

unanswered. For instance, how does the on-line experience of a

stressful or difficult event combine with perceptions of control

( i . , parental and child) to promote coercive exchanges among

parents and their children in real tirne? Moreover, once coercive

exchanges are initiated, do perceptions of control influence the

stability or strength of these exchanges?

To address these questions and to improve on past conceptual

and methodological shortcomings, an alternative approach is

9

needed, which has as its goal the specification of the processes

by which parent-child coercive exchanges emerge and stabilize in

real time. More specifically, what is needed is a theoretical

approach that recognizes the dyadic nature of parent-child

exchanges, explicitly acknowledges the importance of reciprocal

qualities in dyadic processes, and is sensitive to the importance

of contextual influences on the quality of parent-child

exchanges. Here, 1 introduce a recent and alternative

theoretical approach, known as dynamic systems theory, which may

be better suited to addressing the aforementioned theoretical

requirements.

Dvnamic Svstems the or^: A Brief Introduction

Recently, many psychological theorists are recognizing and

embracing principles of dynamic systems theory as a resourceful

means of conceptualizing the appearance of novel structures or

behaviours in complex systems (see Barton, 1994; Cooney & Troyer,

1994; Fogel, 1990; Ford & Lerner, 1992; Howe & Rabinowitz, 1994;

Lewis, 1995, 1996; Thelen, 1989, 1990; Thelen & Ulrich, 1991).

Inherently, complex systems are multicausal, nonlinear,

nonstationary, and are often found to be in a state of

thermodynamic nonequilibrium. It is noteworthy that complex

systems may extract energy, or information, from sources within

or outside the system. Thus, for example, neither genes or

environment hold priority in effecting change (Thelen, 1989).

Complex systems are comprised of many components or subsystems

free to interact with each other in many ways (Thelen, 1989;

10

Thelen, 1990). Complex systems are thus said to have many

"degrees of freedom" (Thelen, 1989).

Nevertheless, complex systems are often self-organizing.

That is without prior prescription and undet certain contextual

or task-specific constraints, the many components of a complex

system spontaneously interact, producing order and patterned

behaviour, thus reducing the system's original degrees of freedom

(Thelen, 1989; Thelen & Ulrich, 1991) . Lewis (1995) has outlined two main premises concerning self-organizing systems. First,

novel fonns emerging through the processes of self-organization

are qualitatively different from the lower order components

interacting within the system. Second, self-organizing systems

tend to move toward coherence and stability.

Stability in a self-organizing system emerges over time.

Self-organization relies on feedback between coupled elements

within a system, and stability in a self-organizing system is the

result of the ongoing reciprocal adjustment, or covariation,

among these related components (Lewis, 1995; 1996). Under

certain contextual or task-specific constraints, the self-

organized behaviour of a complex system tends to prefer certain

attractor states in the state space ( e , a topographical mode1

(landscape) of al1 the possible states a system can gravitate

toward). (Lewis & Douglas, in press; Thelen, 1990). That is,

without prior prescription, or llblueprint,lt a system's components

will autonomously gravitate toward attractor states, and will

return to these attractors following perturbation. Here, the

11

system is said to be in a steady state of dynamic equilibrium, or

dynamic stability (Thelen, 1990).

Although systems acquire dynamic stability, they remain

sensitive to their environments, and are continually subject to

disruptions or perturbations of their attractor states (Ford &

Lerner, 1992). When a change in one or more of the systemfs

parameters, or components, crosses a critical threshold, the

system may undergo a phase transition. A phase transition is

characterized by the spontaneous and abrupt reorganization of the

systemfs components, causing the destabilization of one or more

attractors, and the emergence of one or more new attractors

(Kelso, Ding & Schoner, 1993; Thelen, 1989). Those components

that drive a system across a critical threshold from one

attractor to another are known, in dynamic terminology, as

control parameters.

It is important to note that, when in a state of dynamic

stability, or an attractor state, perturbations to the system

produce few variations from the stable state. However, during

points of instability, perturbations are extremely influential in

initiating a phase transition (Kelso et al., 1993; Thelen, 1989).

Moreover, when a control parameter crosses a critical threshold

and the system is driven from one attractor to another, it is

possible to measure the stability of this new attractor by

rneasuring the time it takes the system to return to the previous

attractor once the control parameter returns below the critical

threshold. When the system requires a substantial amount of time

12

to return to its previous attractor, a hysteresis effect is s a i d

to have occurred (Kelso et al., 1993). This means that the new

attractor is particularly stable.

Developmental dynamic systems theorists conceptualize human

development as the stabilization and destabilization of

attractors over time (Lewis & Douglas, in press; Thelen & Ulrich,

1991). They diçtinguish two time scales in which self-organized

behaviour can occur. Developmental self-organization occurs with

the emergence and change in attractors over months or years,

whereas the convergence of behaviour to attractors over seconds

or minutes constitutes self-organization in real time (Thelen &

Ulrich, 1991) . Perceived Control and Parent-Child Coercive Exchanaes:

A Dvnamic Svstems Analvsis

Recall that, for the most part, past investigators have

failed to recognize the reciprocal and dyadic nature of parent-

child exchanges, and have emphasized disproportionately the

outcorne, rather than the processes, characterizing these

exchanges. However, more recent theorists have emphasized the

importance of recognizing and exploring the reciprocal nature of

dyadic processes (Fogel, 1990, 1992, 1993; Fogel & Hannan, 1985;

Ford & Lerner, 1992; Reimers t Fogel, in press). More

specifically, parents and their children are regarded as a CO-

acting dyad, or a dynamic and self-organizing system, whereby

differences among dyadic relationships are created in the process

of interaction (Fogel, 1990, 1993). Hence, during interaction,

13

both parent and child characteristics, as well as contextual

factors, act in a dynamic fashion to mutually constrain one

another's behaviour (Fogel, 1993).

Applying dynamic systems principles to his own work, Fogel

(1993) has described al1 dyadic interactions as a process of

continuous and mutual adaptation, that is, as a process of co-

regula t ion . He defines co-regulation as a %ocial process by

which individuals dynamically alter their actions with respect to

the ongoing and anticipated actions of their partnersw (Fogel,

1993, p. 34). Also, during interaction an individual's behaviour

is emergent from the constraints imposed by their own body, by

their expectations, as well as by the actions of the partner.

Through CO-regulated interaction, consensual social patterns are

created and elaborated over the, and these CO-regulated patterns

can be recognized by their repetition and coherence over t h e

(e. g. , social games) (Fogel, 1993) . Moreover, in describing dyadic communication Fogel (1993)

has introduced the concept of consensual frames. A frame is a

CO-regulated consensual agreement (Le., attractor) about the

main topic of discourse, about the limits of what is to be

communicated between a dyad, and about when and how interactions

take place and for how long. Note that frames must exist before

partners can actually engage in facused communication, and like

the ensuing discourse, frames are consensual and CO-regulated.

Fogel distinguishes two types of consensual frames: (1)

stable consensual frames for creativity and innovation, and (2)

24

stable consensual frames for rigidity and dissolution. First,

soma stable consensual frames in relationships are characterized

by inventiveness and creativity. For instance, dyadic

communication is characterized by themes, and each tirne a theme

is mutually engaged in something new emerges. Here, both

partners are rnotivated by the potential for creativity in their

relationship about a particular theme. Second, some stable

consensual frames are marked by rigidity, and by a motivation to

avoid creativity around particular themes (e.g., ritualized

greetings). Rigid consensual frames rnay persist for long periods

of time ( e . g . , a child may insist on introducing a topic that the

parent wishes to avoid), and may become destructive (e.g.,

continually denying a partner emotional support for an

information theme that relates to adaptive functioning) (Fogel,

1993).

In line with both Fogelrs (1993) theorizing and principles

of dynamic systems, we can imagine a landscape (Le., state

space) delineating the many potential frames or patterns of

communication (Le., attractor states), that a particular parent-

child dyad may tend toward at a given point in the. For

instance, when faced with a stressful situation, there are a

number of potential approaches (Le., many degrees of freedom)

for a dyad to resolve the inunediate situation. However, as their

behaviour self-organizes, it will tend toward certain patterns of

communication, or attractor states, over others, thus reducing

the systemfs many degrees of freedom.

The question remains why the communication of particular

parent-child dyads ( e . , dyads with external or low perceptions

of control) tends to prefer, or converge toward, coercive

attractor patterns in real tirne? What factors are responsible

for driving the system from an attractor pattern characterized by

open and positive communication (i.e., creative frame) toward

another characterized by coercive communication (i.e., rigid

frame)? Moreover, once coercive communication patterns are

established, why do these become stable and rigid patterns for

some parent-child dyads, and not others?

By reconceptualizing parent-child interactions as dynamic,

self-organizing, and CO-regulated, we can begin by graphically

mapping the many communication patterns in the state space for a

particular dyad. Further, those patterns that are particularly

stable for a dyad can be identified as attractor states, that is

communication patterns toward which the dyad tends to converge.

Next, identifying attractor patterns for a dyad allows for the

detection of phase shifts in dyadic communication (e.g., a shift

from positive to coercive communication patterns). Moreover,

once a phase shift has been detected we can begin to identify and

possibly manipulate the control pararneter(s) (e.g., individual or

contextual) responsible for inducing this transition (Thelen &

Ulrich, 1991) , Lastly, once particular attractor patterns (such

as coercive frames) are established, the dynamic systems concept

of hyçteresis facilitates the investigation of the stability and

resiliency of these patterns. It is noteworthy that, in contrast

- 16

with past correlational and retrospective approaches, a dynamic

systems analysis is properly suited to the consideration of the

dynamic and reciprocal nature of parent-child interactions.

Also, a dynarnic systems approach can permit us to directly

outline the factors ( e . g . , perceptions of control) responsible

for inducing and maintaining coercive communication among parents

and their children in real tirne.

The Present Studv

Drawing upon the aforementioned principles of dynamic

systems, it was the purpose of the present study to expand

further on previous inquiries regarding the relationship between

perceptions of control and parent-child coercive communication.

Due to a marked increase in parent-child conflict as the child

reaches the pubertal stage (Montemayor, 1983), the present study

focused on relations among parents and preadolescent children.

Four exploratory research questions were proposed. Note that the

first research question is of the conventional sort, whereas the

second, third, and fourth research questions are premised

specifically on principles of dynamic systems.

First, 1 explored differences in the overall level of

coercive communication among dyads identified with external (low)

versus internal (high) perceptions of control (over the outcome

of family events). In line with past inquiries (Bugental et al.,

1980; Bugental & Shennum, 1984; Janssens, 1994; Loeb, 1975), 1

expected that parents and children identified with external

versus internal perceptions of control might evidence higher

17

levels of coercive communication,

Second, 1 explored one likely context in which parent-child

dyads might engage in coercive communication patterns in real

the. Specifically, I investigated whether experimentally

manipulating ( e . , increasing) the level of perceived stress by

parent-child dyads might act as a control parameter inducing a

phase transition, leading to a pattern of communication

characterized by coercive exchanges. Also, the synchrony of

communication patterns within parent-child dyads was observed,

prior to and following the experimental manipulation.

Third, it was expected that most parent-child dyads could

encounter a level of stress that would induce a phase transition

toward coercive communication. Consequently, 1 explored

differences in the timing (Le., latency) of this phase

transition between internal and external dyads. Recall from

earlier findings that external parents were found to react

sensitively to stressfui situations (Bugental et al., 1980;

Bugental & Shennum, 1984; Bugental & Cortez, 1988), Therefore, 1

expected that, for external dyads, lower levels of perceived

stress might be needed to induce a phase transition, and hence,

less tirne might elapse before this transition occurred.

Fourth, once the behaviour of a parent-child dyad converged

toward a pattern that was characterized by coercive

communication, 1 explored differences between internal and

external dyads regarding the stability of this communicative

pattern. Because external parents have been found to react

18

sensitively to stressful events, I expected that communication

with their child has had more occasion to become negative and

coercive. That is, for these dyads, the recurrence of coercive

communication might result in this type of communication becoming

a stable pattern. Consequently, when levels of stress return to

a lfmanageable" level (i. e., below the critical threshold) , it might take longer for their communication to return to its

original pattern (Le., baseline). Simply put, coercive

communication in these dyads might be a more stable pattern of

communication, and thus evidence of a hysteresis effect might be

apparent.

CHAPTEII II

Methoil

Subi - ects

Participants included eight parent-preadolescent dyads. The

mean age for children was 10 years 8 months (SD=0.998), ranging

from 9 years 5 months to 12 years 11 months (six girls and two

boys). The mean age for parents was 37.25 years (SD=3.92),

ranging from age 33 to 44 years (seven mothers and one father).

Of these parents, five indicated they were rnarried and three

indicated they were divorced. Reports of occupational status

included: three homemakers, one taxi driver, one transit driver,

one data entry clerk, and two business owners. Education ranged

from some high school to a completed university degree at the

Master's level. The sample consisted of six mother/daughter

dyads, one mother/son dyad, and one father/son dyad. There were

no father/daughter dyads included in this study.

Al1 dyads were recruited from the community through I1word of

mouth". Participants were provided with a letter describing the

nature of the study (see Appendix A), and asked to indicate

voluntary participation by signing an informed consent form (see

Appendix B). Participants were informed that al1 information

would be kept strictly confidential, and they were compensated

$20 for their participation.

Procedure

Al1 dyads were seen in their homes. Complete participation

was conducted in two sessions, and lasted approximately 40

2 0

minutes. The first session involved the completion of standard

questionnaires. The second session was conducted

observationally, and involved the videotaping of parent-child

conversations. In the firçt session, both parents and their

children were asked to complete paper-and-pencil questionnaires.

Parents were asked to complete a basic demographic questionnaire

(see Appendix C), followed by the Parenting Locus of Control

Scale (Campis, Lyman & Prentice-Dunn, 1986). Children were asked

to complete the Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External Control

Scale for children (Nowicki & Strickland, 1973). Dyads were

asked to complete their respective questionnaires independently.

This ensured the privacy of their responses, particularly the

responses of the children. Completion of these questionnaires

required approximately 15 minutes. In the second session,

parent-child dyads were videotaped while they collaboratively

discussed and tried to resolve three separate issues.

Altogether, videotaped conversations lasted 18 minutes, with

discussion for each individual issue lasting 6 minutes.

Measures

Parentina Locus of Control Scale

Parents' beliefs or perceptions regarding interna1 versus

external control were assessed using the Parenting Locus of

Control Scale (Campis et al., 1986). The Parenting Locus of

Control Scale assesspn parental perceptions of control concerning

child rearing outcomes. This scale consists of 47 items (for

example, When my child is well-behaved, it is because helshe is

21

responding to my efforts") ta which participants indicate their

beliefs on a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from strongly

disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). Also, this scale consists of

five factors or subcategories. These include: Parental Efficacy,

Parental Responsibility, Child Control of Parents' Life, Parental

Belief in Fate/Chance, and Parental Control of Childts Behaviour

(see Appendix D). Scores on this scale range from -73 to +115,

with negative scores reflecting increasing perceptions of

internal control and positive scores reflecting increasing

perceptions of external control.

Nowicki-Strickland Xnternal-External Control Scale for Children

Childrens* beliefs or perceptions regarding internal versus

external control were assessed using the Nowicki-Strickland

Internal-External Control Scale for Children (Nowicki &

Strickland, 1973). This scale consists of forty items (for

example, "Are some kids just born lucky?I1) to which participants

indicate their beliefs with a yes or no answer (see Appendix E).

Scores on this scale range from O to 40 with lower scores

reflecting increasing perceptions of internal control and higher

scores reflecting increasing perceptions of external control.

Note that a standardized measure to assess childrents

perceptions of control, pertaining specifically to the outcomes

of events with parents, does not exist. However, the Nowicki-

Strickland Internai-External Control Scale for Children is

comprised of 8 items addressing children's perceptions of control

regarding the outcomes of events with their parents. Hence, in

22

this study, these 8 items were extracted to fashion a subscale.

When the word llparentsm appeared in these questions, it was

changed to %omw or "dadlI depending upon whether the child was

participating with their mother or father (see Appendix F).

Definina External and Interna1 Parent-Child Dvads

To select dyads in which both parental and child perceptions

of control were the same ( e , both high internal or both high

external), a larger sample of 21 dyads was tested. An

examination of parents scores on the Parenting Locus of Control

Scale revealed few scores falling within the regions of above +15

and below -15. Therefore, these values were used to mark the

boundaries for defining external and internal groups,

respectively. Parents were categorized as external when their

overall score on the Parenting Locus of Control Scale exceeded

+15, whereas parents were categorized as internal when their

overall score exceeded -15.

For children, two separate measures were employed to

distinguish external versus internal groups. First, an

examination of children scores on the Nowicki-Strickland

fnternal-External Control Scale for Children revealed few scores

falling within the regions of above +18 and below -13. Thus,

these values were used to mark the boundaries for defining

external and internal groups, respectively. Moreover, responses

on the 8 items i e , extracted subscale) relating to chilàrenOs

beliefs regarding the outcome of events with their parents were

considered. Children were categorized as external when their

23

overall score exceeded +18, and when a minimum of five external

responses on the 8-item subscale were indicated. Conversely,

children were categorized as internal when their overall score

was lower than +13, and when a minimum of five internal responses

on the 8-item subscale were indicated.

To be classified as an internal or external dyad, both

parents and children needed to be identified as meeting the

previously mentioned demarcations for their respective groups.

Consequently, of the larger sample of 21 dyads, only 8 dyads were

identified as external or internal. Of these eight dyads, four

were categorized as external and four were categorized as

internal. See Table 1 and Table 2 for a distribution of the

scores in each group.

Table 1

Distribution of Perceived Control Scores for Parent-Child Dvads

~ateaorized as External

Dyad #3 1 +24 I le

Dyad #

Dyad #5

Dyad 52 I l8

Childrensf scores on 8- item subscale

Parental scores

+16 6/8 external responses

Childrensf scores (overall)

19

5/8 external responses

5/8 external responses

5/8 external resmonses

Brames of Conversation

Parent-child dyads engaged in three separate

conversations, each lasting 6 minutes. Al1 three Vramesll of

conversation shared the same dialogical format, that is

collaborative discussion and resolution. Dyads were first

instructed to choose collaboratively two topics they considered

pleasant, and one topic they considered unpleasant (Le.,

stressful task and experimental manipulation). Parents and their

children were instructed to choose their own conversation topics

so as to ensure that topics were meaningful and relevant to them.

Table 2

Distribution of Perceived Control Scores for Parent-Child Dyads Cateaoriaed as Interna1

Dyad #8 1 -18 1

l

Dyad #

Dyad fi

Dyad #6 1 -22 1 l2 Dyad #4 1 -35 I l2

Parental scores

-4 9

Childrenst scores on 8- item subscale

Childrensf scores (overall)

12 6/8 internal responses - --

7/8 internal responses

7/8 internal responses

6/8 internal responses

- --

Examples of pleasant topics included: deciding what to do for a

birthday, deciding where to go on a vacation, and deciding what

kind of new house to buy. Examples of unpleasant topics

included: division of chores, deciding an appropriate bedtime,

and deciding an appropriate age to Wear makeup and high heel

shoes. Once a topic was selected, al1 dyads were assured that it

25

was fine if they were unable to resolve these topics within six

minutes, and rather that it was the process whereby they

attempted to resolve them that was of interest. The videotaped

conversations of parent-child dyads always took place in the

evening, and in the same location: the kitchen table.

The order of the conversations was as follows: (A), (B), and

( C ) . Conversation frame A was designed to procure a base rate

regarding the style of communication characterizing each dyad,

and hence dyads discussed and tried to resolve a pleasant topic.

Conversation frame B was designed to experimentally manipulate

the control parameter (i.e., increase the level of perceived

stress) after a baseline pattern was observed, and to capture the

shift ( i . e . , latency) in communication that dyads might exhibit.

Therefore, dyads discussed and tried to resolve an unpleasant

topic (i.e., stressful task). Conversation frame C was designed

to allow the level of stress perceived by the dyad to decrease,

and to test for the occurrence of a hysteresis effect. Hence,

dyads once again discussed and tried to resolve a pleasant topic.

Note that, elapsed time between conversations frames A, B, and C

was kept to a minimum, and generally included only the time taken

to stop the video camera and to prepared it again for the next

frame of conversation.

Transcribinq and Codina Videotamed Conversations

Al1 conversations were transcribed verbatim. Time (or

event) sampling was not conducted; rather, for both parent and

child, each verbal utterance served as a unit of analysis which

26

captured the sequential flow of parent-child conversations. For

both parent and child, each verbal utterance was coded on two

dimensions: verbal content and affect.

Codina Verbal Content of Parent-Child Conversations

Soth parent and preadolescent verbal utterances were coded

for content. The coding scheme used for scoring the content of

each verbal utterance was an adapted version of Gottman8s (1979)

Couples Interaction Scoring Systern-(see Appendix G). The coding

scheme employed in this study consisted of ten codes ranging from

the most tacilitative (1) to the rnost aversive (10) (see Table

3). Each verbal utterance was assigned one code. When an

extended verbal utterance consisted of two separate thought units

(this occurred relatively infrequently), each thought unit was

coded separately.

Table 3

Codincr Scheme For Verbal Content

Facilitative behaviours

Approving, or supportive comment Direct agreement/Compliance Problem Solving/Offering or eliciting an opinion or suggestion Assent/Affirmative

Neutra1 behaviours

Exchange of information--Question/Clarification Summarizing self or other/lindreading

Aversive behaviours

Disagreement with rationale supplied "Yes buttt agreement Direct disagreement/Noncomp1iance Command/criticize/complain/accusa/or obstinate-antagonistic

Al1 verbal utterances were coded by the author. A second

individual, blind to the categorization of dyads as interna1

versus external, independently coded 20% of the total responses

and agreement between coders was 81%. See Table 4 for examples

of al1 ten codes constituting the coding scheme used in this

study . Table 4

Codinu Scheme for Verbal Content: 8ome Exam~les

Approving or supportive

II Direct agreement/ Cornpliance Problem solving/Offering or eliciting an opinion

II Exchange of information/ Question/Clarification II

- - - - - - - - -

Summarizing self or other/ Mindreadina

Disagreement with rationale supplied

"Yes buttt agreement. . .

II Direct disagreement/ Noncornpliance Command/Criticize/Accuse/ Complain/or obstinate antagonistic

IuYeah, 1 am impressed with how well youfre taking care of your f ish, good jobuu!

ItYeah , you ' re righttu . %O ok that sounds like it's settled, October starts you so to bed at 9 t 0 0 rishtuf?

What s the Rideau Riveruu?

"Oh 1 see now you said a sleepover would be goodm.

InNo 1 donr t think so, 1 doubt any of your friends will be allowed to go unsu~ervised~~ . ItYeah but it doesn8t really feel like you want me to QO" . "No way corne onit.

V f l l just go buy a gun now and go shoot some peoplew. ItWell 1 think that youfre being a bit selfishN.

Codincr Affect Associated with Parent-Child Conversations

To code the "affective climatew of each verbal utterance, a

second scale from Gottman's (1979) Couples Interaction Scoring

System was employed (see Table 5). For both parent and child, a

code was assigned for the affective climate of each verbal

utterance. Affect codes were given ratings of +, O, or - (positive, neutral, or negative) . To determine this rating, three separate cues could be used: facial cues, voice tone cues,

body cues. Using both the transcript and the videotape, the

coder first considers each of the positive and negative facial

cues. If an affective code of positive or negative is unable to

be made, the coder then considers each of the positive and

negative voice tone cues. If an affective code of positive or

negative still cannot be made, the coder then considers each of

the positive and negative body cues. At this point, if the

verbal utterance still cannot be coded as positive or negative,

the coder is to assign a neutral code to the verbal utterance.

The affective climate of al1 verbal utterances were coded by the

author. Once again, a second individual, blind to the

categorization of dyads as interna1 versus external,

independently coded 20% of the total responses for affective

climate, and agreement between coders was 84%.

Data Analvsis Procedures

Due to the exploratory nature of this study, and to the

small sample size, statistical analyses were not conducted.

Rather, to address the research questions in this study,

Conventional Analvsis

Question #X Expiering Differences in Level of Coerciveness

To explore my first research question histograms were

employed. For each frame of conversation (A, B, and C), averages

were computed for the verbal content and affect scores of both

internal and external groups, and this analysis was completed

separately for parents and children. Histograms allowed for a

descriptive analysis of difierences in parents' and childrens'

affect and verbal content scores, as a function of internal

versus external perceptions of control.

Dvnamic Systems Analyses

Question #2 petacting Phase Transitions

Graphical and Visual Report

To obtain a preliminary look at the communication patterns

of both internal and external dyads, time series graphs were used

(see Thelen, 1991; Van Geert, 1994). On these time series graphs

both verbal content and affect scores were plotted as they

unfolded in real tirne, that is, for each verbal utterance (1

to...) across a l 1 three frames of conversation. First, these

graphs facilitated the visual detection of synchrony within the

communication patterns of parent-child dyads. Second, these

graphs permitted the visual detection of periodicity, and

fluctuations in variance, within the data. It was then possible

to visually inspect the data for evidence of a phase transition

in the communicative patterns of parents and their children.

31

Exploratory Report

Upon cursory inspection of the data, it became apparent that

although there were notable changes in the level and variance of

verbal content scores, there was very little fluctuation in the

variance of affect scores. Thus, it was decided that verbal

content scores would be used to demarcate the onset of phase

transitions in communication. As a secondary evaluation, the

correspondence between the occurrence-of phase transitions in

verbal content, and changes in affect, were observed.

A floating variance graph was created for al1 verbal content

scores across conversation frames A, B, and C. This facilitated

the visual detection of large fluctuations, or inflection points,

in the variance. The occurrence of large inflection points was

considered to signal the onset of an abrupt reorganization, or

phase transition, in a pattern of communication within the state

space. Floating variance graphs were created using two separate

lîwindowsll: a window of 20 verbal utterances (e.g., 1 to 20, 2 to

21, ...), and a window of 10 verbal utterances (e.g., 1 to 10, 2

to 11, ...). First, windows of 20 were used to detect robust

transitions in variance because they were less sensitive to minor

fluctuations than windows of 10. Second, because windows of 10

were more sensitive to changes in the variance they were used to

determine the precise timing of transitions.

An inflection point was considered to signal a phase

transition only if the change in variance lasted a minimum of 20

verbal utterances (half the duration of frarne B on average,

32

across al1 individuals). In al1 cases inflection points were

delineated as ranging across a number of verbal utterances (e.g.,

52 to 56); that is, the sudden change in the variance of verbal

content scores lasted a minimum of a few utterances. Therefore,

phase transitions were denoted as occurring at the middle point

of this change (e.g., verbal utterance # 5 4 ) .

Once phase transitions were identitied, a phase space map

(see Van Geert, 1994) for verbal content scores was created for

intervals immediately preceding and following the transition.

Using phase space maps, it was possible to observe the patterns

characterizing verbal content scores, and to monitor structural

differences in these patterns (e.g., variance, and stability).

Because there was no periodicity in the data, these maps were

created using a lag of 1 ( [ (x, y) = (VC,, , VC,) , (VC,, VC,) , (VG, V C ) , ) Windows of 20 verbal utterances were used to create

phase space maps. Note that the interval, or number of

utterances, delineating inflection points was excluded in the

creation of phase space maps. This ensured the precise and

smooth depiction of cornmunication patterns prior to, and

following, the occurrence of phase transitions.

Recall that there was very little fluctuation in the

variance of affect scores. Therefore, changes in the average of

affect scores were examined. A floating average graph was

created for al1 affect scores across conversation frames. A

window of 10 verbal utterances was used to create these graphs.

Floating average graphs facilitated the visual detection of

33

global changes in the level of affect scores, It was then

possible to observe the correspondence between these changes and

the occurrence of phase transitions in verbal content.

Questions #3, and #4 Measuring Latency and Hysteresis

To rneasure the latency of phase transitions (leading to

coercive communication), the total number of verbal utterances

from the beginning of frame B ( e t stressful task) to the onset

of phase transitions were counted: - Similarly, to measure

hysteresis associated with coercive communication patterns, the

total number of verbal utterances from the beginning of frame C

( . e , pleasant discussion) to the next phase transition were

counted (when communication returned to baseline patterns). It

was then possible to make cornparisons between interna1 and

external dyads regarding the latency of phase transitions, and

the degree of hysteresis associated with coercive communication

patterns.

revealed. Moreover, only inconsequential differences in the

verbal content scores of internal and external children were

revealed (see Figure 4) . For the child group, these results are inconsistent with my expectation.

It is noteworthy that for both parents and children

(internal and external) affect changed from positive (frame A) to

negative during frame B, and subsequently returned back to

positive during frame C. Moreover, for both parents and children

(internal and external), higher levels of negative verbal content

scores occurred during frame B. These results offer support for

the effectiveness of the experimental manipulation employed in

this study ( i . e . , the stressful conversation task in frame B) .

Figure 1,

Eistoaram Depictina the Averacre Affect Scores of Internal and

External Parents Acrosa Conversation Frames A, B, and C

Frame C

Frame A

Frame B

F i g u r e 2

H i a t o c r r a m D e p i c t i n c r the A v e r a c r e V e r b a l C o n t e n t Scores of Interna1

and External Parents Across C o n v e r s a t i o n Frames A, B, and C

Frame A Frame B Frame C

Figure 3

Histoqram D e m i c t i n c r the Averaae A f f e c t Scores of Interna1 and

Extemal Children Across Conversation Frames A, B, and C

.O5

.O4

.O4

. O3

.O31

. O21 ,021

. Ol!

.01i

. OO! O

- . O O ! - . Ol( -. O P - . OS( - ,025 - .03(

-.03!

-. 04( - .O45 -. OSC

Frame C Frame A

Frame B

Internal

Externa1

Figure 4

Hiatoqram Depictincr the Averacre Verbal Content Scores of Internal

and External Children Across Conversation Frames A, B, and C

Frame A

111111111 III Frame B Frame C

9 t U al n b

t-i ci

H S U

4 JJ s Pi W

tn dl k O U tn U d al U E: O U

41

child fluctuated mostly between neutral and negative across a l 1

three frames (see Figure 6) . For this dyad, a simple visual inspection of t h e time series graphs was insufficient to detect

the occurrence of a phase transition.

Figure 5

Time Ser ies Graphs Depicting Verbal Content and Affect Scores - f o r Interna1 D~ads #1 and # 4

Time Series Parent (1)-lnt

- -

Seriesl

Series2 - - - - - - - - - - - I=

# of Utterances

Time Series Child (1)-tnt

# of Utterances

Time Series Parent (4)-lnt

Y of Utterances

Time Series Child (4)-lnt

Seriesl

# of Utterances

Note. Series 2 represents verbal content scores. Verbal content ranges from 1 t o 10, with higher scores ref lec t ing higher Ievels of coerciveness. Ser ies 1 represents a f fec t scores. Affect ranges from -1 t o +1, with lower scores re f l ec t ing more negative a f fec t . A red l i ne is inserted t o separate frames A, 0, and C.

Figure 6

Time Series Graphs Depicting Verbal Content and Affect Scores

for Interna1 Dyads #6 and #8

Time Series Parent (6)-lnt 8 I

r O Q ) a l b C 0 4 ) * ( 3 O J C V P 3 L n b U J r P ' ) r C ) b

r r r r

# of Utterances

Time Series Child (6)-lnt

# of Utterances

- Serlesl 1- . - Series2

Time Series Parent (8)-lnt

# of Utterances

Time Series Child (8)-lnt

# of Utterances

44

For three of the external dyads ( # 3 , # S I and #7), the time

series graphs (see Figures 7 and 8) also revealed a notable

degree of synchrony between the verbal content scores of parents

and their children. For these dyads, patterns of verbal content

scores for parents and children were similar to those of interna1

dyads. That is, verbal content scores fluctuated mostly between

positive and neutral during frames A and C; however, following

the experimental manipulation (i.e., frarne B) there was an

increase in negative verbal content, and scores fluctuated mostly

between neutral and negative. For the fourth external dyad (#2),

the experimental manipulation did not appear to elicit a phase

transition. Communication was marked by higher levels of

negative verbal content, and scores fluctuated mostly between

neutral and negative across al1 three frames (see Figure 8 ) . Note that for this dyad there was less synchrony in the verbal

content scores between parent and child, as there was more

fluctuation in the child's verbal content scores than the

parent ' S.

Affect

The time series graphs revealed that, following the onset of

the experimental manipulation (Le., frame BI, there appeared to

be a notable change in the patterns of affect scores for al1

dyads (see Figures 5, 6, 7, and 8) . In al1 cases, the tirne series graphs revealed that communication appeared to be marked

by more negative affect during frame B than during frames A and

C. Also, in al1 cases, the time series graphs revealed a notable

degree of synchrony between the patterns of affect scores of

parents and their children.

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Exploratory Report

~ecall that phase transitions in communication were assurned

to be denoted by a large change in the variance of verbal content

scores; therefore, al1 inflection points in the floating variance

graphs were marked. Next, phase space maps were used to observe,

and monitor structural differences ( e . g . , variance, and

stability) regarding. the patterns characterizing verbal content

scores prior to and following the marked inflection points.

A l s o , floating average graphs were used to examine the

correspondence between changes in affect and the noted phase

transitions in verbal content.

First, for two dyads and one parent, evidence of a phase

transition in verbal content scores was not revealed (see

Appendices H and 1). For external dyad # 2 , there were no

discernable inflection points in the variance of verbal content

scores. For both parent and child, verbal content scores were

marked by consistently high levels of coerciveness, across al1

three frames. For internal dyad #6, an inflection point in the

variance was not noted for the child. An inflection point was

noted for the parent; however, the variance did not last a

minimum of 20 verbal utterances (criterion for phase transition).

The verbal content scores of this parent and child fluctuated

mostly between positive and neutral. For internal parent #8, an

inflection point in the variance was noted during frame C, but

this transition could not be considered a direct result of the .

experimental manipulation (i . e . , f rame B) . Because the data for

49

the preceding dyads did not reveal a phase transition during

frame 8, these dyads were excluded £ r o m subsequent analyses.

Interna1 Dyads

Dvads #l and #4

For dyads #i and #4, similar results were found. Figures 9

and 10 show that, for these dyads, there was evidence of a phase

transition in the communicative patterns of both parent and

child. It can be seen that, for parents and their children,

there is a considerable increase in the variance of verbal

content scores during frame B (inflection points are rnarked).

As shown in figures 9 and 10, prior to the first inflection

point there was little variance in the verbal content scores of

parents and their children. The phase space maps reveal that

communication was characterized mostly by positive and neutral

verbal content, and this was a stable pattern. However,

following the inflection point there was a high degree of

fluctuation in verbal content scores ( L e . , increase in

variance). A look at the phase space maps show that

communication was marked by higher levels of coerciveness, and

that this pattern remained stable until the second inflection

point, when there occurred a decrease in the variance of verbal

content scores, for both parents and their children. Here, as

revealed by the phase space maps, communication settled back to

its baseline pattern, and verbal content scores fluctuated mostly

between positive and neutral.

Figure 9

Dyad I I : Floating Variance Graph and Phase Space Maps of Verbal Content Scores

-- Note. Series 1 represents a window of SU, and S e n e s L represents a window of - A red l ine i r inserted to separate frames A, B, and C. Blue l ines are inserted to mark inflection points.

Figure 10

Dyad t 4 : Floating Variance Graph and Phase Space Maps of Verbal Content Scores

53

Dvad #8--Child

While the verbal content scores of both parent and child

fluctuated considerably between neutral and negative, and were

for the most part synchronous, evidence of a phase transition in

communication was revealed for the child only. For the child, a

notable decrease in the variance of verbal content scores was

observed during frame B, as shown in figure 11 (inflection points

are marked) . As seen in figure 11, prior to the first inflection point

the phase space map revealed a high degree of variance in the

verbal content scores of this child. Verbal content scores

fluctuated mostly between neutral and negative, and this appeared

to be a stable pattern of communication for this child. However,

following the inflection point verbal content scores ceased to

fluctuate (i.e., decrease in variance), and rather they remained

consistently negative for a period of tirne. A look at the phase

space rnap shows that this pattern of communication remained

stable until the second inflection point, when there was once

again an increase in the variance of verbal content scores.

Here, the phase space map shows that the communication pattern

for this child settled back to its baseline pattern, as verbal

content scores, once again, began to fluctuate mostly between

neutral and negative (see Figure 11) .

Dyad #8 Child: Floating Variance Graph and Phase Space Maps of

Verbal Content Scores

External Dyads

Dvads #3, # 5 , and #7

The communicative patterns of dyads # 3 , #5, and #7 were

quite sirnilar. As shown in Figures 12, 13, and 14, there was

evidence of a phase transition in the communicative patterns of

parents and children. For parents and their children, the

variance of verbal content scores increased considerably during

frame B (inflection points are marked) l.

As seen in figures 12, 1 3 , and 14, prior to the f irst

inflection point there was little variance in the verbal content

scores of parents and their children. The phase space maps

reveal that communication was characterized mostly by positive

and neutral verbal content, and this was a stable pattern.

Following the inflection point however, a high degree of

fluctuation in verbal content scores was observed (i.e., increase

in variance), and communication was marked by higher levels of

coerciveness. The phase space maps show that this pattern of

communication remained stable until the second inflection point,

when there occurred a decrease in the variance of verbal content

scores for both parents and their children. Here, as revealed by

the phase space maps, communication settled back to its previous

pattern, and verbal content scores fluctuated rnostly between

positive and neutral (see Figures 12, 13, and 14).

Note. The first inflection point for the child in dyad #S was less obvious. Therefore, using both the variance windows of 10 and 20, a conservative appraisal was applied and the inflection. point was determined to occur at verbal utterance # 39.

Dyad It3: Floating Variance Graph and Phase Space Maps of Verbal Content Scores

Dyad # S : Floating Variance Graph and Phase Space Maps of Verbal Content Scores

Figure 14

Dyad (7: Floating Variance Graph and Phase Space Maps o f Verbal Content Scores

Patent

I'

59

The preceding results suggest that the experimental

manipulation i . . , frame B) was successful in eliciting a phase

transition in a pattern of communication (Le., verbal content

scores) in approximately 70% of the cases. In a l 1 cases, phase

transitions were marked by a considerable increase or decrease in

the variance of verbal content scores, and communication patterns

were characterized by higher levels of negative, or coercive,

verbal content. These results are consistent with the

expectation guiding rny second research question.

60

lorin nu the Corres~ondence Between Chancres in Affect and Phase

Transitions in Verbal Content

For the previously mentioned dyads, floating average graphs

revealed notable changes in affect across frames A, B, and C.

Depending on the individual histories of dyads, communication

patterns were marked by more negative affect during frame B than

during frames A and C. Floating average graphs w e r e used,

alongside floating variance graphs, to explore visually the

correspondence between changes in affect and phase transitions in

verbal content. Recall that comparisons between averages and

variances were made because these best described the data for

affect and verbal content scores, respectively.

Interna1 Dyada

For dyads #1 and # 4 , the floating average graphs revealed a

change in affect during frame B. During frames A and C, the

communication patterns of parents and children were characterized

by positive affect; whereas during frame B affect was more

negative. A look at figures 15 and 16 shows that, in

correspondence with the timing of phase transitions in verbal

content, average affect scores were at their lowest levels for

both parents and their children. For child #8 , there is only a

slight change in the average of affect scores during frame B.

However. as show in figure 17, this change coincided with the

timing of the phase transition in verbal content, and here,

average affect scores were at their l o w e s t ,

L9L ,

9B C

LZC

99 1

LSC

96 L

LZC QI

90 Lg C .

L6 Q 9 ~ f : s 9 = ' * 9P

LE ;

9 L

1

Dyad #8: Floating Average Graph of Affect Scores and

Floating Variance Graph o f Verbal Content Scores

V. Content

External Dyads

A look at the floating average graphs for dyads # 3 , # S . and

#7, revealed a notable change in the average of affect scores

during frame B. As shown in figures 18, 19, and 20, the

communication patterns of parents and children were characterizet

mostly by positive and/or neutral affect during frarnes A and C;

whereas, during frame B affect was more negative. Moreover, a

look at figures 18, 19, and 20 revealed that, in correspondence

with the timing of phase transitions in verbal content, average

affect scores were at their lowest levels for parents and their

children alike.

For both interna1 and external dyads, the floating average

graphs showed that changes in the average of affect scores,

during frarne B, were characterized by higher levels of neutral

and/or negative affect. Moreover, changes in affect appeared to

be synchronous, or coupled, with phase transitions in verbal

content. That is, following the phase transition, when verbal

content scores were characterized by higher levels of

coerciveness, communication was also characterized by higher

levels of negative affect.

LP L

LZL : €CL j

LPC 1

LZ L

CLL

m o p u r ~ rad a 6 e r a ~ ~

: z Y ' a l al 1; al z i al

LÇL

9E L

CZC

90 1

16

9 L

19

9P

L E

9 L

L

L 9 Y . O 9 d , ? * 7 I 0 0 0 ? ? O ? 1

m o p u ~ rad a6wa~v I

!

68

Question #3

My third research question was concerned with exploring

differences between internal and external dyads in the latency of

the previously mentioned phase transitions. 1 suggested that for

external dyads lower levels of perceived stress might be needed

to induce a phase transition in a pattern of communication, and

hance, less time might elapse (following the onset of frame B)

before this transition occurs.

Table 6 reveals only a minimal difference between internal

and external dyads regarding the latency of phase transitions.

Overall, these results are inconsistent with my expectation.

However, upon closer inspection it is noted that, while the

difference in latency between internal and external children was

minimal, a more substantial difference in latency was obaerved

between internal and external parents. Hence, the preceding

results are partially consistent with rny expectation.

Table 6

Total Number of Verbal Utterances From the Becrinnincr of Frame B

to the Onset of Phase Transitions for Internai and External Dvads

1 ~nternala Dyad #l

Dyad #4

Dyad #8

Parent

17

Dyad #3

Dyad #5

9

- - -

Dyad #7

Chiid

9

O

4

Total

2 6

3

6

5

9

6

6

14

6

18

3

23

8

32

70

Queetion #4

MY fourth research question was concexned with exploring

differences between internal and external dyads regarding the

stability of the communicative patterns (coercive patterns) that

aroçe during frarne B. I suggested that coercive communication

might be a more stable pattern for external, than internal,

dyads. Thus, when decreasing the level of perceived stress

( i . e . , with the onset of frame C), it might take longer for their

communication patterns to return to baseline level; that is, a

hysteresis effect would be more likely to occur.

Table 7 reveals a considerable difference in hysteresis

among internal and external dyads. These results are consistent

with my fourth research question. Note that the observed

difference in hysteresis between internal and external dyads is

somewhat more substantial for the parent group, than for the

child group.

Table 7

Total Number of Verbal Utterances From the Beainnins of Frame C

to t h e Second Phase Transition f o r Interna1 and External Dvads

II internais 1 Parant 1 Child 1 Total

Dyad #3 25 2 1 4 6

Dyad #5 13 11 24

II Dvad #7 1 O 1 O I D

73

relationship. That is, most parents assume a controlling and

authoritarian stance vis-a-vis their children, and overall,

children may be less likely to display excessively high levels of

coercive communication while being observed. Also, the video

camera may have acted to rninirnize any differences between

interna1 and external children. Generally, most of the children,

upon my arrival, informed me that they were very excited about

being "on camera, and it is possible they may have tried (or

were asked by their parents) to put on a "good impression.It

My second research question investigated whether

experimentally increasing the level of perceived stress ( L e . ,

control parameter) would induce a phase transition in the

communicative patterns of parent-child dyads. Moreover, I

expected that phase transitions would result in patterns of

communication characterized by coercive exchanges. Results were

consistent with this expectation. In 70% of the cases, such a

phase transition was observed. In particular, higher levels of

negative verbal content characterized their communication

following the experimental manipulation ( L e . , increasing level

of perceived stress). Moreover, the phase space maps revealed

that this pattern of communication remained stable until levels

of perceived stress were decreased. These results are congruent

with the findings of other investigations highlighting the

relevance of contextual stressors in initiating and maintaining

coercive exchanges among parents and their children (see Belsky,

1984; Campbell, Pierce, March, & Ewing, 1991) .

74

Interestingly, the results also revealed that changes in the

affective quality of parent-child communication appeared to be

coupled, or synchronouç, with phase transitions in verbal

content, for al1 dyads. That is, when communication between

parents and their children was characterized by higher levels of

negative verbal content, affect was also more negative. These

results are consistent with my expectation, and with other

studies demonstrating the importance of affect and arousal in the

initiation and maintenance of coercive exchanges among parents

and children (Bugental, Blue & Lewis, 1990; Dix, Ruble, Grusec &

Nixon, 1986; MacKimon et al., 1990). Zt is notable that the

above results may offer some support for appraisal theories that

point to the reciprocal influences between cognition and emotion

(Frijda, 1993; Lewis, 1996) . My third research question explored differences in the

latency of phase transitions among internal and external dyads.

1 expected that for external (versus internal) dyads, lower

levels of perceived stress might be needed to induce a phase

transition. Consequently, less time would elapse before this

transition occurred, and their