Importance of Coral Reefs and Effects ofCarbon, Nitrogen, and Phosphorous

Hannah Ross

14th December 2016

contents

Contents i

List of Figures ii

1 Importance of Coral Reefs 11.1 Why are healthy coral reefs important? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 How are coral reefs beneficial to sea creatures? . . . . . . . . . . 21.3 How are coral reefs beneficial to humans? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Animal Benefits 42.1 Habitat and Food Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.2 Corallivores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3 Human Benefits 73.1 Medical Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73.2 Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83.3 Ocean History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93.4 Economics and Food Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4 Effects of Carbon, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus 124.1 Carbon Dioxide Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124.2 Nitrogen and phosphorous pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Bibliography 16

i

list of figures

1.1 Healthy coral reefs with fish and invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Coastline protected by a coral reef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2.1 A moray eel among the Red Sea corals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.2 Fijian Redfin butterflyfish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3.1 Emilio Basilius holding a sample of marine organisms . . . . . . . . 93.2 Wildlife about the Great Barrier Reef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103.3 Madagascan fishermen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4.1 Example of deforestation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134.2 Algae blooms in the Baltic Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

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importance of coral reefs

1.1 why are healthy coral reefs important?

Coral reefs are one of the most diverse and beneficial types of environments onEarth. Thriving coral reefs contain thousands of fish and invertebrate species,and between 1 and 8 million species are estimated to live on or around coralreefs that have yet to be discovered.1

Figure 1.1: Healthy coral reefs contain thousands of fish and invertebrate spe-cies found nowhere else on Earth (US Department of Commerce and NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Administration, JPEG photograph, 480 × 324 RGB,accessed December 1, 2016, http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/corals/coral07_importance.html).

1US Department of Commerce and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,‘NOAA’s National Ocean Service: Corals: Importance of Coral Reefs,’ accessed December 1,2016, http : / / oceanservice . noaa . gov / education / kits / corals /coral07_importance.html.

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1.2. How are coral reefs beneficial to sea creatures?

1.2 how are coral reefs beneficial to sea creatures?

Billions of sea creatures are dependent on coral reefs for habitat, and a sourceof food.2

1.3 how are coral reefs beneficial to humans?

Coral reefs provide an extensive amount of human services. They preventshoreline erosion, and block large waves from reaching the shore, protectingproperty and human lives3). This safeguard protects billions of dollars of prop-erty, reduced insurance and construction, and human migration.3

Because there is so much biodiversity around coral reefs, species have beendiscovered that can be treated to produce drugs for diseases such as cancer,arthritis, bacterial infections, HIV, and viruses.4 Coral reefs draw in touristsand provide goods and services that bring in approximately $375 billion eachyear overall for communities near coral reefs.5 In third world countries, coralreefs provide a main source of food.6

Corals are used by oceanographic historians to see into the past of theoceans by observing the corals in a way similar to tree rings to date changesand events in the oceans.7

2For further information on animals and coral reefs, please visithttp://wludh.ca/dh100/2016/T1/G5/M5/importance-of-coral-reefs/animal-benefits.

3_coral_⁇⁇.4US Department of Commerce and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,

‘NOAA’s National Ocean Service.’5Ibid.6For further information on how coral reefs benefit humans, please visit

http://wludh.ca/dh100/2016/T1/G5/M5/importance-of-coral-reefs/human-benefits.7_powersearch_⁇⁇-3.

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1.3. How are coral reefs beneficial to humans?

Figure 1.2: Coral reefs not only provide marine habitat for fish and inver-tebrates, they also protect coastlines from pounding waves often generatedby storms (University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, JPEGphotograph, 800 × 525 RGB, accessed December 1, 2016, http : / / www .teachoceanscience . net / modulepopup / coral _ reefs _and_climate_change/issues_in_the_pacific).

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animal benefits

There are a number of ways coral reefs maintain diverse food chains and delic-ate balances between all types of species that live in a coral reef environment.Some ways this is achieved is by acting as a habitat and shelter, housing vastamounts of creatures that can be a food supply to other animals, and in somecases, the coral reef itself can act as a food source.

2.1 habitat and food source

Coral reefs are of themost abundant environments for biodiversity in theworld.Animals such as sponges, anemones, sea stars, snakes, turtles, mollusks, andcrustaceans, snails, as well as fish and billions more, can be found living on oraround, and relying on coral reefs. Many of these organisms are only able tosurvive because of the coral reef environment.

Coral reefs are plentiful hunting grounds for sea creatures. The abundanceof animals in these environments provides an amazing selection of prey. Algaeis also an important component of many animals’ diets, which grows on coralreefs.1

1Queensland Museum, ‘Biodiscovery and the Great Barrier Reef,’ accessed December 1,2016, http://www.qm.qld.gov.au/microsites/biodiscovery/index.html.

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2.2. Corallivores

Figure 2.1: Rare species, such as the giant moray eel found in coral reefs in theRed Sea, play a much more vital role in the balance of their ecosystems thanwas first thought (B. Radvaner, May 2013, JPEG photograph, 634 × 424 RGB,accessed December 1, 2016, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2332234/Why-rare-species-coral-reefs-tropical-forests-alpine-meadows-determine-planet-survives-global-disasters.html).

2.2 corallivores

It is evident that millions of species are reliant on coral reefs for food and hab-itat, but some are more so than others. There are approximately 128 known fishspecies that fall under the category of corallivores.

80 % of corallivores’ diets rely on feeding from coral cover. Populations ofthese species decline when coral reefs bleach and die off. There is a very del-icate balance of corallivore feeding and reef regeneration. The problem causedby humans is coral bleaching causes little to no coral regeneration to occur,while the corallivorous species continue to feed. Eventually, the food source

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2.2. Corallivores

will become too scarce and the populations will disappear if the reefs are notallowed the necessary time and environment to regenerate.2

Figure 2.2: Chaetodon lunulatus Redfin butterflyfish, Taveuni, Fiji; Corallivore(Ryan Photographic, JPEG photograph, 1000 × 708 RGB, accessed December 1,2016, http://www.ryanphotographic.com/chaetodontidae.htm).

2A. J. Cole, M. S. Pratchett, and G. P. Jones, ‘Diversity and functional importance ofcoral‐feeding fishes on tropical coral reefs,’ Fish and Fisheries 9, no. 3 (2008): 286–307, issn:1467-2960, doi:10.1111/j.1467-2979.2008.00290.x.

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human benefits

Species generally have specific environmental conditions that they can handle.Even small changes in an ecosystem can affect a species’ health if it does not liewithin their tolerance range. Over time, alterations to ecological systems occur,primarily as a by-product of human actions.1 Preserving coral reefs is not onlyimportant to animals, but also to humans. Coral reefs provide perhaps the mostplentiful source of animals that can be used for drugs, supplements, enzymes,pesticides, and cosmetics from natural sources that are available to humans.2

Humans have by far the largest impact on all natural systems in the world, andthe amount of damage will only increase without significant human awareness,action, and behavioral changes, especially considering the imminent threat ofclimate change.3

3.1 medical advantages

Coral reefs house amazing potential to treat a huge amount of human and otheranimal diseases and infections.4 Coral reefs themselves can be used in the hu-man medical field, by providing anti-inflammatory, anti-cancerous, and bloodpressure treatments. It can also be used in bone repair, and to treat nervoussystem diseases such as Parkinson’s.5 Medicinal properties from organisms incoral reef habitats were known as far back as the 1300’s, treating conditionssuch as respiratory or circulatory problems, infections, kidney or liver disease,and skin conditions.

1R. McLeman, Energy, Ecosystems, and Cycling. (Waterloo ON, October 2016), Lecture.2R. A. Kerr, ‘Deep-Sea Coral Records Quick Response to Climate,’ Science 280, no. 5364

(1998): 679–679, issn: 0036-8075.3S. D. Donner and D. Potere, ‘The Inequity of the Global Threat to Coral Reefs,’ BioScience

57, no. 3 (2007): 214–215, issn: 0006-3568, doi:10.1641/B570302.4_powersearch_⁇⁇.5Edwin L. Cooper et al., ‘Corals and Their Potential Applications to Integrative Medicine,’

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2014 (2014), issn: 1741-427X, accessedDecember 14, 2016, doi:10.1155/2014/184959, http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/184959.

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3.2. Tourism

However, only since the early 1990’s, interest in harvesting possible treat-ments from marine animals in modern medicine has started to increase. Manyreliable disease treatments used today are derived from land-dwelling anim-als, and since the sea contains over 80 % of the Earth’s species, it would be ofgreat advantage to test sea creatures for similar disease-treating qualities. It isapproximately 300—400 times more likely to discover a life-saving or disease-treating drug from ocean-dwelling species than terrestrial ones.

Today, cancer treatment drugs, anti-fungal drugs, painkillers, and manymore disease treatments are being used that have come from animals livingin the oceans.6

An approximate 10 % of coral reef species have been identified, and evenless have been examined for medical potential.

Humans will likely never be able to evaluate extinct and endangered seacreatures’ disease fighting abilities because of human pollution, overfishing,and other actions. It is also important to note that it is essential for speciesto be preserved in the wild so that newfound disease treatments can be har-vested from animals without putting their species at risk.7 With sustainablehuman action, and oceanic and coral reef management, coral reefs can thriveand continue to provide more possibilities for human and other animal medicalservices.

3.2 tourism

Tourists from around the world are attracted to areas that contain coral reefs.An estimated one billion US dollars is gained per year from the Great BarrierReef alone. Developing countries with coral reef environments can generate asignificant increase in income from tourists.8

6_powersearch_⁇⁇.7_powersearch_⁇⁇.8World Wildlife Federation Global, ‘Coral Reefs: Importance,’ accessed December 1, 2016,

http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/coasts/coral_reefs/coral_importance.

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3.3. Ocean History

Figure 3.1: Emilio Basilius of the Coral Reef Research Foundation holds up oneof the hundreds of samples of marine organisms collected in Palau for the Na-tional Cancer Institute in the US. Basilius says the work has “opened my eyesto diversity of things in the wate” in his country. (A. Daniel, JPEG photo-graph, 1800 × 1205 RGB, accessed December 1, 2016, http://www.pri.org/stories/2014-02-24/scientists-search-palaus-coral-reefs-new-anti-cancer-drugs).

3.3 ocean history

Corals are used by oceanographic historians to see into the past of the oceans.Corals contain carbon isotopes which can be observed similarly to tree ringsand ice sheets at dating different ocean currents and circulations. This inform-ation can also be used to see the large changes that started occurring whenglobal average temperature began to rise.9

9A. W. Bruckner, ‘Life-saving products form coral reefs: coral reefs are storehouses of ge-netic resources with vast medicinal potential, but they must be properly managed. (Perspect-ives),’ Issues in Science and Technology 18, no. 3 (2002): 39, issn: 0748-5492.

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3.4. Economics and Food Source

Figure 3.2: The waters around the Great Barrier Reef are a haven for marinewildlife. (University Corporation for Atmospheric Research, JPEG photograph,640 × 360 RGB, accessed December 1, 2016, http://marketbusinessnews.com/16-billion-dollars-save-great-barrier-reef-secret-document-reveals/136664).

3.4 economics and food source

As one can imagine, coral reefs allow for extremely successful fishing busi-nesses and corporations. WWF Global reported that there are an average ofone billion people who rely somewhat on coral reefs for survival, whether as afood source, or income.10

Themajority of coral reef dependents live in developing countries, in whichnegative effects from climate change will have the most impact. Ironically butsadly, poor shoreline communities produce very little greenhouse gases thatquicken the rate of global warming.11

10_coral_⁇⁇.11_powersearch_⁇⁇-1.

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3.4. Economics and Food Source

Figure 3.3: In the coastal communities of the Indian Ocean, coral reef fish area staple on the menu of millions of people, providing protein and other crit-ical nutrients. (J. Larsen Maher, JPEG photograph, 1024 × 679 RGB, accessedDecember 1, 2016, http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2011/12/07/global- fishing- communities- putting-the-heat-on-climate-change-talks).

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effects of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus

Pollution that causes carbon dioxide and other pollutant buildup in oceans isa main issue that surrounds the increasing temperature and acidification ofoceans. These changes, caused by humans, have the most significant impacton the bleaching and killing of coral reefs. The carbon dioxide cycle, and othercycles, are severely affected by humans and cause a lot of environmental prob-lems.

4.1 carbon dioxide pollution

Chemicals that cause carbon dioxide accumulation in oceans come from a vari-ety of sources. Human impacts on natural ecological systems are the maincause.

The Carbon Cycle

The natural carbon cycle is composed of carbon in different areas in differentforms, including biomass in plants and other biota, fossilized in the ground andunder oceans, gaseous in the atmosphere, and dissolved in the ocean’s water.

The carbon contents that occur in these components naturally cycle throughthe environment. The death of biomass can result in fossilization over time.This fossilized matter can be expelled through the natural movement of tectonicplates. Carbon is also exchanged when predators eat their prey. In this way,the carbon is consistently cycled, and relatively evenly distributed.

However, the carbon cycle does not operate the same way today as it has inthe past, due to human interactions.

How the Carbon Cycle has been altered by humans

Humans reduce the amount of biomass that exists by deforestation, which willincrease the amount of carbon in the atmosphere because the carbon in the

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4.2. Nitrogen and phosphorous pollutants

missing biomass needs somewhere to go. It is released in the forms of carbondioxide, and methane.1

Figure 4.1: Rainforests once covered 14 % of the earth’s land surface; now theycover a mere 6 % and experts estimate that the last remaining rainforests couldbe consumed in less than 40 years. Deforestation accounts for about 20 % ofglobal emissions of CO2 (Think Globalgreen, JPEG photograph, 600 × 400 RGB,accessed December 1, 2016, https://www.thinkglobalgreen.org/deforestation.html).

By burning fossilized carbon from the Earth for fuel, wastes are expelledinto the atmosphere. The ocean is in direct contact with the atmosphere at alltimes, resulting in a large amount of carbon dioxide dissolving into the water.

4.2 nitrogen and phosphorous pollutants

Nitrogen and phosphorus are two elements that are used in fertilizers for ag-riculture and peoples’ homes. Runoff from these fertilizers directly introduce

1McLeman, Energy, Ecosystems, and Cycling.

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4.2. Nitrogen and phosphorous pollutants

Figure 4.2: Algae blooms (seen in a July 2005 satellite image) have created theworld’s largest dead zone in the Baltic Sea (J. Schmaltz, March 2010, NationalAeronautics and Space Administration, accessed December 1, 2016, http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/02/100305-baltic-sea-algae-dead-zones-water).

nitrogen and phosphorus to water sources, which causes eutrophication. Eu-trophication is the overproduction of algae and plankton in water, commonlyknown as algal blooms.

Eutrophication can cause many problems.2

The layer on top of water will allow little to no light to reach the vegeta-tion under the water. With these plants no longer able to photosynthesize, theoxygen contents in the water will decline, and cause many aquatic species tosuffocate.

2McLeman, Energy, Ecosystems, and Cycling.

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4.2. Nitrogen and phosphorous pollutants

Eutrophication is more harmful in coastal marine regions where there ishigh biodiversity and a high number of underwater photosynthesizers that spe-cies rely on. Eutrophication severely limits the ability of algae to grow or re-generate on corals, leading to coral bleaching.3

3McLeman, Energy, Ecosystems, and Cycling.

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bibliography

Bruckner, A. W. ‘Life-saving products form coral reefs: coral reefs are store-houses of genetic resources with vast medicinal potential, but they mustbe properly managed. (Perspectives).’ Issues in Science and Technology 18,no. 3 (2002): 39. issn: 0748-5492.

Cole, A. J., M. S. Pratchett, and G. P. Jones. ‘Diversity and functional importanceof coral‐feeding fishes on tropical coral reefs.’ Fish and Fisheries 9, no. 3(2008): 286–307. issn: 1467-2960. doi:10.1111/j.1467-2979.2008.00290.x.

Daniel, A. JPEG photograph, 1800 × 1205 RGB. Accessed December 1, 2016. http://www.pri.org/stories/2014-02-24/scientists-search-palaus-coral-reefs-new-anti-cancer-drugs.

Obtained through Google Advanced Search of images which are labeledfor non-commercial reuse.

Donner, S. D., and D. Potere. ‘The Inequity of the Global Threat to Coral Reefs.’BioScience 57, no. 3 (2007): 214–215. issn: 0006-3568. doi:10.1641/B570302.

Edwin L. Cooper, Kyle Hirabayashi, Kevin B. Strychar, and Paul W. Sammarco.‘Corals andTheir Potential Applications to IntegrativeMedicine.’ Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2014 (2014). issn: 1741-427X, accessed December 14, 2016. doi:10.1155/2014/184959.http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/184959.

Kerr, R. A. ‘Deep-Sea Coral Records Quick Response to Climate.’ Science 280,no. 5364 (1998): 679–679. issn: 0036-8075.

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LarsenMaher, J. JPEG photograph, 1024 × 679 RGB. Accessed December 1, 2016.http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2011/12/07/global-fishing-communities-putting-the-heat-on-climate-change-talks.

Obtained through Google Advanced Search of images which are labeledfor non-commercial reuse.

McLeman, R. Energy, Ecosystems, and Cycling.Waterloo ON, October 2016. Lec-ture.

QueenslandMuseum. ‘Biodiscovery and theGreat Barrier Reef.’ AccessedDecem-ber 1, 2016. http://www.qm.qld.gov.au/microsites/biodiscovery/index.html.

Radvaner, B., May 2013. JPEG photograph, 634 × 424 RGB. Accessed Decem-ber 1, 2016. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2332234/Why-rare-species-coral-reefs-tropical-forests-alpine-meadows-determine-planet-survives-global-disasters.html.

Obtained through Google Advanced Search of images which are labeledfor non-commercial reuse.

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Obtained through Google Advanced Search of images which are labeledfor non-commercial reuse.

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Schmaltz, J., March 2010. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Ac-cessed December 1, 2016. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/02/100305-baltic-sea-algae-dead-zones-water.

Obtained through National Geographic News. Permission granted to ac-cess and display this content for non-commercial use in connection withusing the NG Services.

Think Globalgreen. JPEG photograph, 600 × 400 RGB. Accessed December 1,2016. https://www.thinkglobalgreen.org/deforestation.html.

Obtained through Google Advanced Search of images which are labeledfor non-commercial reuse.

University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. JPEG photograph, 640 × 360RGB. Accessed December 1, 2016. http://marketbusinessnews.com/16-billion-dollars-save-great-barrier-reef-secret-document-reveals/136664.

Obtained through Google Advanced Search of images which are labeledfor non-commercial reuse.

University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science. JPEG photograph,800 × 525 RGB. Accessed December 1, 2016. http://www.teachoceanscience.net/modulepopup/coral_reefs_and_climate_change/issues_in_the_pacific.

Obtained through Google Advanced Search of images which are labeledfor non-commercial reuse.

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US Department of Commerce and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin-istration. JPEG photograph, 480 × 324 RGB. Accessed December 1, 2016.http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/corals/coral07_importance.html.

Obtained through Google Advanced Search of images which are labeledfor non-commercial reuse.

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Information presented on this Web site is considered public informationand may be distributed or copied.

. ‘NOAA’s National Ocean Service: Corals: Importance of Coral Reefs.’Accessed December 1, 2016.http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/corals/coral07_importance.html.

Obtained through Google Advanced Search of images which are labeledfor non-commercial reuse.

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