Impacts of urbanisation on native bird

communities

Dayna Will

Supervisors: Associate Professor Phillip Cassey and Dr Steven Delean

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science

(Honours), School of Biological Sciences, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology,

The University of Adelaide November 2020

i

Table of Contents

Declaration ....................................................................................................................... iii

Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... iv

Abstract.............................................................................................................................. v

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Global urbanisation is one of the greatest contributors to anthropogenic

environmental change ..................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Impacts of urbanisation on the native environment .................................................. 2

1.3 Anthropogenic pressure of urbanisation in Australia ............................................... 3

1.4 Birds as an effective bioindicator for determining the impacts of urbanisation ....... 5

1.5 Urbanisation has adversely impacted Australian avifauna ....................................... 6

1.6 Study aims................................................................................................................. 8

2. Methods.......................................................................................................................... 9

2.1 Research area ............................................................................................................ 9

2.2 Collating and analysing bird surveys conducted in metropolitan Adelaide ........... 11

2.21 Synthetic data analysis of bird surveys ............................................................. 11

2.22 Bird Atlas of South Australia ............................................................................ 12

2.3 Data cleaning and quality assessments ................................................................... 13

2.31 Refining the species list ..................................................................................... 15

2.4 Spatial data .............................................................................................................. 16

2.41 SA Vegetation Land Cover ............................................................................... 16

2.42 Demographic data for LGAs ............................................................................. 18

2.5 Temporal diversity indices to measure community change.................................... 19

2.51 Temporal Turnover ............................................................................................ 19

2.52 Community Abundance turnover ...................................................................... 20

2.6 Visualising and analysing multivariate patterns in species presence-absence ....... 21

2.61 Multivariate analysis ......................................................................................... 21

2.62 Model-based analysis ........................................................................................ 21

2.7 Changes in Species Abundance .............................................................................. 22

2.71 Multivariate Analysis ........................................................................................ 22

2.72 Model-based analysis ........................................................................................ 22

3. Results .......................................................................................................................... 23

3.1 Changes in urbanisation .......................................................................................... 23

ii

3.2 Temporal turnover of bird communities ................................................................. 24

3.3 Changes in species abundance ................................................................................ 29

4. Discussion .................................................................................................................... 32

4.1 Utilising bird communities to analyse the impacts of urban growth ...................... 33

4.2 Analysing what species have undergone changes due to urban growth ................. 34

4.3 Practical methods to increase the diversity of native bird communities ................. 35

4.4 Future directions ..................................................................................................... 36

4.5 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 37

References ........................................................................................................................ 38

Appendices .......................................................................................................................... i

A. Species List ................................................................................................................. i

B. Removed Species Names ....................................................................................... viii

C. Refined Species List & Foraging Guilds/Zones........................................................ ix

D. Species Richness ..................................................................................................... xvi

E. SA Land Cover – Urbanisation ............................................................................... xvi

F. SA Land Cover – Native vegetation ....................................................................... xvii

G. Population and Dwellings ....................................................................................... xix

H. Temporal Turnover ................................................................................................ xxii

I. Species Abundance ................................................................................................. xxiv

J. Species presence/absence: Multivariate analysis .................................................. xxvii

K. Species presence-absence: Model-based analysis ................................................ xxix

L. Species abundance – multivariate analysis ............................................................ xxx

M. Species abundance – model................................................................................. xxxii

iii

Declaration

I certify that this work contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any

other degree or diploma in my name, in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the

best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by

another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. In addition, I certify that

no part of this work will, in the future, be used in a submission in my name, for any other

degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution without the prior approval of

the University of Adelaide and where applicable, any partner institution responsible for the

joint-award of this degree.

I acknowledge that copyright of published works contained within this thesis resides with

the copyright holder(s) of those works.

I also give permission for the digital version of my thesis to be made available on the web,

via the University’s digital research repository, the Library Search and also through web search

engines, unless permission has been granted by the University to restrict access for a period of

time.

Dayna L Will

November 2020

iv

Acknowledgements

Ngadlu Kaurna miyurna tampinthi. Parna yarta mathanya puki-unangku. Ngadlu

tampinthi Kaurna miyurna puru purruna. Pangkarra Wama Kaurna, Kaurnakunti yarta.

We acknowledge the Kaurna people as the traditional owners of this land. We

acknowledge their living culture and unique role in the life of this region.

We also acknowledge the Kaurna people as the custodians of the Adelaide region and

respect their cultural heritage, beliefs, and relationship with the land.

I would like to sincerely thank my supervisors Phill Cassey and Steven Delean for all their

support and feedback through this challenging year. Phill gave me the opportunity to work on

this compelling project, providing me with skills I will utilise throughout the rest of my career.

Steven provided tremendous statistical analysis support, and overall support throughout my

project. I was extremely fortunate to be under two exceptionally knowledgeable supervisors

who have made this year exceptionally fulfilling.

I wish to thank David Paton for allowing me access to both his Bird Atlas datasets. My

research was based up these datasets, and would not have been able to be conducted without

them.

Lastly, I wish to thank the Invasion Science and Wildlife Ecology Group, my fellow

Honours students, my partner, family, and friends for their continued support this year.

v

Abstract

Urbanisation is the concentrated human presence in industrial and residential settings and

its associated effects on natural landscapes. The process of urbanisation is an extreme form of

land-use intensification causing the eradication and fragmentation of native vegetation, and

alongside climate change is considered one of the largest threats to wildlife globally.

Determining the composition of bird species as an indicator of biodiversity loss triggered by

urbanisation is crucial for understanding the impacts urbanisation has already caused. These

results will allow for urban strategies to be implemented that prevent any further destruction,

whilst also contributing to the conservation of the native environment.

Here I present the analysis of historical bird species composition in metropolitan Adelaide

to determine whether there is a relationship between changes in bird communities and urban

land use. Bird atlas data was sourced to compare bird communities between two time periods

30 years apart (labelled the 1980’s and 2010’s), within the Adelaide metropolitan region.

Spatial data of population and dwelling counts were utilised to determine the relative increase

in urbanisation for 16 Local Government Areas (LGAs) to evaluate the correlation of urban

growth changes with bird species compositions in metropolitan Adelaide. Changes in bird

species abundance significantly increased as relative dwellings increased. To measure and

understand which key species contributed to this temporal compositional change, I used a

multivariate analysis that identified 26 species that had undergone a significant change in

abundance since the 1980’s.

My study provides an insightful and reproducible analysis of historical bird survey data,

creating a format that allows monitoring of temporal abundance and changes of bird species

and their distributions. This analysis will assist in developing a detailed insight into the impacts

of urbanisation in metropolitan Adelaide. Furthermore, this knowledge can underpin urban

planning strategies that are effective and contribute to conserving not only bird species, but

entire ecosystems in metropolitan Adelaide.

1

1. Introduction

1.1 Global urbanisation is one of the greatest contributors to anthropogenic

environmental change

Biodiversity is declining at an alarming rate, and our planet is currently in the midst of the

Anthropocene; a human-induced mass extinction (Barnosky et al. 2011). This decline is

primarily a result of the rapid increase in the global population to seven billion people, causing

worldwide environmental and land cover changes through the unsustainable use of resources

to provide water, food and shelter (Foley et al. 2005). Of the impacts that land cover changes

have on the native environment, modifications for urbanisation are considered an extreme

product of anthropogenic pressure as they lead to severe environmental degradation yet are still

expanding at rapid rates (Sushinsky et al. 2013). Urbanisation is the concentrated human

presence in industrial and residential settings and their associated effects (Chace & Walsh

2006). The rapid alteration and removal of native vegetation for anthropogenic uses results in

profound effects on terrestrial fauna and flora (Sol et al. 2014). As a consequence, local

extinctions can surge in cities when species fail to adjust to modification of their biotic and

physical ecosystem (Sol, Lapiedra & González-Lagos 2013).

Around the world, the number of people living in urban environments has risen rapidly

from 750 million in 1950 to 4.2 billion or 55% of the world’s population in 2018 (United

Nations 2018, Figure 1). This percentage is expected to increase in 2050 to 68% (United

Nations 2018). Furthermore, population growth is substantially higher in biodiversity hotspots

(a biogeographic region with significant levels of biodiversity that is threated by anthropogenic

pressures), than the population growth of the world as a whole (Cincotta, Wisnewski &

Engelman 2000).The implications of this anthropogenic geographical shift on the earth is

tremendous and will greatly impact future dynamics of human development and relationships

with the environment (United Nations 2018).

2

Figure 1: Percentage of people, per country, living in urban areas in 2017. Darker blue

represents countries with greater urban percentages ranging from 80 to 100% urban. Australia

has an urban rate of 86%. The most urbanised geographic regions are North America (82%),

Latin America (81%), and Europe (74%). Africa remains the most rural geographic region

with only 43% of the population living in urban areas (United Nations 2018).

1.2 Impacts of urbanisation on the native environment

Urban development primarily impacts native biodiversity through the rapid and extensive

removal of native vegetation, which results in fragmentation, significantly altering urban

ecosystem structure and composition (Faulkner 2004). Urban landscapes are dominated by

roads and buildings that are intertwined with fragmented ‘green’ areas, which range in their

size and condition (Burgman & Lindenmayer 1998). This alteration has been deemed a

structural simplification of vegetation, as landscaping for commercial and residential areas

typically comprise the removal of native shrub and vegetation with an increased mix of native

and invasive grasses and herbs (Marzluff 2001). This can cause significant consequences for

native species, not only by reducing native diversity, but by increasing the prospect of local

extinction when species fail to adjust to urbanisation of their ecosystem (Marzluff 2001; Sol,

Lapiedra & González-Lagos 2013).

Urban areas alter many aspects of the native vegetation, allowing for a wide array of

invasive generalist species to thrive as they can exploit resources from disturbed and novel

environments (Francis & Chadwick 2015). Globally ubiquitous and human-commensal species

3

for example the rock dove (Columba livia), cat (Felis catus), and black rat (Rattus rattus) are

able to establish and thrive in urban areas as they obtain food and nesting resources from

anthropogenic features such as buildings, lawns and paved areas (Møller et al. 2015). This can

cause a multitude of impacts for both the native wildlife and humans, as generalist invasive

species can disrupt ecosystem processes by outcompeting native species, and introducing novel

threats (Banks & Smith 2015).

Native animals are more susceptible to extinction if they require solely native resources

and have specialised life histories (McKinney 2006). Some animals can thrive in urban cities,

yet these tend to be cosmopolitan generalist species that utilise human resources (McKinney

2006). With the expansion of urbanisation, biotic homogenisation can have an immense impact

on native species as different regional biotas become more similar in species composition over

time (McKinney 2006; Olden, Comte & Giam 2018). This is primarily due to the rapid removal

of a diverse native vegetation to create a uniform built environment for humans. As

urbanisation intensity increases, the rate of biotic homogenisation in species can also increase

(Blouin, Pellerin & Poulin 2019). With the addition of invasive species, local biodiversity may

be enriched, but the subsequent extinction of native species causes global diversity to decrease

(McKinney 2006).

1.3 Anthropogenic pressure of urbanisation in Australia

Compared to other regions in the developed world, Australia’s history of habitat clearance

is relatively recent. Nonetheless, clearance has been instantaneous and extensive (Attwood et

al. 2009). Since European colonisation, around 13% Australia’s vegetation has been entirely

cleared for anthropogenic uses, and an additional 62% has been subject to disturbance at

varying degrees (Metcalfe & Bui 2017, Figure 2). A recent report by Tulloch et al. (2016)

analysed 75 native vegetation communities and reported seven communities had lost at least

40% of their original range, and a further 32% of communities had lost at least 20% of their

original range.

4

Figure 2: Map of Australia showing each National Vegetation Information System (NVIS)

vegetation community colour coded by (a) total loss of extent and (b) a fragmentation

measure (change in proportion made up of patches of <5000 hectares). Red areas represent

those vegetation communities with high change, light blue represents no or very little change,

and dark blue represents a positive change (Metcalfe & Bui 2017).

European colonisation of Australia occurred in the 18th century and led to cities expanding

into fertile lands near the coast where water and food resources were abundant. This expansion

has rapidly increased and Australia now has 86% of the population living in urban areas (The

World Bank 2019). As a result, Australian cities have undergone substantial changes in their

native environments (Bradshaw 2012; Lunt 1998). In 1996, 2001, and 2006, State of the

Environment reports were conducted, and all concluded that environments around the

Australian coast are suffering increasing environmental degradation (Australian State of

Environment 2006).

Urbanisation is predicted to continue to increase, hence it is crucial that sustainable

management must better address biodiversity conservation to prevent continued extinction of

Australia’s native species (Burgin 2016). If clear policies to regenerate and protect degraded

native vegetation are not enforced, Australia faces the reality that a large proportion of the

already damaged remaining endemic biodiversity will be lost (Bradshaw 2012).

Australian cities often coincide with a high biological diversity (Matz-Lück 2007), and

locations that are suitable for urbanisation often overlap with high levels of species diversity

5

and endemism (Garden et al. 2006). This is reflected in Australia’s threatened species with

46% of Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation EPBC Act (1999) listed

animals having distributions that overlap with cities (Ives et al. 2016, Figure 3). However, due

to extensive clearance of native vegetation, Australia has seen a large decline in native

vertebrate species, which has resulted in 49 species becoming extinct since colonisation (EPBC

Act 1999).

Figure 3: Threatened species richness across Australia, with darker colours/shades

representing greater richness. Urban areas are outlined in black. Cities shown in greater detail

in boxes are (a) Perth, (b) Brisbane and (c) Melbourne. 1643 threatened species were

included in the analysis, with 503 (30%) having distributions that intersected with cities.

Threatened species richness was also higher in coastal areas and around the edges of cities

(Ives et al. 2016).

1.4 Birds as an effective bioindicator for determining the impacts of urbanisation

With the intense impact that urbanisation is having on Australia’s biodiversity, it is crucial

that further research is conducted to assess the condition of the remnant vegetation in urban

6

areas. To manage and conserve remaining biodiversity in urban areas successfully, an

understanding of the full effect of urbanisation is essential (Reis, López-Iborra & Pinheiro

2012). To ensure results are reliable, research requires that all properties within an ecosystem

are examined, yet this is a lengthy task, and research time, capacity and funding are limited.

Due to these constraints, only a small fraction of an ecosystem’s properties is usually examined

(Chambers 2008).

Bioindicators are species that are utilised to evaluate the condition of an ecosystem and

how it has changed over time (Egwumah, Egwumah & Edet 2017). A bioindicator species can

provide a reliable and cost-effective way to determine the health of an ecosystem, and can assist

in establishing its environmental integrity (Egwumah, Egwumah & Edet 2017). To provide

reliable and accurate outcomes, the chosen bioindicator species should possess qualities that

include relevancy for management purposes, high data output, and user benefit (Padoa-

Schioppa et al. 2006).

Birds are considered useful bioindicators as the ecology of many bird species is well-

understood. Furthermore, birds are easily detected within the environment, and cover different

trophic levels, allowing for researchers to collect a large quantity of data on diversity and

abundance within that community (Wardell-Johnson & Williams 2000). Therefore, these

species can assist in developing an understanding of the effects of urbanisation (Chace & Walsh

2006; MacGregor-Fors 2010), because if the habitat is not suitable birds have the ability to fly

and leave the unsustainable environment (Egwumah, Egwumah & Edet 2017). Utilising bird

communities as a bioindicator to determine the health of an urban ecosystem can contribute to

proposing urban planning strategies in cities that focus on conserving native species (Fuller,

Tratalos & Gaston 2009).

1.5 Urbanisation has adversely impacted Australian avifauna

Australia has a diverse and unique birdlife of over 800 species (Dolby 2014); and of these

species, 45% are endemic to Australia (Chapman 2009). Unfortunately, along with mammals,

bird species have seen major declines and extinctions since European settlement (Garnett,

Szabo & Dutson 2011). Every 10 years, The Action Plan for Australian Birds conducts an

analysis on the status of bird species in Australia (Garnett, Szabo & Dutson 2011). This analysis

concluded that since colonisation in 1788, 27 species have gone extinct, 20 are critically

endangered, 60 endangered, and 68 species are vulnerable (Garnett, Szabo & Dutson 2011),

7

distinguishing the significant decline in the proportion of native species present across

Australian cities. In Adelaide, 21 species have gone locally extinct (Tait, Daniels & Hill 2005,

Figure 4)

Figure 4: Changes in native bird species richness observed in the Adelaide area from 1836 to

2002. Between 1836 to 1959, six species were lost in the Adelaide metropolitan area. The

major decline in species richness began in 1959. From 1959 to 2002, 15 native species were

lost (Tait, Daniels & Hill 2005).

Urbanisation in Australian cities has created highly modified urban environments. The

transition from native vegetation to exotic streetscapes has diminished ecological complexity.

Exotic plant species have replaced natives’ and hence, have reduced vegetation structure and

composition, resulting in lowered diversity (Zivanovic & Luck 2016). This is extremely

detrimental for native birds as they respond to vegetation structure and composition (Chace &

Walsh 2006). Furthermore, when native vegetation is preserved, urban areas can support a

greater abundance of native species (Threlfall et al. 2016). With Australia’s population

continuing to grow, it is crucial that the retention of native vegetation is the focus of

conservation efforts in urban areas.

There are a broad array of avian trophic guilds in Australia, with native birds relying on

specialised food resources to survive (Ikin et al. 2012). Urbanisation of Australian cities into

uniformed environments have led to the progressive loss of species with specialised feeding

strategies, such as granivorous and insectivorous species. This loss is due to urbanisation

removing native vegetation that is structurally diverse and had provided food and shelter to a

comprehensive range of ecological niches (Callaghan, Bino, et al. 2019; White et al. 2005).

8

Specialist species are not able to adapt to the limited resources in urban environments, resulting

in local extinctions (Sol et al. 2014).

Although there has been a significant decline in Australian native birds, a few species have

adapted to urbanisation and responded positively, becoming a dominant component of the

community in urban habitats (Ashley, Major & Taylor 2009). This has resulted in a major shift

in the body sizes of birds, with a greater proportion of the bird community now compromising

of larger species (Major & Parsons 2010). This trend is due to larger-bodied birds often being

dominant species with generalist, nectivorous, or omnivorous diets, allowing for adaption in

urban environments (Major & Parsons 2010); e.g., the red wattlebird (Anthochaera

carunculate), noisy miner (Manorina melanocephala), and Australian white ibis (Threskiornis

moluccus). All of these native species are medium to large in size, with their populations in

several Australian cities increasing since European colonisation (Cleary et al. 2016; Smith,

Munro & Figueira 2013), identifying these species as successful avian urban adaptors (Davis,

Taylor & Major 2012; Major & Parsons 2010).

1.6 Study aims

Developing a detailed insight into bird species composition and diversity in urban areas

can provide a vital understanding of the environmental impacts created by urbanisation. This

knowledge can furthermore allow for urban planning strategies to be developed that are

effective and can contribute to conserving bird species and their diversity in Australian cities

(Sushinsky et al. 2013). The aim of my research is to determine the composition of bird species

as an indicator of biodiversity loss triggered by urbanisation in the Adelaide metropolitan area,

utilising Bird Atlas Data (Paton, Carpenter & Sinclair 1994; DP Paton unpublished data) to:

• Determine temporal changes of bird species composition in metropolitan Adelaide

• Determine past and present spatial patterns of urban growth through land use in

metropolitan Adelaide

• Evaluate the correlation of urban growth changes on bird species composition in

metropolitan Adelaide

9

2. Methods

2.1 Research area

Adelaide is a metropolitan region located in the southeast of South Australia and on the

Eastern side of Gulf St. Vincent. Adelaide has a Mediterranean climate with an average of

16.1mm-78.1mm of rainfall every year; the driest major city in Australia (Bureau of

Meteorology 2020). Adelaide experiences relatively mild winters (average of 14.5 degrees),

and hot dry summers (average of 29.6 degrees) (Bureau of Meteorology 2020). My study

region is the area of Green Adelaide, the South Australian Government’s landscape

management region that includes 17 local government areas (LGA), and encompasses

approximately 1.3 million people (Government of South Australia 2019, Figure 5).

Kaurna people are the custodians of Adelaide and the Adelaide Plains. The city of Adelaide

was the heart of Kaurna country and known as Tarntanya (red kangaroo place). Historically,

Adelaide was an open grassy plain with patches of shrubs and trees and had a rich biodiversity

(Clarke 1991). Prior to European settlement the Adelaide Plains was considered to have the

richest diversity of flora and fauna in South Australia (Bradshaw 2012; Tait, Daniels & Hill

2005).This was the result of the Kaurna people skilfully managing the land for thousands of

years. This diverse range of natural habitat supported 285 native bird, and 40 mammal species

(Turner 2001). However, since European colonisation in 1836 most of Adelaide’s native

vegetation have been cleared, with less than 4% of remnant vegetation remaining in the

Adelaide plains (Oke 1997; Szabo et al. 2011).

10

Figure 5: Map of the Green Adelaide boundary – a landscape management region wherein

the South Australian Government has an objective to enhance biodiversity and increase

efforts to green metropolitan Adelaide. The area includes 17 metropolitan Local Government

Areas, and encompass approximately 1.3 million people (Government of South Australia

2019).

11

2.2 Collating and analysing bird surveys conducted in metropolitan Adelaide

2.21 Synthetic data analysis of bird surveys

To understand the rate of species change in metropolitan Adelaide and ensure this research

produced reliable results, a large amount of bird surveying data was required from previous

research papers. Extensive communications took place with data custodians who have

previously conducted research on bird communities in metropolitan Adelaide. A synthetic

review of data was conducted, with data selected for analysis including methods and surveying

efforts that would allow for future reproducibility, creating a format that allows monitoring of

temporal abundance changes of bird distributions.

Between 1984 and 1985, the South Australian Ornithological Association (SAOA)

collected information on the distribution of birds in the Adelaide region to produce a Bird Atlas

of the Adelaide region (Paton, Carpenter & Sinclair 1994). These efforts have been recently

followed up, with surveys being conducted between the years 2012 and 2014 (DC Paton

unpublished data). Methods between the two time periods were conducted under the same

format to allow for monitoring the temporal abundance changes of bird distributions. All

observations were recorded on cards, and sent to regional organisers for data entry. This

allowed for any unusual sightings to be verified by adequate descriptions of the bird. To ensure

that the entire region was surveyed, latitude and longitude points were recorded to the nearest

minute (Paton, Carpenter & Sinclair 1994). Due to this reliability and validity of data, these

two datasets were chosen for temporal analysis in this paper.

Tait, Daniels and Hill (2005) analysed the changes in species assemblages within the

Adelaide metropolitan area between the years 1836 and 2002. Raw data was obtained from the

lead author (Catherine Tait), yet when I analysed the data, only the absence or presence of each

species was recorded for each year and no location data was recorded. Additionally, the

information recorded was not consistant for each species. I deemed these data unreliable and

unsuitable for an analysis of temporal patterns in species assemblages, and they were therefore

not utilised further in this study.

Ormond et al. (2014) analysed the species assemblages of the Adelaide parklands between

the years 1976 and 2007. This is a detailed and informed report based on 32 years of surveys

12

by Naturalist Dr Robert Whatmough. On further analysis, data collated by Dr Whatmough

found to be submitted into the Atlas of Living Australia (ALA). This paper was excluded from

individual analysis as it was already part of the ALA.

The Atlas of Living Australia (ALA) is Australia’s national biodiversity database, and is

an open compilation of Australian biodiversity data. There are more than 85 million occurrence

records in the ALA, based on data collated from universities, government departments,

museums, and other organisations. In Australia, national databases such as the ALA are vital

as they can provide information from a broad range of sources, permitting research on long-

term data sets. Field observations and surveys within the ALA have been conducted by a broad

range of participants who have a wide variety of experience and identification skills. This can

have a substantial impact on the results as sampling efforts are varied and diverse. Certain bird

surveys uploaded to the ALA may be lacking because of variable identification skills of

participants, resulting in species either being overrepresented, or going undetected at sites even

when present. This will further influence data analysis, as quantifying temporal abundance

levels from this dataset may result in underestimated and unreliable statistics (MacKenzie et

al. 2002).

To analyse the ALA data, historical bird surveys conducted in the Adelaide metropolitan

region have been filtered and retrieved from the ALA repositories. On visual analysis, survey

data was not evenly distributed across LGAs, consequently analysis across and between LGAs

would be severely limited. Due to these results, it was decided that the ALA data would not be

used further for temporal analysis of bird communities in the metropolitan Adelaide region.

2.22 Bird Atlas of South Australia

The Bird Atlas of 1984 to 1985 produced observations of 318 bird species, and 117,766

individual bird sightings across 1973 locations in South Australia (Paton, Carpenter & Sinclair

1994; DP Paton unpublished data)

These surveys have recently been repeated, with sampling being conducted between 2012

and 2014, and the updated bird atlas is still in preparation (DC Paton unpublished

data). Observations over this period recorded a total of 307 species, and 137,551 individual

bird sightings from 3638 locations in South Australia (Figure 6).

13

Figure 6: Map showing 17 Local Government Area’s of metropolitan Adelaide with

locations of bird surveys conducted in 1984-1985 (yellow points) and 2012-2014 (red points).

Points have been overlayed on the SA Land Cover dataset for 2010-2015. Grey indicates

urban areas, dark green indicates native vegetation, and light green indicates exotic

vegetation

2.3 Data cleaning and quality assessments

A subset of the full dataset from both periods that included birds sighted only in the 17

Green Adelaide LGAs was compiled, containing 76,964 individual bird sightings of 273

species (Appendix A). A unique code was used for each LGA (Table 1). Any sightings that

occurred in the City of Prospect (PRO) were removed from subsequent data analysis, as birds’

surveys were only conducted in the 2012-14 dataset, and as a result temporal turnover analysis

could not be conducted. Within each time period, data was pooled among years, and given the

label either 1980 or 2010.

14

Table 1: The 17 Local Government Areas (LGA) located within metropolitan Adelaide, and

the associated code.

LGA Code

Adelaide ADL

Burnside BUR

Campbelltown CAM

Charles Sturt CHA

Holdfast Bay HOL

Marion MAR

Mitcham MIT

Norwood Payneham And St Peters NOR

Onkaparinga ONK

Playford PLA

Port Adelaide Enfield POR

Prospect PRO

Salisbury SAL

Tea Tree Gully TEA

Unley UNL

Walkerville WAL

West Torrens WES

To ensure the two time periods resembled one another for comparison, the differences

between the datasets of the two time periods were determined. Location variables were

consistent for both time periods, with the date, Easting and Northing locations, Map zone, and

observer details recorded. Only the 1980 data set included latitude and longitude for sightings.

Inconsistencies of surveying efforts between the two time period datasets occurred within

the bird species variables. The 1980s raw data had only the common names listed for each

sighting, with the raw data for 2010 surveys only containing an abbreviated code for each

species scientific name, and a separate key of the scientific and common names for each code.

To ensure each dataset had the scientific name, common name, and abbreviated code,

information from the species key onto each of the datasets were merged (Appendix A). Due

to nomenclature changes over this time, not just time itself, there was a lot of variability and

duplication in common names.

To prevent duplication (multiple counts for single species), a single species list was created

from both datasets and a unique species name was resolved for every species (BirdLife SA

2020). The unique species name was based upon the scientific name. Duplications due to

15

spelling errors in common names, or a change in common names for the same species were

identified through any NAs in the scientific name column. Duplicates were matched to their

correct scientific name and given the same Unique Species Name, and any sightings that could

not be identified to species level were removed from the dataset (Appendix B).

To ensure the data was ready for analysis, a significant amount of time and effort was

required to develop an in-depth understanding of all the data. The extended time allocated to

data cleaning and familiarising was crucial to the process. The two datasets were heterogenous

and required a large amount of time to analyse the metadata, determine the consistencies, and

carefully identify and diagnose the specific differences.

Throughout the process of data cleaning and preparation, the aim was to prepare a rigorous

comparison of the two time periods, to ensure robust and reliable conclusions. Consequently,

a clean set of data and metadata with transparent sources and changes were created through

collating all data sets and utilising the R scripting language for data management. This will

also allow for future use of this data. All data was visualised and analysed using the program

R for statistical and graphical computing (R Core Team 2019).

2.31 Refining the species list

With all the data consolidated, a total of 273 species were recorded in the metropolitan

Adelaide region (Appendix A). Species were determined as native or exotic through utilising

previous species lists from Paton, Carpenter and Sinclair (1994), and through expert elicitation

(RL Boulton pers comm, Appendix C). Native species were defined as species that were

present in metropolitan Adelaide prior to 1836 (Paton, Carpenter & Sinclair 1994).

There were 99 species excluded from the original species to ensure that the temporal

analysis of urban communities was conducted for species that occurred throughout the entire

region (R. Boulton as per comm). Species that are associated to a specified habitat including,

waterbirds, coastal and seabirds, were removed as these habitats are only found in a narrow

area of the entire 16 LGAs, and may contribute to inaccurate assumptions of urbanisation,

rather than natural distribution of species. Further, birds uncommon (vagrant) to the

metropolitan Adelaide region were removed as this study focuses on birds potentially occurring

throughout the entire region, as their natural home range may also contribute to inaccurate

16

assumptions, rather than the natural distribution of species. The final 174 species list included

native and exotic species that were found (or should occur) across the entire study area (R.

Boulton as per comm, Appendix C).

For the refined 174 species, they were categorised based on their foraging guilds and

foraging zones. Categories were identified based on primary food sources, and foraging zone

for each species (Boulton as per comm; Burgess & Maron 2016). These included 5 foraging

guilds: carnivore, frugivore, granivore, insectivore, and nectarivore; and 5 foraging zones:

aerial, bark, canopy, ground, and shrub. If a species was not mutually exclusive to a foraging

guild (for example Honeyeaters that are both nectarivores and insectivores), the species was

assigned to both relevant categories (Burgess & Maron 2016; Boulton as per comm, Appendix

C).

Species abundances were summarised for each LGA by time period. The summarised

abundance data was converted to a wide matrix format for each LGA by year to create a species

x LGA abundance matrix. This table was then converted into a presence/absence table. From

the presence/absence matrix table, species richness per LGA by year was calculated (Appendix

D).

2.4 Spatial data

2.41 SA Vegetation Land Cover

In 2015, the South Australian Government began to model estimated land cover classes

across South Australia from 1987-2015. The aim was to improve the knowledge of South

Australia’s native vegetation extent, and understand largescale trends over time, with six

epochs being analysed (three to five years per epoch, Table 2).

Table 2: Definition of each epoch and the years it represents for the SA Land Cover dataset

Epoch Years

1 1987-1990

2 1990-1995

3 1995-2000

4 2000-2005

5 2005-2010

6 2010-2015

17

To create this dataset, Landsat satellite imagery and local calibration (or training) data

were used to produce the most likely layers (one for each epoch) to classify each pixel in to

one of 17 land cover classes (Willoughby et al. 2018, Table 3).

Table 3: Description of the land cover classes in the most likely layers for the SA Land

Cover (Willoughby et al. 2018).

Land Cover Class Description Category

Woody Native

Vegetation

Woody native vegetation generally > 1 m tall (e.g.

eucalypt forests and woodlands, wattle shrublands,

hop-bush shrublands)

Native Land Cover

Mangrove

Vegetation Mangrove dominated forest Native Land Cover

Non-Woody Native

Vegetation

Non-woody native vegetation generally < 1 m tall

(e.g. grasslands including herbs and low shrubs

such as chenopods)

Native Land Cover

Saltmarsh

Vegetation

Low native vegetation in areas with saline soils

dominated by samphire species Native Land Cover

Wetland Vegetation

Non-woody native vegetation occurring in

association with wetlands (e.g. emergent vegetation,

lignum)

Native Land Cover

Natural Low Cover

Very sparse native vegetation (e.g. gibber plains,

post-fire heath, coastal dunes, beaches. Large

fluctuations can occur - usually with low native

vegetation)

Native Land Cover

Salt Lake/ Saltpan Salt lakes and salt pans Other

Dryland Agriculture Non-native vegetation that is used for dryland

cropping and/or grazing Exotic Land Cover

Exotic Vegetation

Any form of vegetation dominated by non-native

species and not classified to the other non-native

vegetation classes

Exotic Land Cover

Irrigated Non-

Woody

Irrigated pasture or crops (e.g. irrigated cropping/

pasture, grassed reserves, golf courses) Exotic Land Cover

Orchards/ Vineyards Irrigated woody crops (e.g. grapes, citrus, stone

fruit) Exotic Land Cover

Plantation

(Softwood) Pine plantations

Non- Native

Vegetation

Plantation

(Hardwood)

Plantations other than pine (often Tasmanian blue

gum) Exotic Land Cover

Urban Area A mix of vegetation and built surfaces (e.g. roads,

gardens, houses, street trees) Urban Land Cover

Built-up Area Dominated by built surfaces (e.g. roads, buildings) Urban Land Cover

Disturbed Ground /

Outcrop Disturbed ground or outcrop (e.g. open-cut mines) Other

Water Unspecified Open water bodies Other

18

To measure the changes in urbanisation in the Adelaide metropolitan area from 1987 to

2015, urban cover for each LGA was calculated using the “urban / built-up” categories from

the South Australian land Cover spatial datasets (Willoughby et al. 2018, Table 3 & Figure

7). The 16 LGAs were overlayed onto the urban/built-up coverage, and the km2 and percent

coverage was extracted for each of the LGAs (Appendix E). to further understand the changes

in urbanisation, native vegetation for each LGA was calculated for land cover classes that fell

under the category of Native Land Cover. The LGAs were overlayed onto the native land

coverage, and the km2 and percent coverage was extracted for each of the bLGAs (Appendix

E). These calculations were performed through the program QGIS (QGIS 2020).

Figure 7: A comparison of SA Land Cover estimations from 1987 (left) to 2015 (right) for

metropolitan Adelaide. Grey indicates urban areas, Dark green indicates native vegetation,

and light green indicates exotic vegetation

2.42 Demographic data for LGAs

Every 5 years the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) conducts the national Census of

Population and Housing. This census collates key demographic, social, and economic data from

all people in Australia. Every person residing in Australia must complete the census, yet not

all questions are compulsory (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2020). Total Population and

dwellings data were obtained for each local government area from the census years closest to

19

the surveying time periods - 1986 and 2016 (Appendix G). Proportional numbers were

calculated by dividing the counts for each LGA by the LGA area (km2). The relative increase

in the proportional population and dwelling counts from 1986 to 2016 for each LGA were

calculated using the following equations (Appendix G):

Relative population density = ((population size in 2016 / LGA km2) - (population size in

1986 / LGA km2)) / (population size in 1986 / LGA km2)

(1)

Relative dwelling density = ((total number of dwellings in 2016 / LGA km2) - (total number

of dwellings in 1986 / LGA km2)) / (total number of dwellings in 1986 / LGA km2)

(2)

2.5 Temporal diversity indices to measure community change

2.51 Temporal Turnover

Conventional measurements of ecological communities capture community dynamics

poorly. This is due to common indices such as species richness only representing a ‘snapshot

in time’, rather than analysing turnover, which is the change in richness (Collins et al. 2008).

If there is no change in number of species present, these indices fail to highlight community

change due to turnover in species identity (Collins et al. 2008). To avoid this problem, species

turnover is calculated as the proportion of species that differ between time points so that:

(3)

Temporal turnover was calculated in the R software package codyn (Hallett, Jones, et al.

2016). Total turnover not only shows the species richness changes over time, but also

fluctuations in the species present. This metric assists in contextualising temporal patterns of

richness, and understanding the turnover patterns in species over time (Hallett, Jones, et al.

2016). To visualise the species gained and lost for each LGA, turnover was plotted as the

relative sizes of species additions and deletions by LGA (Appendix H).

Separate linear models were fitted to assess the relationships between temporal turnover

and the explanatory variable relative dwelling increase. Both the relative dwelling increase and

20

temporal turnover was log transformed (log10) to reduce the skewness, making the transformed

data appear more normal (Figure 10). Residual plots and Q-Q plots were produced to visually

analyse that the data meets the normality assumptions of linear regression (Appendix H)

2.52 Community Abundance turnover

To further understand the levels of species reordering overtime, the relative changes in

species rank abundances, known as the mean rank shift, was quantified (Appendix I). This can

assist in understanding the level of species reordering overtime. Calculating this temporal index

can highlight the stability or instability of communities, with stable communities having fewer

rank shifts between species. To calculate mean rank shift, N is the number of species in

common in both time points, t is the time point, Ri, t is the relative rank of species i in time t

(Hallett, Jones, et al. 2016), so that:

(4)

The rate of directional change in community composition was conducted as it analyses an

ecological community’s pattern and rate of variability over time (Appendix I). Specifically,

the difference in species composition at different time intervals, was calculated, allowing for

comparison of temporal community dynamics (Hallett, Jones, et al. 2016). Furthermore, this

function can indicate whether directional change is the cause of species reordering over time,

illustrating whether a community was increasingly dissimilar, or not (Hallett, Avolio, et al.

2016).

Separate linear models were fitted to assess the relationships between the mean rank shift,

and rate of change, and the explanatory variables relative dwelling increase. The relative

dwelling increase, rate of change, and mean rank shift were all log transformed (log10) to

reduce the skewness of the plots, making the transformed data appear more normal. Residual

plots and Q-Q plots were produced to visually analyse that the data meets the normality

assumptions of linear regression (Appendix I).

21

2.6 Visualising and analysing multivariate patterns in species presence-absence

2.61 Multivariate analysis

Temporal turnover is only a composite measure of the total assemblage of birds sighted.

To measure and understand what species are the key drivers of temporal turnover, a set of

multivariate analyses were conducted on the species presence-absence matrix of data.

An ordination plot was first utilised to visualise multivariate patterns. A Non-metric

Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS) was conducted utilising the Bray-Curtis dissimilarity to

quantify the compositional dissimilarity between all the sites. This analysis is commonly

regarded as the most robust unconstrained ordination method in community ecology (Minchin

1987). A Shepard plot was used to assess goodness of fit or the nMDS ordination result. The

ordination result was plotted in two dimensions to visualise differences between LGAs and the

changes between time periods (Appendix J).

2.62 Model-based analysis

A model-based approach was then utilised to infer multivariate differences in the bird

assemblages between LGAs and between time periods. The mvabund approach (Warton,

Wright & Wang 2012) was used to fit a set of generalised linear models to the multivariate

species presence/absence data with LGA and time period as explanatory variables. The second

stage of this approach is to use resampling to provide tests for differences due to the explanatory

variables. Model assumptions, particularly assessing the appropriate variance model for the

multivariate responses, were assessed visually using residual plots (Warton, Wright & Wang

2012) (Appendix K). Where there was evidence for differences from the global test,

resampling methods were used iteratively across species (with appropriate controls for multiple

testing) to identify the species that showed clear differences associated with the explanatory

variable (e.g., a main effect of time period indicated consistent differences between time

periods across all LGAs for the species). For species where time period differences were

observed (p<0.1), a confusion matrix was produced to show the proportion of LGAs where the

species was either present in both time periods, absent in both time periods, or some

combination thereof.

22

2.7 Changes in Species Abundance

2.71 Multivariate Analysis

As with temporal turnover, mean rank shift and rate of change are only a composite

measure of the total assemblage of birds sighted. To measure and understand what species are

the key drivers of changes in species abundance, a set of multivariate analyses were conducted

on the species abundance matrix of data (Appendix L).

An ordination plot was firstly utilised to visualise multivariate patterns. A Non-metric

Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS) was conducted utilising the Bray-Curtis dissimilarity to

quantify the compositional dissimilarity between all the sites. A Shepard plot was used to assess

goodness of fit or the nMDS ordination result. The ordination result was plotted in two

dimensions to visualise differences between LGAs and the changes between time periods

(Appendix L).

2.72 Model-based analysis

As with the bird presence-absence analysis, a model-based approach was conducted to

understand the multivariate differences in the bird abundances between LGAs and between

time periods. The mvabund approach (Warton, Wright & Wang 2012) was utilised to fit a set

of generalised linear models to the multivariate species abundance data with LGA and time

period as explanatory variables. The second stage of this approach is to use resampling to

provide tests for differences due to the explanatory variables. Model assumptions, particularly

assessing the appropriate variance model for the multivariate responses, were assessed visually

using residual plots (Warton, Wright & Wang 2012, Appendix M). Where there was evidence

for differences from the global test, resampling methods were utilised iteratively across species

(with appropriate controls for multiple testing) to identify the species that showed clear

differences associated with the explanatory variable (e.g., a main effect of time period indicated

consistent differences between time periods across all LGAs for the species). For species where

time period differences were observed (p<0.1), a scatter plot was produced to show the

proportion of LGAs where the species either experienced an increase or decrease in abundance

from 1980 to 2010

23

3. Results

3.1 Changes in urbanisation

In 2015, Playford Council consisted of 16.2% urban land, undergoing the highest relative

(%) (17.6%) increase in urbanisation. Both Onkaparinga (15.3%) and Tea Tree Gully (9.0%)

also experienced high relative (%) increases in urbanisation. Norwood, an already urbanised

council with 93.5% urban land experienced a decrease in relative urbanisation (-2.3%). This

was followed by Prospect with 97.4% urban land in 2015, experiencing the lowest relative

increase in urbanisation (0.16%), and Unley with 95.9% urban land and a slight relative

increase (0.08%) (Appendix E).

Adelaide City Council encompasses the capital city of South Australia and has a

population of 22,063 (as of 2016), it also underwent the highest increase in relative human

population size (55.9%) across metropolitan Adelaide, closely followed by Onkaparinga

(54.8%), and Playford (53.3%). Mitcham council had a population of 64,805 in 2016, and

encountered the lowest increase in relative human population density (5.8%), closely followed

by Unley (4.2%), and Charles Sturt (9%) (Appendix G).

In 2016, Adelaide City Council had a total of 11,539 dwellings, undergoing the highest

relative increase in dwellings (109%) across metropolitan Adelaide. This was closely followed

by Onkaparinga with 71,692 dwellings, a relative increase of (92%), and Playford (84%).

Prospect Council has a total of 8,919 dwellings, undergoing the lowest increase in relative (%)

dwellings (11%), closely followed by Unley (14%), and Mitcham (14%) (Figure 8 &

Appendix G).

24

Figure 8: Relative increase in dwellings for each Local Government Area in metropolitan

Adelaide between 1980 and 2016. Dark red represents the Local Government Areas with the

highest relative dwelling increase, light yellow represents Local Government Areas with low

relative dwelling increases.

3.2 Temporal turnover of bird communities

Holdfast Bay experienced the highest rate of total species turnover (0.65), followed by

Marion (0.55), and Unley (0.50). Onkaparinga experienced the lowest rate of total turnover

(0.23), followed by Mitcham (0.32), and Playford (0.32). Parsing total turnover by species

appearances and disappearances indicated that in Holdfast Bay there were generally a higher

proportion of disappearances (0.35), when compared to appearances (0.30). Whereas Marion

experienced higher proportional species appearances (0.48), when compared to disappearances

(0.068). Unley experienced significantly higher appearances (0.43) to disappearances (0.069)

(Figure 9, Appendix H).

25

Figure 9: Proportional turnover of bird communities in each Local Government Area. Pink

indicates species additions, and blue indicates species deletions from that Local Government

Area. Holdfast Bay (HOL) experienced the highest proportional turnover (0.65), and

Onkaparinga experienced the lowest rate of total turnover (0.23). council.

A linear regression established that the total bird species turnover and relative dwelling

increase for metropolitan Adelaide was not statistically significant (Figure 10). Again,

Holdfast Bay, Salisbury, and West Torrens appear to be strong outliers. Holdfast Bay, Marion,

and Onkaparinga appear to be strong outliers.

26

Figure 10: Regression plot showing the relationship between temporal turnover of bird

communities and relative dwelling increase in metropolitan Adelaide. Each point represents a

Local Government Area in the metropolitan Adelaide and their associated code to visually

identify them (Table 1).

A multivariate analysis was conducted on the species presence-absence matrix of data to

determine the patterns between the two time periods (Appendix J). An analysis of the deviance

established that species presence-absence was significantly different between the two time

periods (LRT = 906.5, p < 0.001). In Addition, univariate tests were run for each species, and

determined that 17 species had experienced a significant change in presence-absence between

time periods (Table 4).

Table 4: Species that have undergone a significant change in presence-absence in

metropolitan Adelaide between 1980 and 2010 (LRT = 906.5, p < 0.001).

Unique Species Name Common Name P-value

Coturnix pectoralis Stubble quail 0.094

Myiagra inquieta Restless flycatcher 0.041

Anas platyrhynchos domesticus Domestic duck 0.035

Cincloramphus cruralis Brown songlark 0.028

Petrochelidon ariel Fairy martin 0.019

Slope = -0.09 SE = 0.10

27

Barnardius zonarius Australian ringneck 0.008

Platycercus eximius Eastern rosella 0.005

Phaps chalcoptera Common bronzewing 0.004

Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris Eastern spinebill 0.004

Accipiter cirrhocephalus Collared sparrowhawk 0.004

Rhipidura fuliginosa Grey fantail 0.002

Apus pacificus Pacific swift 0.002

Cacatua tenuirostris Long-billed corella 0.001

Calyptorhynchus funereus Yellow-tailed black cockatoo 0.001

Todiramphus sancta Sacred kingfisher 0.001

Melopsittacus undulatus Budgerigar 0.001

Carduelis chloris European greenfinch 0.001

It was established that the following species were present in 1980, and later absent in the

2010 surveying efforts: Australian ringneck (38% - the (rounded) percentage of LGA’s where

species disappeared), brown songlark (38%), budgerigar (56%), European greenfinch (56%),

fairy martin (38%), fork tailed swift (44%), restless flycatcher (31%), sacred kingfisher (56%),

and the stubble quail (31%) (Figure 11).

Species that were absent in the 1980s, and later present in the 2010s dataset were the

collared sparrowhawk (44%), common bronzewing (44%), domestic duck (31%), eastern

rosella (38%), eastern spinebill (44%), grey fantail (50%), long billed corella (75%), and the

yellow tailed black cockatoo (58%) (Figure 11).

28

Figure 11: A confusion matrix showing the (rounded) percentage of Green Adelaide Local Government Areas (LGA) where a species was

present or absent in each of the two time periods ‘1980’ and ‘2010’. The lower-left to upper right diagonal shows LGAs where the species was

either always absent or always present. The opposite diagonal shows where species have appeared or disappeared between time periods. The

species shown are those where there was statistical evidence for time period differences in their probability of occurrence based on the

multivariate abundance models. Light blue represents a high percentage (75-100%) in presence-absence of the species across the 16 LGAs, and

dark blue represents a low percentage (0-25%) in presence-absence of the species across the 16 LGAs

29

3.3 Changes in species abundance

Figure 12A conveys a linear regression plot assessing the relationship between the relative

changes in species rank abundances, and the explanatory variable relative dwelling increase in

metropolitan Adelaide. It highlights a strong, positive, linear association (F1,14 = 6.7, df = 14,

p = 0.021). Holdfast Bay, Onkaparinga, and Playford appear to be moderate outliers

(Appendix I).

A linear regression established that rate of directional change in community composition

and relative dwelling increase for metropolitan Adelaide was not statistically significant

(Figure 12B). Again, Holdfast Bay, Salisbury, and West Torrens appear to be strong outliers

(Appendix I).

Figure 12: Regression plot assessing the relationship between mean rank shift (A) and rate of

change (B) of bird communities, and the explanatory variable relative dwelling increase in

metropolitan Adelaide. Each point represents a Local Government Area in the metropolitan

Adelaide and their associated code to visually identify them (Table 1).

Slope = 9.36

SE = 4.61

Slope = 309.8

SE = 294.2

30

A multivariate analysis was conducted to determine the patterns of species abundance between

the two time periods (Appendix L). An analysis of the deviance was computed and established

that species abundance was significantly different between the two time periods (LRT = 1408,

p < 0.001). In Addition, univariate tests were run for each species, and determined that 26

species had experienced a significant change in abundance between time periods (Table 5).

Table 5: Species that have undergone a significant change in abundance in metropolitan

Adelaide between 1980 and 2010 (LRT = 1408, p < 0.001).

Unique Species Name Common Name P-value

Accipiter cirrhocephalus Collared sparrowhawk 0.001

Anthochaera chrysoptera Little wattlebird 0.011

Cacatua galerita Sulphur-crested cockatoo 0.002

Cacatua sanguinea Little corella 0.006

Carduelis chloris European greenfinch 0.086

Chenonetta jubata Australian wood duck 0.019

Glossopsitta concinna Musk lorikeet 0.063

Gymnorhina tibicen Australian magpie 0.045

Manorina melanocephala Noisy miner 0.008

Melopsittacus undulatus Budgerigar 0.047

Pardalotus striatus Striated pardalote 0.035

Phylidonyris novaehollandiae New Holland honeyeater 0.040

Platycercus elegans Crimson rosella 0.088

Platycercus eximius Eastern rosella 0.005

Smicrornis brevirostris Weebill 0.006

Threskiornis molucca Australian white ibis 0.006

Todiramphus sancta Sacred kingfisher 0.002

Trichoglossus haematodus Rainbow lorikeet 0.006

Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris Eastern spinebill 0.006

Calyptorhynchus funereus Yellow-tailed black cockatoo 0.008

Strepera versicolor Grey currawong 0.049

Taeniopygia guttata Zebra finch 0.040

Cacatua tenuirostris Long-billed corella 0.001

Phaps chalcoptera Common bronzewing 0.006

Streptopelia risoria Barbary dove 0.048

Anas platyrhynchos domesticus Domestic duck 0.080

Significant abundance increases for most LGAs from 1980 to 2010 occurred for the Australian

magpie, Australian white ibis, Australian wood duck, collared sparrowhawk, common

bronzewing, crimson rosella, domestic duck, eastern rosella, eastern spinebill, grey currawong,

little corella, little wattlebird, long billed corella, musk lorikeet, new holland honey eater, noisy

miner, rainbow lorikeet, striated pardalote, sulphur crested cockatoo, weebill, and the yellow

tailed black cockatoo. Significant abundance decreases for most LGAs from 1980 to 2010

occurred for the budgerigar, European greenfinch, sacred kingfisher, and the zebra finch (Table

5, Figure 13).

31

Figure 13: A scatterplot presentation of the proportion of Local Government Areas where the species either experienced an increase or decrease

in abundance from 1980 to 2010. Each point indicates the abundance of the species within the Local Government Area, with a diagonal

reference line to assist in interpreting abundance changes. Points to the left of the reference line indicate Local Government Areas that

experienced an increase in abundance of the particular species from 1980 to 2010, and points to the right of the reference line indicate Local

Government Areas that experienced a loss in abundance from 1980 to 2010.

4. Discussion

In metropolitan Adelaide, European colonisation has drastically impacted native species, with

21 bird species having become locally extinct since 1836 (Paton et al. 2000; Tait, Daniels & Hill

2005). The aim of my research was to determine the composition of bird species as an indicator of

biodiversity loss triggered by urban growth in the Adelaide metropolitan area, utilising Bird Atlas

Data (Paton, Carpenter & Sinclair 1994; DC Paton unpublished data).

To understand the impacts of urban growth on bird communities, and identify the level of

stability of the urban bird community, I quantified the relative changes in species rank abundances

(Figure 12). There was a statistically significant increase in the relative changes in species rank

abundance as there was an increase in relative dwellings within an LGA. Consequently, bird

communities have been adversely impacted and altered due to urban growth in metropolitan

Adelaide.

To develop a more comprehensive understanding of urban growth, I identified the species that

had encountered significant changes in abundance or presence-absence associated with the

explanatory variable (relative dwelling increase). There were significant differences in both

species’ presence-absence, and species abundances between the two periods. Eight species

experienced a significant increase in presences in the LGAs from 1980 to 2010, and 9 species

experienced significant absences in the LGAs from 1980 to 2010 (Table 4, Figure 11). Species

abundance changes highlighted that 26 species have undergone a significant change in abundance

since 1980 (Table 5, Figure 13). Urban growth in metropolitan Adelaide has significantly altered

bird species populations. Identifying these species can assist restoration strategies to target specific

species or functional groups that are experiencing the heightened levels of change due

If Green Adelaide and the LGAs take these results into consideration, urban planning

strategies can be developed across metropolitan Adelaide that minimise the impacts of

urbanisation and contributes to the conservation of the entire ecosystem. It is recommended that a

focus on practical methods to increase the diversity of native bird communities is implemented.

Vegetation restoration, and invasive vegetation control are two methods that are proven to

contribute to the conservation and recovery of Australian urban environments (Archibald et al.

2017).

33

4.1 Utilising bird communities to analyse the impacts of urban growth

Bird communities have been negative impacted and altered due to urban growth in

metropolitan Adelaide. There was a statistically significant increase in the relative changes in

species rank abundance as there was an increase in relative dwellings within a LGA (Figure 12).

When inspecting the LGAs individually, reordering of species abundance was most prominent in

Salisbury, Onkaparinga, and Playford Council (Appendix I). This is a great area of concern as

these three councils are the largest LGAs within Green Adelaide, with high proportions of native

vegetation still present (Appendix E & F).

If rapid urbanisation continues to increase in these LGAs, there is an elevated risk of future

changes in species abundance and local extinction through the removal of large areas of native

land to account for urban growth demands. It is crucial that these LGAs direct efforts towards the

conservation and restoration of native vegetation to protect a broad range of species, prevent

species turnover, and avoid local extinction (Chace and Walsh 2006). I have predicted that

specialised feeding guilds such as insectivores, and small bodied species will experience

heightened threats and species loss if unsustainable urban growth continues to occur.

Once an area is urbanised, the species-level response to urbanisation is exceedingly diverse.

Species compositions can completely shift, with some species flourishing and others entirely

disappearing (Isaksson 2018). Bird species that can adapt and flourish are able to exploit the human

resources. Many of these exploiters are invasive species, such as domestic pigeons are now

becoming increasingly common in urban areas (Chace & Walsh 2006; Suri et al. 2017).

Unfortunately, for a majority of the native Australian birds, urbanisation is extremely detrimental

as they respond to native vegetation structure and composition (Chace & Walsh 2006). However,

cities that maintain native vegetation composition and structures are likely to retain more native

bird species than those that do not (Chace and Walsh 2006).

Holdfast Bay, Marion, and Unley experienced the highest turnover of bird communities, led

by the highest level of species disappearances. This may imply that these LGAs are extremely

unsuitable for contemporary bird communities (Figure 9), and have become increasingly

uninhabitable since the 1980s (Egwumah, Egwumah & Edet 2017). When analysing the relative

increase in dwellings and turnover of bird communities, there was no significant increase (Figure

10). Yet when inspecting the LGAs individually, some had more than 50% turnover of bird species

34

(Holdfast Bay, Marion, and Unley, Figure 9). These LGAs all have high levels of urbanisation

(Appendix E), and high levels of dwelling density (Appendix G) both in the 1980s and 2010s,

yet due to the already high levels of urbanisation in the 1980s, relative dwelling increase was low

(Appendix G). Implying that although there may have been low levels of relative dwelling

increase, bird communities within these LGAs may have already been impacted by the already

high levels of dwelling density in the 1980s.

4.2 Analysing what species have undergone changes due to urban growth

There is a broad array of avian foraging guilds in Australia, with many native birds relying on

specialised food resources to survive (Ikin et al. 2012). An in-depth knowledge on the impacts of

urbanisation on bird species, is required to obtain an understanding on the level of urban tolerance

a species can handle (Callaghan, Major, et al. 2019). Small-bodied insectivores and ground-

foraging granivores were most strongly impacted by urban growth in metropolitan Adelaide

(Figure 11 & 13).

Ground-foraging granivores have undergone a decline in assemblages and abundances across

metropolitan Adelaide. Grasslands throughout Australia are a primary food source for granivores,

and metropolitan Adelaide was historically an open grassy plain (Clark 1991). Colonisation of

metropolitan Adelaide saw native grasslands greatly removed due to urban growth (Bagust &

Tout-Smyth 2010). Furthermore, remnant grasslands have been invaded by exotic and highly

invasive species (Lenz, MOYLE‐CROFT & Facelli 2003). Small to medium bodied insectivores

in metropolitan Adelaide have also been negatively impacted by urban growth. This is supported

by previous research highlighting the loss of insectivores as understorey grasslands are removed

for urban growth (Bowler et al. 2019).

Urbanisation of Australian cities into uniformed environments have led to the progressive loss

of species with specialised feeding strategies, such as granivorous and insectivorous species

(Callaghan, Major, et al. 2019). Urbanisation has removed vegetation that is structurally diverse

and had provided food and shelter to a comprehensive range of foraging guilds and zomes.

Insectivores and granivores are specialist species that are not able to adapt to the limited resources

in urban environments, resulting in population declines and local extinctions (Sol et al. 2014).

The alien European greenfinch has undergone a decline in abundance across metropolitan

Adelaide, which is a positive outcome as it is an invasive species and a declared animal under the

35

Natural Resources Management Act 2004. Under this act, a permit is required to release, and there

is requirement to control the European greenfinch (Government of South Australia 2004).

Species that underwent an increase in assemblages and abundances, were primarily medium

to large bodied species with a history of being behaviourally aggressive (Figure 11 & 13). This

finding is consistent with previous research that identified the Australian magpies (Gymnorhina

tibican), Australian white ibis (Threskiornis moluccus), sparrowhawks (Accipiter spp.),

currawongs (Strepera spp.), noisy miners (Manorina melanocephala), and lorikeets

(Trichoglossus spp.) as having increased their populations in several Australian cities since

European colonisation (Cleary et al. 2016; Fitzsimons et al. 2003; Jones 2003; Jones & Wieneke

2000; Major & Parsons 2010; Smith, Munro & Figueira 2013; Suri et al. 2017; Wood & Recher

2004). These species are successful avian adaptors to anthropogenically modified ecosystems

(Davis, Taylor & Major 2012; Major & Parsons 2010).

Globally, urbanisation has led to a major homogenisation of urban biodiversity, and reduction

of native species richness (Aronson et al. 2014). Urban tolerant species have become progressively

widespread and locally abundant in urban cities, increasing biological homogenisation, and

reducing local genetic diversity (Lemoine-Rodríguez, Inostroza & Zepp 2020; McKinney 2006).

Identifying species that have undergone population changes due to urban growth in metropolitan

Adelaide can assist restoration strategies to target key foraging zones and areas where specific

species or functional groups are experiencing the heightened levels of change.

4.3 Practical methods to increase the diversity of native bird communities

The process of urbanisation is an extreme form of land-use intensification causing a reduction

and fragmentation of natural habitats (Isaksson 2018). The new urban conditions have replaced

native landscape with buildings and roads, and the simplified landscape areas tend to consist of

invasive plants, managed lawns, and removal of the mid-story canopy (Aronson et al. 2015; Luck

& Smallbone 2010). With urbanisation predicted to continue to rapidly expand, dwellings will

continue to replace native vegetation to keep up with the growing urban demand. Hence, it is

crucial that sustainable management must better address biodiversity conservation to prevent the

continued alteration and local extinction of Australia’s bird communities (Burgin 2016).

All 16 LGAs in the metropolitan Adelaide region need to focus on practical methods to

increase the diversity of native bird communities. Vegetation restoration, and invasive vegetation

36

control are two methods that are vital in Australian urban environments (Archibald et al. 2017).

LGA’s that still have higher levels of native vegetation and are less urbanised (Onkaparinga,

Playford, and Salisbury) should focus on improving the quality of native understorey and grasses

within urban green areas and remnant vegetation. Previous literature identified changes in the

composition of bird species in South Australia had occurred due to the loss of understorey plant

species, which had mainly impacted smaller bird species that utilise this foraging zone for food

and shelter (Paton et al. 2000). This will help provide habitat and food sources for specialised

species such as small-bodied insectivores and ground-dwelling granivores that have undergone

population declines.

Unfortunately, there are LGA’s in metropolitan Adelaide that are highly urbanised and have

experienced extreme levels of vegetation clearance for urban land (Prospect, Unley, and

Walkerville). These LGAs have undergone a structural simplification of their landscape, with the

transition from native vegetation to urban environments with a reduced and often exotic vegetation

structure (Zivanovic & Luck 2016). However, there are still mitigation strategies that these LGA’s

can implement to promote vegetation and urban greening. Previous research analysing public

green spaces in an urban city (Melbourne, Australia) identified that verge strips made up 36.7% of

public green spaces (Marshall, Grose & Williams 2019). Verge strips are currently managed in

LGA’s by planting a mixture of native and exotic tree species, and an understorey layer of exotic

grass that is frequently mowed (City of Marion 2020; City of Port Adelaide Enfield 2020). If

LGA’s focus on replacing this with indigenous tree species and establishing a more complex

understorey layer of indigenous plants, verge strips can act as an urban greenspace that will

contribute to increasing native bird species diversity (Gillner et al. 2015; Marshall, Grose &

Williams 2019). This will not only help LGA’s to improve native bird communities, with research

highlighting the importance of verge gardens in regulating temperature (Gillner et al. 2015),

reducing storm water runoff and air pollution (Armson, Stringer & Ennos 2013; Vailshery,

Jaganmohan & Nagendra 2013), and even improving human health through a reduction in stress

and increasing social cohesion (De Vries et al. 2013).

4.4 Future directions

Urbanisation has substantially impacted bird communities in metropolitan Adelaide, with a

significant change in community rank abundance, and abundance changes for 26 species (Figure

12 & 13). To understand the impacts of urbanisation on bird species in metropolitan Adelaide,

37

relative dwelling increase was utilised as an indicator of urbanisation. This is an important

beginning to understand how urbanisation and land use change has directly impacted species

declines but future research is still required. Urbanisation is so detrimental to native ecosystems,

as not only is native vegetation entirely cleared for anthropogenic uses, but urbanisation alters

water availability, provides an entry point for invasive species, and increases pollution and nutrient

levels (Ormond et al. 2014). Due to these impacts, the United Nations (2013) have identified

urbanisation as a major global threat, that is only going to continue to rapidly increase. Future

research should focus on better understanding how ecological processes respond to the impacts of

urbanisation to assist in reducing these impacts and implementing effective conservation strategies

(Lepczyk et al. 2017).

Bird communities were measured as they are a reliable and cost-effective bioindicator species

to determine the health of an ecosystem, and can assist in establishing the environmental integrity

(Egwumah, Egwumah & Edet 2017). It is crucial that monitoring of bird species, and restoration

of vegetation is implemented not only in these large LGAs, but the entire metropolitan Adelaide,

as Australian birds are considered to be relatively long lived. Populations may persist in unsuitable

urban areas for a longer period before they disappear (Ford et al. 2001; Sol et al. 2020).

4.5 Conclusion

Since colonisation, anthropogenic impacts within Australia have resulted in the extinction of

27 bird species (Garnett, Szabo & Dutson 2011). Within metropolitan Adelaide alone, 21 species

have gone locally extinct (Tait, Daniels & Hill 2005). Temporal studies are a valuable resource to

evaluate the underlying patterns of community change (Ryo et al. 2019). To understand the

impacts of urbanisation, the aim of my research was to determine the composition of bird species

as an indicator of biodiversity loss in the Adelaide metropolitan area. There was a statistically

significant increase in the relative changes in species rank abundance as there was an increase in

relative dwellings within a LGA (Figure 12). Furthermore, 26 species have undergone significant

changes in abundance (Figure 13). This highlights the impacts that urbanisation is having on bird

communities in the Adelaide region.

With the population of Australia expected to surge up to 49.2 million people by 2066

(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2017), it is crucial that efforts are made to reduce the destruction

urbanisation causes, to not only prevent bird species loss, but prevent the loss and extinction of

entire ecosystems. Preventing the impacts of urbanisation through understanding the relationship

38

between urban ecosystems and avian functional diversity is extremely complex, and understanding

the changes within an ecological community is merely a preliminary step in conservation (Oliveira

Hagen et al. 2017). All 16 LGAs within metropolitan Adelaide immediately need to implement

practical methods that aim to increase native bird communities. Vegetation restoration, and

invasive vegetation control are two methods that are required in Australian urban environments

(Archibald et al. 2017). For highly urbanised LGAs, public green spaces such as verge strips need

to focus on planting indigenous tree species and establishing a more complex understorey layer of

indigenous plants. For LGAs that are experiencing high urban growth, and are still fortunate

enough to contain large areas of native vegetation, it is crucial that they focus on improving the

quality of native understorey and grasses within urban green areas and remnant vegetation.

Recent research has proposed that maintaining bird species diversity and therefore vital

ecosystem services and functions is still achievable in areas experiencing urban growth (Sol et al.

2020). For this to occur in metropolitan Adelaide, practical conservation methods and forward-

looking policies need to be implemented. Therefore, it is crucial that Green Adelaide and the

Government of South Australia implement the recommendations stated in this paper into future

urban planning strategies that can contribute to conserving bird species and their diversity in

metropolitan Adelaide (Sushinsky et al. 2013).

References Archibald, CL, McKinney, M, Mustin, K, Shanahan, DF & Possingham, HP 2017, 'Assessing the

impact of revegetation and weed control on urban sensitive bird species', Ecology and

evolution, vol. 7, no. 12, pp. 4200-4208.

Armson, D, Stringer, P & Ennos, A 2013, 'The effect of street trees and amenity grass on urban

surface water runoff in Manchester, UK', Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, vol. 12, no.

3, pp. 282-286.

Aronson, MF, Handel, SN, La Puma, IP & Clemants, SE 2015, 'Urbanization promotes non-native

woody species and diverse plant assemblages in the New York metropolitan region', Urban

Ecosystems, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 31-45.

Aronson, MF, La Sorte, FA, Nilon, CH, Katti, M, Goddard, MA, Lepczyk, CA, Warren, PS,

Williams, NS, Cilliers, S & Clarkson, B 2014, 'A global analysis of the impacts of

urbanization on bird and plant diversity reveals key anthropogenic drivers', Proceedings of

the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol. 281, no. 1780, p. 20133330.

Ashley, LC, Major, RE & Taylor, CE 2009, 'Does the presence of grevilleas and eucalypts in urban

gardens influence the distribution and foraging ecology of Noisy Miners?', Emu-Austral

Ornithology, vol. 109, no. 2, pp. 135-142.

Attwood, SJ, Park, SE, Maron, M, Collard, SJ, Robinson, D, Reardon-Smith, KM & Cockfield, G

2009, 'Declining birds in Australian agricultural landscapes may benefit from aspects of

39

the European agri-environment model', Biological Conservation, vol. 142, no. 10, pp.

1981-1991.

Australian Bureau of Statistics 2017, Population Projections, Australia, Population projections

(based on assumptions of fertility, mortality and migration) for Australia, states and

territories and capital cities, Australian Government, Canberra.

Australian Bureau of Statistics 2020, Historical Census Data, Canberra.

Australian State of Environment 2006, Australian State of Environment Report – coast and oceans.

Banks, PB & Smith, HM 2015, 'The ecological impacts of commensal species: black rats, , at the

urban&ndash;bushland interface', Wildlife Research, vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 86-97.

Bagust, P. and Tout-Smith, L., 2010. The Native Plants of Adelaide: Returning the Vanishing

Natural Heritage of the Adelaide Plains to Your Garden. Wakefield Press.

Barnosky, AD, Matzke, N, Tomiya, S, Wogan, GO, Swartz, B, Quental, TB, Marshall, C,

McGuire, JL, Lindsey, EL & Maguire, KC 2011, 'Has the Earth’s sixth mass extinction

already arrived?', Nature, vol. 471, no. 7336, pp. 51-57.

BirdLife SA 2020, 'Australia's Birds', South Australia, <https://birdlife.org.au/>.

Blouin, D, Pellerin, S & Poulin, M 2019, 'Increase in non-native species richness leads to biotic

homogenization in vacant lots of a highly urbanized landscape', Urban Ecosystems, vol.

22, no. 5, pp. 879-892.

Bowler, DE, Heldbjerg, H, Fox, AD, de Jong, M & Böhning‐Gaese, K 2019, 'Long‐term declines

of European insectivorous bird populations and potential causes', Conservation biology,

vol. 33, no. 5, pp. 1120-1130.

Bradshaw, CJ 2012, 'Little left to lose: deforestation and forest degradation in Australia since

European colonization', Journal of Plant Ecology, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 109-120.

Bureau of Meteorology 2020, 'Climate Statistics for Australian Locations', in Australian

Government (ed.)Canberra.

Burgess, EE & Maron, M 2016, 'Does the response of bird assemblages to fire mosaic properties

vary among spatial scales and foraging guilds?', Landscape Ecology, vol. 31, no. 3, pp.

687-699.

Burgin, S 2016, 'What about biodiversity? Redefining urban sustainable management to

incorporate endemic fauna with particular reference to Australia', Urban Ecosystems, vol.

19, no. 2, pp. 669-678.

Burgman, MA & Lindenmayer, D 1998, Conservation biology for the Australian environment,

Surrey Beatty & Sons.

Callaghan, CT, Bino, G, Major, RE, Martin, JM, Lyons, MB & Kingsford, RT 2019,

'Heterogeneous urban green areas are bird diversity hotspots: insights using continental-

scale citizen science data', Landscape Ecology, vol. 34, no. 6, pp. 1231-1246.

Callaghan, CT, Major, RE, Wilshire, JH, Martin, JM, Kingsford, RT & Cornwell, WK 2019,

'Generalists are the most urban‐tolerant of birds: a phylogenetically controlled analysis of

ecological and life history traits using a novel continuous measure of bird responses to

urbanization', Oikos, vol. 128, no. 6, pp. 845-858.

Chace, JF & Walsh, JJ 2006, 'Urban effects on native avifauna: a review', Landscape and Urban

Planning, vol. 74, no. 1, pp. 46-69.

Chambers, SA 2008, Birds as environmental indicators: review of literature, Parks Victoria

Melbourne.

Chapman, AD 2009, Numbers of living species in Australia and the world, Australian Government,

Toowoomba.

Cincotta, RP, Wisnewski, J & Engelman, R 2000, 'Human population in the biodiversity hotspots',

Nature, vol. 404, no. 6781, pp. 990-992.

40

City of Marion 2020, Verges, <https://www.marion.sa.gov.au/services-we-offer/nature-strips-and-

street-trees/verge>.

City of Port Adelaide Enfield 2020, Urban Landscaping.

Clarke, PA 1991, 'Adelaide as an Aboriginal landscape', Aboriginal History, pp. 54-72.

Cleary, GP, Parsons, H, Davis, A, Coleman, BR, Jones, DN, Miller, KK & Weston, MA 2016,

'Avian assemblages at bird baths: a comparison of urban and rural bird baths in Australia',

PLoS ONE, vol. 11, no. 3.

Collins, SL, Suding, KN, Cleland, EE, Batty, M, Pennings, SC, Gross, KL, Grace, JB, Gough, L,

Fargione, JE & Clark, CM 2008, 'Rank clocks and plant community dynamics', Ecology,

vol. 89, no. 12, pp. 3534-3541.

Davis, A, Taylor, CE & Major, RE 2012, 'Seasonal abundance and habitat use of Australian parrots

in an urbanised landscape', Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 106, no. 2, pp. 191-198.

De Vries, S, Van Dillen, SM, Groenewegen, PP & Spreeuwenberg, P 2013, 'Streetscape greenery

and health: stress, social cohesion and physical activity as mediators', Social science &

medicine, vol. 94, pp. 26-33.

Dolby, T 2014, Finding Australian birds a field guide to birding locations, Bird finding in

Australia, ed. R Clarke, CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Vic.

Egwumah, F, Egwumah, P & Edet, D 2017, 'Paramount roles of wild birds as bioindicators of

contamination', Int J Avian & Wildlife Biol, vol. 2, no. 6, p. 00041.

EPBC Act 1999, 'Environment protection and biodiversity conservation act', Commonwealth of

Australia.

Faulkner, S 2004, 'Urbanization impacts on the structure and function of forested wetlands', Urban

Ecosystems, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 89-106.

Fitzsimons, J, Palmer, GC, Antos, MJ & White, J 2003, 'Refugees and residents: densities and

habitat preferences of lorikeets in urban Melbourne', Australian Field Ornithology, vol. 20,

pp. 2-7.

Foley, JA, Defries, R, Asner, GP, Barford, C, Bonan, G, Carpenter, SR, Chapin, FS, Coe, MT,

Daily, GC, Gibbs, HK, Helkowski, JH, Holloway, T, Howard, EA, Kucharik, CJ,

Monfreda, C, Patz, JA, Prentice, IC, Ramankutty, N & Snyder, PK 2005, 'Global

consequences of land use', Science (New York, N.Y.), vol. 309, no. 5734, p. 570.

Ford, HA, Barrett, GW, Saunders, DA & Recher, HF 2001, 'Why have birds in the woodlands of

southern Australia declined?', Biological Conservation, vol. 97, no. 1, pp. 71-88.

Francis, RA & Chadwick, MA 2015, 'Urban invasions: non-native and invasive species in cities',

Geography, vol. 100, p. 144.

Fuller, RA, Tratalos, J & Gaston, KJ 2009, 'How many birds are there in a city of half a million

people?', Diversity and Distributions, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 328-337.

Garden, J, McAlpine, C, Peterson, A, Jones, D & Possingham, H 2006, 'Review of the ecology of

Australian urban fauna: A focus on spatially explicit processes', Austral Ecology, vol. 31,

no. 2, pp. 126-148.

Garnett, S, Szabo, J & Dutson, G 2011, The action plan for Australian birds 2010, CSIRO

publishing.

Gillner, S, Vogt, J, Tharang, A, Dettmann, S & Roloff, A 2015, 'Role of street trees in mitigating

effects of heat and drought at highly sealed urban sites', Landscape and Urban Planning,

vol. 143, pp. 33-42.

Government of South Australia 2004, Natural Resources Management Act 2004, Government of

South Australia, Adelaide.

Government of South Australia 2019, Green Adelaide, Adelaide,

<environment.sa.gov.au/topics/green-adelaide>.

41

Hallett, LM, Avolio, M, Carroll, I, Jones, S, MacDonald, A, Flynn, D & Jones, M 2016, 'codyn:

Community dynamics metrics', R Package.

Hallett, LM, Jones, SK, MacDonald, AAM, Jones, MB, Flynn, DF, Ripplinger, J, Slaughter, P,

Gries, C & Collins, SL 2016, 'codyn: an R package of community dynamics metrics',

Methods in ecology and evolution, vol. 7, no. 10, pp. 1146-1151.

Ikin, K, Knight, E, Lindenmayer, DB, Fischer, J & Manning, AD 2012, 'Linking bird species traits

to vegetation characteristics in a future urban development zone: implications for urban

planning', Urban Ecosystems, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 961-977.

Isaksson, C 2018, 'Impact of urbanization on birds', Bird Species, p. 235.

Ives, CD, Lentini, PE, Threlfall, CG, Ikin, K, Shanahan, DF, Garrard, GE, Bekessy, SA, Fuller,

RA, Mumaw, L, Rayner, L, Rowe, R, Valentine, LE & Kendal, D 2016, 'Cities are hotspots

for threatened species', Global Ecology and Biogeography, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 117-126.

Jones, D 2003, 'Contemporary urban ecology: the view from the Antipodes', WIT Transactions on

Ecology and the Environment, vol. 64.

Jones, D & Wieneke, J 2000, 'The suburban bird community of Townsville revisited: changes over

16 years.', Corerlla, vol. 24, pp. 53-60.

Lemoine-Rodríguez, R, Inostroza, L & Zepp, H 2020, 'The global homogenization of urban form.

An assessment of 194 cities across time', Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 204, p.

103949.

Lenz, TI, MOYLE‐CROFT, JL & Facelli, JM 2003, 'Direct and indirect effects of exotic annual

grasses on species composition of a South Australian grassland', Austral Ecology, vol. 28,

no. 1, pp. 23-32.

Lepczyk, CA, La Sorte, FA, Aronson, MF, Goddard, MA, MacGregor-Fors, I, Nilon, CH &

Warren, PS 2017, 'Global patterns and drivers of urban bird diversity', in Ecology and

conservation of birds in urban environments, Springer, pp. 13-33.

Luck, GW & Smallbone, LT 2010, 'Species diversity and urbanisation: patterns, drivers and

implications', Urban ecology, pp. 88-119.

Lunt, ID 1998, 'Two hundred years of land use and vegetation change in a remnant coastal

woodland in southern Australia', Australian journal of botany, vol. 46, no. 5-6, pp. 629-

647.

MacGregor-Fors, I 2010, 'How to measure the urban-wildland ecotone: redefining ‘peri-urban’

areas', Ecological Research, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 883-887.

MacKenzie, DI, Nichols, JD, Lachman, GB, Droege, S, Andrew Royle, J & Langtimm, CA 2002,

'Estimating site occupancy rates when detection probabilities are less than one', Ecology,

vol. 83, no. 8, pp. 2248-2255.

Major, RE & Parsons, H 2010, 'What do museum specimens tell us about the impact of

urbanisation? A comparison of the recent and historical bird communities of Sydney', Emu-

Austral Ornithology, vol. 110, no. 1, pp. 92-103.

Marshall, AJ, Grose, MJ & Williams, NS 2019, 'From little things: More than a third of public

green space is road verge', Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, vol. 44, p. 126423.

Marzluff, JM 2001, 'Worldwide urbanization and its effects on birds', in Avian ecology and

conservation in an urbanizing world, Springer, pp. 19-47.

Matz-Lück, N 2007, 'The Eighth Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological

Diversity: Summary and Analysis', Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law Online,

vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 265-277.

McKinney, M 2006, 'Urbanization as a major cause of biotic homogenization', Biological

Conservation, vol. 127, no. 3, pp. 247-260.

Metcalfe, D & Bui, E 2017, Australia state of the environment 2016: land, vol. 10, Canberra.

42

Minchin, PR 1987, 'An evaluation of the relative robustness of techniques for ecological

ordination', in Theory and models in vegetation science, Springer, pp. 89-107.

Møller, AP, Díaz, M, Flensted-Jensen, E, Grim, T, Ibáñez-Álamo, JD, Jokimäki, J, Mänd, R,

Markó, G & Tryjanowski, P 2015, 'Urbanized birds have superior establishment success in

novel environments', Oecologia, vol. 178, no. 3, pp. 943-950.

Oke, R 1997, Conserving Adelaide’s biodiversity: a planned approach., Adelaide, Australia.

Olden, JD, Comte, L & Giam, X 2018, 'The Homogocene: a research prospectus for the study of

biotic homogenisation', NeoBiota, vol. 37, p. 23.

Ormond, SE, Whatmough, R, Hudson, IL & Daniels, CB 2014, 'Environmental and Anthropogenic

Impacts on Avifaunal Assemblages in an Urban Parkland, 1976 to 2007', Animals, vol. 4,

no. 1, pp. 119-130.

Padoa-Schioppa, E, Baietto, M, Massa, R & Bottoni, L 2006, 'Bird communities as bioindicators:

The focal species concept in agricultural landscapes', Ecological Indicators, vol. 6, no. 1,

pp. 83-93.

Paton, D, Carpenter, G & Sinclair, R 1994, 'A SECOND BIRD ATLAS OF THE ADELAIDE

REGION. PART 1: CHANGES IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF JEIRDS; 1974-75 vg 1984-

85'.

Paton, D, Prescott, A, Davies, R & Heard, L 2000, 'The distribution, status and threats to temperate

woodlands in South Australia', Temperate eucalypt woodlands in Australia: biology,

conservation, management and restoration, pp. 57-85.

QGIS 2020, 'QGIS Geographic Information System. Open Source Geospatial Foundation Project'.

R Core Team 2019, 'R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing (Version 3.5. 2,

R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria, 2018)', There is no

corresponding record for this reference.[Google Scholar].

Reis, E, López-Iborra, GM & Pinheiro, RT 2012, 'Changes in bird species richness through

different levels of urbanization: Implications for biodiversity conservation and garden

design in Central Brazil', Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 107, no. 1, pp. 31-42.

Ryo, M, Aguilar-Trigueros, CA, Pinek, L, Muller, LA & Rillig, MC 2019, 'Basic principles of

temporal dynamics', Trends in ecology & evolution, vol. 34, no. 8, pp. 723-733.

Smith, ACM, Munro, U & Figueira, WF 2013, 'Modelling urban populations of the Australian

White Ibis (Threskiornis molucca) to inform management', Population ecology, vol. 55,

no. 4, pp. 567-574.

Sol, D, González‐Lagos, C, Moreira, D, Maspons, J & Lapiedra, O 2014, 'Urbanisation tolerance

and the loss of avian diversity', Ecology Letters, vol. 17, no. 8, pp. 942-950.

Sol, D, Lapiedra, O & González-Lagos, C 2013, 'Behavioural adjustments for a life in the city',

Animal Behaviour, vol. 85, no. 5, pp. 1101-1112.

Sol, D, Trisos, C, Múrria, C, Jeliazkov, A, González‐Lagos, C, Pigot, AL, Ricotta, C, Swan, CM,

Tobias, JA, Pavoine, S & Storch, D 2020, 'The worldwide impact of urbanisation on avian

functional diversity', Ecology Letters, vol. 23, no. 6, pp. 962-972.

Suri, J, Sumasgutner, P, Hellard, É, Koeslag, A & Amar, A 2017, 'Stability in prey abundance may

buffer Black Sparrowhawks Accipiter melanoleucus from health impacts of urbanization',

Ibis, vol. 159, no. 1, pp. 38-54.

Sushinsky, JR, Rhodes, JR, Possingham, HP, Gill, TK & Fuller, RA 2013, 'How should we grow

cities to minimize their biodiversity impacts?', Global change biology, vol. 19, no. 2, pp.

401-410.

Szabo, JK, Vesk, PA, Baxter, PWJ & Possingham, HP 2011, 'Paying the extinction debt: woodland

birds in the Mount Lofty Ranges, South Australia', Emu - Austral Ornithology, vol. 111,

no. 1, pp. 59-70.

43

Tait, CJ, Daniels, CB & Hill, RS 2005, 'Changes in species assemblages within the Adelaide

metropolitan area, Australia, 1836–2002', Ecological Applications, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 346-

359.

The World Bank 2019, 'Urban population (% of total population)', in UNP Division (ed.).

Threlfall, CG, Nicholas, SGW, Amy, KH & Stephen, JL 2016, 'Approaches to urban vegetation

management and the impacts on urban bird and bat assemblages', Landscape and Urban

Planning, vol. 153, pp. 28-39.

Turner, MS 2001, 'Conserving Adelaide's biodiversity: resources'.

United Nations 2018, '2018 revision of world urbanization prospects', United Nations New York.

Vailshery, LS, Jaganmohan, M & Nagendra, H 2013, 'Effect of street trees on microclimate and

air pollution in a tropical city', Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 408-

415.

Wardell-Johnson, G & Williams, M 2000, 'Edges and gaps in mature karri forest, south-western

Australia: logging effects on bird species abundance and diversity', Forest Ecology and

Management, vol. 131, no. 1-3, pp. 1-21.

Warton, DI, Wright, ST & Wang, Y 2012, 'Distance‐based multivariate analyses confound location

and dispersion effects', Methods in ecology and evolution, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 89-101.

White, JG, Antos, MJ, Fitzsimons, JA & Palmer, GC 2005, 'Non-uniform bird assemblages in

urban environments: the influence of streetscape vegetation', Landscape and Urban

Planning, vol. 71, no. 2, pp. 123-135.

Williams, NS, McDonnell, MJ & Seager, EJ 2005, 'Factors influencing the loss of an endangered

ecosystem in an urbanising landscape: a case study of native grasslands from Melbourne,

Australia', Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 71, no. 1, pp. 35-49.

Willoughby, N, Thompson, D, Royal, M & Miles, M 2018, 'South Australian Land Cover Layers:

an introduction and summary statistics', South Australian Department of Environment and

Water, Adelaide, South Australia.

Wood, P & Recher, HF 2004, 'Long-term persistence of the Australian Magpie, Gymnorhina

tibicen, in Kings Park, Perth', Emu, vol. 104, no. 3, pp. 251-259.

Zivanovic, AJ & Luck, GW 2016, 'Social and environmental factors drive variation in plant and

bird communities across urban greenspace in Sydney, Australia', Journal of Environmental

Management, vol. 169, pp. 210-222.

i

Appendices

A. Species List

A list of the species sighted in both time periods with the unique species name, scientific name,

and common name.

Unique Species Name Scientific Name Common Name

Acanthagenys rufogularis Acanthagenys rufogularis Spiny Cheeked Honeyeater

Acanthiza apicalis Acanthiza apicalis Inland Thornbill

Acanthiza chrysorrhoa Acanthiza chrysorrhoa Yellow Rumped Thornbill

Acanthiza iredalei Acanthiza iredalei Slender Billed Thornbill

Acanthiza lineata Acanthiza lineata Striated Thornbill

Acanthiza nana Acanthiza nana Yellow Thornbill

Acanthiza pusilla Acanthiza pusilla Brown Thornbill

Acanthiza reguloides Acanthiza reguloides Buff Rumped Thornbill

Acanthiza uropygialis Acanthiza uropygialis Chestnut Rumped Thornbill

Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris Eastern Spinebill

Accipiter cirrhocephalus Accipiter cirrhocephalus Collared Sparrowhawk

Accipiter fasciatus Accipiter fasciatus Brown Goshawk

Acridotheres tristis Acridotheres tristis Comon Mynah

Acrocephalus australis Acrocephalus australis Clamorous Reed Warbler

Actitis hypoleucos Actitis hypoleucos Common Sandpiper

Aegotheles cristatus Aegotheles cristatus Australian Owlet Nightjar

Agapornis roseicollis Agapornis roseicollis Peach Faced Lovebird

Alauda arvensis Alauda arvensis Skylark

Anas castanea Anas castanea Chestnut Teal

Anas gracilis Anas gracilis Grey Teal

Anas platyrhynchos Anas platyrhynchos Mallard

Anas platyrhynchos

domesticus

Anas platyrhynchos

domesticus

Domestic Duck

Anas rhynchotis Anas rhynchotis Australasian Shoveler

Anas superciliosa Anas superciliosa Pacific Black Duck

Anhinga melanogaster Anhinga melanogaster Darter

Anser anser domesticus Anser anser domesticus Domestic Goose

Anthochaera carunculata Anthochaera carunculata Red Wattlebird

Anthochaera chrysoptera Anthochaera chrysoptera Little Wattlebird

Anthus novaeseelandiae Anthus novaeseelandiae Richard'S Pipit

Apus pacificus Apus pacificus Fork Tailed Swift

Aquila audax Aquila audax Wedge Tailed Eagle

Ardea alba Ardea alba Great Egret

Ardea ibis Ardea ibis Cattle Egret

Ardea intermedia Ardea intermedia Intermediate Egret

ii

Ardea novaehollandiae Ardea novaehollandiae White Faced Heron

Ardea pacifica Ardea pacifica White Necked Heron

Arenaria interpres Arenaria interpres Ruddy Turnstone

Artamus cinereus Artamus cinereus Black Faced Woodswallow

Artamus cyanopterus Artamus cyanopterus Dusky Woodswallow

Artamus minor Artamus minor Little Woodswallow

Artamus personatus Artamus personatus Masked Woodswallow

Artamus superciliosus Artamus superciliosus White Browed

Woodswallow

Aythya australis Aythya australis Hardhead

Barnardius zonarius Barnardius zonarius Australian Ringneck

Biziura lobata Biziura lobata Musk Duck

Cacatua galerita Cacatua galerita Sulphur Crested Cockatoo

Cacatua leadbeateri Cacatua leadbeateri Major Mitchell'S Cockatoo

Cacatua leadbeateri Cacatua leadbeateri Pink Cockatoo

Cacatua roseicapilla Cacatua roseicapilla Galah

Cacatua sanguinea Cacatua sanguinea Little Corella

Cacatua tenuirostris Cacatua tenuirostris Long Billed Corella

Cacomantis flabelliformis Cacomantis flabelliformis Fan Tailed Cuckoo

Cairina moschata Cairina moschata Muscovy Duck

Calamanthus pyrrhopygius Calamanthus pyrrhopygius Chestnut Rumped Hylacola

Calamanthus pyrrhopygius Calamanthus pyrrhopygius Chestnut Rumped Heathwren

Calidris acuminata Calidris acuminata Sharp Tailed Sandpiper

Calidris bairdii Calidris bairdii Baird'S Sandpiper

Calidris canutus Calidris canutus Red Knot

Calidris ferruginea Calidris ferruginea Curlew Sandpiper

Calidris melanotos Calidris melanotos Pectoral Sandpiper

Calidris minuta Calidris minuta Little Stint

Calidris ruficollis Calidris ruficollis Red Necked Stint

Calidris subminuta Calidris subminuta Long Toed Stint

Calidris tenuirostris Calidris tenuirostris Great Knot

Calyptorhynchus funereus Calyptorhynchus funereus Yellow Tailed Black

Cockatoo

Carduelis carduelis Carduelis carduelis European Goldfinch

Carduelis chloris Carduelis chloris European Greenfinch

Catharacta skua Catharacta skua Great Skua

Cereopsis novaehollandiae Cereopsis novaehollandiae Cape Barren Goose

Certhionyx niger Certhionyx niger Black Honeyeater

Charadrius bicinctus Charadrius bicinctus Double Banded Plover

Charadrius ruficapillus Charadrius ruficapillus Red Capped Plover

Chenonetta jubata Chenonetta jubata Australian Wood Duck

Cheramoeca leucosternus Cheramoeca leucosternus White Backed Swallow

Chlidonias hybridus Chlidonias hybridus Whiskered Tern

Chlidonias leucopterus Chlidonias leucopterus White Winged Black Tern

iii

Chrysococcyx basalis Chrysococcyx basalis Horsfield'S Bronze Cuckoo

Chrysococcyx lucidus Chrysococcyx lucidus Shining Bronze Cuckoo

Chrysococcyx osculans Chrysococcyx osculans Black Eared Cuckoo

Cincloramphus cruralis Cincloramphus cruralis Brown Songlark

Cincloramphus mathewsi Cincloramphus mathewsi Rufous Songlark

Circus approximans Circus approximans Swamp Harrier

Circus assimilis Circus assimilis Spotted Harrier

Cisticola exilis Cisticola exilis Golden Headed Cisticola

Cladorhynchus

leucocephalus

Cladorhynchus

leucocephalus

Banded Stilt

Climacteris picumnus Climacteris picumnus Brown Treecreeper

Colluricincla harmonica Colluricincla harmonica Grey Shrike Thrush

Columba livia Columba livia Rock Dove

Coracina novaehollandiae Coracina novaehollandiae Black Faced Cuckoo Shrike

Corcorax melanorhamphos Corcorax melanorhamphos White Winged Chough

Cormobates leucophaeus Cormobates leucophaeus White Throated Teecreeper

Corvus mellori Corvus mellori Little Raven

Coturnix pectoralis Coturnix pectoralis Stubble Quail

Coturnix ypsilophora Coturnix ypsilophora Brown Quail

Cracticus nigrogularis Cracticus nigrogularis Pied Butcherbird

Cracticus torquatus Cracticus torquatus Grey Butcherbird

Cuculus pallidus Cuculus pallidus Pallid Cuckoo

Cygnus atratus Cygnus atratus Black Swan

Dacelo novaeguineae Dacelo novaeguineae Laughing Kookaburra

Daphoenositta chrysoptera Daphoenositta chrysoptera Varied Sittella

Dicaeum hirundinaceum Dicaeum hirundinaceum Mistletoebird

Diomedea chlororhynchos Diomedea chlororhynchos Yellow Nosed Albatross

Dromaius novaehollandiae Dromaius novaehollandiae Emu

Egretta garzetta Egretta garzetta Little Egret

Egretta sacra Egretta sacra Eastern Reef Egret

Elanus axillaris Elanus axillaris Black Shouldered Kite

Elseyornis melanops Elseyornis melanops Black Fronted Dotterel

Eopsaltria griseogularis Eopsaltria griseogularis Western Yellow Robin

Epthianura albifrons Epthianura albifrons White Fronted Chat

Erythogonys cinctus Erythogonys cinctus Red Kneed Dotterel

Eudyptula minor Eudyptula minor Little Penguin

Eurostopodus argus Eurostopodus argus Spotted Nightjar

Falco berigora Falco berigora Brown Falcon

Falco cenchroides Falco cenchroides Nankeen Kestrel

Falco hypoleucos Falco hypoleucos Grey Falcon

Falco longipennis Falco longipennis Australian Hobby

Falco peregrinus Falco peregrinus Peregrine Falcon

Falco subniger Falco subniger Black Falcon

Falcunculus frontatus Falcunculus frontatus Crested Shrike Tit

iv

Fulica atra Fulica atra Eurasian Coot

Gallinago hardwickii Gallinago hardwickii Latham'S Snipe

Gallinula tenebrosa Gallinula tenebrosa Dusky Moorhen

Gallinula ventralis Gallinula ventralis Black Tailed Native Hen

Gallirallus philippensis Gallirallus philippensis Buff Banded Rail

Gelochelidon nilotica Gelochelidon nilotica Gull Billed Tern

Geopelia cuneata Geopelia cuneata Diamond Dove

Geopelia placida Geopelia placida Peaceful Dove

Gerygone olivacea Gerygone olivacea White Throated Gerygone

Gliciphila melanops Gliciphila melanops Tawny Crowned Honeyeater

Glossopsitta concinna Glossopsitta concinna Musk Loikeet

Glossopsitta

porphyrocephala

Glossopsitta

porphyrocephala

Purple Crowned Lorikeet

Grallina cyanoleuca Grallina cyanoleuca Australian Magpie Lark

Gymnorhina tibicen Gymnorhina tibicen Australian Magpie

Haematopus fuliginosus Haematopus fuliginosus Sooty Oystercatcher

Haematopus longirostris Haematopus longirostris Pied Oystercatcher

Haliaeetus leucogaster Haliaeetus leucogaster White Bellied Sea Eagle

Haliastur sphenurus Haliastur sphenurus Whistling Kite

Hieraaetus morphnoides Hieraaetus morphnoides Little Eagle

Himantopus himantopus Himantopus himantopus Black Winged Stilt

Hirundapus caudacutus Hirundapus caudacutus White Throated Needletail

Hirundo neoxena Hirundo neoxena Welcome Swallow

Lalage tricolor Lalage tricolor White Winged Triller

Larus dominicanus Larus dominicanus Kelp Gull

Larus novaehollandiae Larus novaehollandiae Silver Gull

Larus pacificus Larus pacificus Pacific Gull

Lichenostomus chrysops Lichenostomus chrysops Yellow Faced Honeyeater

Lichenostomus ornatus Lichenostomus ornatus Yellow Plumed Honeyeater

Lichenostomus penicillataus Lichenostomus penicillataus White Plumed Honeyeater

Lichenostomus virescens Lichenostomus virescens Singing Honeyeater

Limosa lapponica Limosa lapponica Bar Tailed Godwit

Limosa limosa Limosa limosa Black Tailed Godwit

Lonchura punctulata Lonchura punctulata Nutmeg Mannikin

Lophoictinia isura Lophoictinia isura Square Tailed Kite

Malacorhynchus

membranaceus

Malacorhynchus

membranaceus

Pink Eared Duck

Malurus cyaneus Malurus cyaneus Superb Fairy Wren

Malurus lamberti Malurus lamberti Variegated Fairy Wren

Malurus leucopterus Malurus leucopterus White Winged Fairy Wren

Manorina flavigula Manorina flavigula Yellow Thoated Miner

Manorina melanocephala Manorina melanocephala Noisy Miner

Megalurus gramineus Megalurus gramineus Little Grassbird

Melanodryas cucullata Melanodryas cucullata Hooded Robin

v

Melithreptus brevirostris Melithreptus brevirostris Brown Headed Honeyeater

Melithreptus gularis Melithreptus gularis Black Chinned Honeyeater

Melithreptus lunatus Melithreptus lunatus White Naped Honeyeater

Melopsittacus undulatus Melopsittacus undulatus Budgerigar

Merops ornatus Merops ornatus Rainbow Bee Eater

Microeca fascinans Microeca fascinans Jacky Winter

Milvus migrans Milvus migrans Black Kite

Mirafra javanica Mirafra javanica Singing Bushlark

Morus serrator Morus serrator Australasian Gannet

Myiagra inquieta Myiagra inquieta Restless Flycatcher

Neochima temporalis Neochima temporalis Red Browed Finch

Neophema chrysostoma Neophema chrysostoma Blue Winged Parrot

Neophema elegans Neophema elegans Elegant Parrot

Neophema petrophila Neophema petrophila Rock Parrot

Ninox novaeseelandiae Ninox novaeseelandiae Southern Boobook

Numenius madagascariensis Numenius madagascariensis Far Eastern Curlew

Numenius phaeopus Numenius phaeopus Whimbrel

Nycticorax caledonicus Nycticorax caledonicus Nankeen Night Heron

Nymphicus hollandicus Nymphicus hollandicus Cockatiel

Oceanites oceanicus Oceanites oceanicus Wilson'S Storm Petrel

Ocyphaps lophotes Ocyphaps lophotes Crested Pigeon

Oriolus sagittatus Oriolus sagittatus Olive Backed Oriole

Oxyura australis Oxyura australis Blue Billed Duck

Pachycephala inornata Pachycephala inornata Gilbert'S Whistler

Pachycephala pectoralis Pachycephala pectoralis Golden Whistler

Pachycephala rufiventris Pachycephala rufiventris Rufous Whistler

Pardalotus punctatus Pardalotus punctatus Spotted Pardalote

Pardalotus striatus Pardalotus striatus Striated Pardalote

Passer domesticus Passer domesticus House Sparrow

Pavo cristatus Pavo cristatus Indian Peafowl

Pelecanus conspicillatus Pelecanus conspicillatus Australian Pelican

Petrochelidon ariel Petrochelidon ariel Fairy Martin

Petrochelidon nigricans Petrochelidon nigricans Tree Martin

Petroica goodenovii Petroica goodenovii Red Capped Robin

Petroica multicolor Petroica multicolor Scarlet Robin

Petroica rosea Petroica rosea Rose Robin

Phalacrocorax carbo Phalacrocorax carbo Great Cormorant

Phalacrocorax fuscescens Phalacrocorax fuscescens Black Faced Cormorant

Phalacrocorax melanoleucos Phalacrocorax melanoleucos Little Pied Cormorant

Phalacrocorax sulcirostris Phalacrocorax sulcirostris Little Black Cormorant

Phalacrocorax varius Phalacrocorax varius Pied Cormorant

Phalaropus lobatus Phalaropus lobatus Red Necked Phalarope

Phaps chalcoptera Phaps chalcoptera Common Bronzewing

Phaps elegans Phaps elegans Brush Bronzewing

vi

Philomachus pugnax Philomachus pugnax Ruff

Phylidonyris albifrons Phylidonyris albifrons White Fronted Honeyeater

Phylidonyris

novaehollandiae

Phylidonyris

novaehollandiae

New Holland Honeyeater

Phylidonyris pyrrhoptera Phylidonyris pyrrhoptera Crescent Honeyeater

Platalea flavipes Platalea flavipes Yellow Billed Spoonbill

Platalea regia Platalea regia Royal Spoonbill

Platycercus elegans Platycercus elegans Crimson Rosella

Platycercus eximius Platycercus eximius Eastern Rosella

Plegadis falcinellus Plegadis falcinellus Glossy Ibis

Pluvialis fulva Pluvialis fulva Pacific Golden Plover

Pluvialis squatarola Pluvialis squatarola Grey Plover

Podargus strigoides Podargus strigoides Tawny Frogmouth

Podiceps cristatus Podiceps cristatus Great Crested Grebe

Poephila acuticauda Poephila acuticauda Long Tailed Finch

Poliocephalus poliocephalus Poliocephalus poliocephalus Hoary Headed Grebe

Polytelis anthopeplus Polytelis anthopeplus Regent Parrot

Pomatostomus superciliosus Pomatostomus superciliosus White Browed Babbler

Porphyrio porphyrio Porphyrio porphyrio Purple Swamphen

Porzana fluminea Porzana fluminea Australian Spotted Crake

Porzana pusilla Porzana pusilla Baillon'S Crake

Porzana tabuensis Porzana tabuensis Spotless Crake

Psephotus haematonotus Psephotus haematonotus Red Rumped Parrot

Psittacula krameria Psittacula krameri Indian Ringneck

Puffinus gavia Puffinus gavia Fluttering Shearwater

Puffinus tenuirostris Puffinus tenuirostris Short Tailed Shearwater

Pycnonotus jocosus Pycnonotus jocosus Red Whiskered Bulbul

Recurvirostra

novaehollandiae

Recurvirostra

novaehollandiae

Red Necked Avocet

Rhipidura fuliginosa Rhipidura fuliginosa Grey Fantail

Rhipidura leucophrys Rhipidura leucophrys Willie Wagtail

Rostratula benghalensis Rostratula benghalensis Painted Snipe

Sericornis frontalis Sericornis frontalis White Browed Scrubwren

Smicrornis brevirostris Smicrornis brevirostris Weebill

Stagonopleura bella Stagonopleura bella Beautiful Firetail

Stagonopleura guttata Stagonopleura guttata Diamond Firetail

Stercorarius parasiticus Stercorarius parasiticus Artic Jaeger

Sterna albifrons Sterna albifrons Little Tern

Sterna bergii Sterna bergii Crested Tern

Sterna caspia Sterna caspia Caspian Tern

Sterna hirundo Sterna hirundo Common Tern

Sterna nereis Sterna nereis Fairy Tern

Stictonetta naevosa Stictonetta naevosa Freckled Duck

Stiltia Isabella Stiltia isabella Australian Prantincole

vii

Strepera versicolor Strepera versicolor Grey Currawong

Streptopelia chinensis Streptopelia chinensis Spotted Dove

Streptopelia risoria Streptopelia risoria Barbary Dove

Sturnus vulgaris Sturnus vulgaris Common Starling

Tachybaptus

novaehollandiae

Tachybaptus

novaehollandiae

Australasian Grebe

Tadorna tadornoides Tadorna tadornoides Australian Shelduck

Taeniopygia guttata Taeniopygia guttata Zebra Finch

Thinornis rubricollis Thinornis rubricollis Hooded Plover

Threskiornis molucca Threskiornis molucca Australian White Ibis

Threskiornis spinicollis Threskiornis spinicollis Straw Necked Ibis

Todiramphus sancta Todiramphus sancta Sacred Kingfisher

Trichoglossus haematodus Trichoglossus haematodus Rainbow Lorikeet

Tringa glareola Tringa glareola Wood Sandpiper

Tringa nebularia Tringa nebularia Common Greenshank

Tringa stagnatilis Tringa stagnatilis Marsh Sandpiper

Tringa tetanus Tringa totanus Redshank

Turdus merula Turdus merula Common Blackbird

Turnix varia Turnix varia Painted Button Quail

Turnix velox Turnix velox Little Button Quail

Tyto alba Tyto alba Barn Owl

Vanellus miles Vanellus miles Masked Lapwing

Vanellus tricolor Vanellus tricolor Banded Lapwing

Xenus cinereus Xenus cinereus Terek Sanpiper

Zoothera lunulate Zoothera lunulata Bassian Thrush

Zosterops lateralis Zosterops lateralis Silvereye

viii

B. Removed Species Names

List of the names of sightings that could not be identified to species level and consequently

removed from the dataset for analysis.

Scientific Name Common Name Code

Unknown Accipter Accipiter Spp ACC

Hybrid bird 2

Eastern Rosella X Crimson

Rosella Hybrid ECR

Unknown Giant Pretrel Giant Petrel Sp XGP

Anas superciliosa x anas

platyrhynchos

Mallard X Pacific Black Duck

Hybrid BDM

Not Recorded Not Recorded NR

Anas superciliosa x anas

platyrhynchos

Pacific Black Duck/Mallard

Hybrid BDM

Unknown 1 Unknown 1 UU

Unknown 2 Unknown 2 UR

Unknown 3 Unknown 3 UW

Aves spp. Unknown Bird UB

Bird of Prey Unknown Bird Of Prey BOP

Cacatua sp. Unknown Corella CORE

Unknown Cormorant Unknown Cormorant Sp COR

Meliphagid spp. Unknown Honeyeater UH

Lorikeet sp. Unknown Lorikeet LOR

Petrochelidon sp. Unknown Martin MAR

Neophema sp. Unknown Neophema NEO

Pardalotus spp. Unknown Pardalote UP

Unknown Raven Unknown Raven RAV

Unknown Small Wader Unknown Small Wader USW

Acanthiza spp. Unknown Thornbill UT

Artamus spp. Unknown Woodswallow UWS

Malurus spp. Unknown Wren UFW

Hybrid bird 3

Yellow Throated X Black Eared

Miner YTM*BEM

Hybrid bird Cox Sandpiper FXM

Hybrid bird Cox'S Sandpiper FXM

ix

C. Refined Species List & Foraging Guilds/Zones

A list of the refined species list that were found across the entire study area (both native and

exotic. They were further categorised based on their foraging guilds (food sources) and primary

foraging zone.

Unique Species

Name Species Name Common Name Native Foraging Guild Foraging zone

Acanthagenys

rufogularis

Acanthagenys

rufogularis

Spiny Cheeked

Honeyeater Yes Frugivore/insectivore Shrub/canopy

Acanthiza

apicalis

Acanthiza

apicalis Inland Thornbill Yes Insectivore Shrub

Acanthiza

chrysorrhoa

Acanthiza

chrysorrhoa

Yellow Rumped

Thornbill Yes Insectivore Ground

Acanthiza

iredalei

Acanthiza

iredalei

Slender Billed

Thornbill Yes Insectivore Shrub

Acanthiza lineata Acanthiza lineata Striated Thornbill Yes Insectivore Shrub/canopy

Acanthiza nana Acanthiza nana Yellow Thornbill Yes Insectivore Canopy

Acanthiza pusilla Acanthiza pusilla Brown Thornbill Yes Insectivore Shrub

Acanthiza

reguloides

Acanthiza

reguloides

Buff Rumped

Thornbill Yes Insectivore Shrub/canopy/bark

Acanthiza

uropygialis

Acanthiza

uropygialis

Chestnut Rumped

Thornbill Yes Insectivore Ground/bark

Acanthorhynchus

tenuirostris

Acanthorhynchus

tenuirostris Eastern Spinebill Yes Nectarivore/insectivore Shrub/canopy

Accipiter

cirrhocephalus

Accipiter

cirrhocephalus

Collared

Sparrowhawk Yes Carnivore/raptor Shrub/canopy

Accipiter

fasciatus

Accipiter

fasciatus Brown Goshawk Yes Carnivore/raptor Canopy

Acridotheres

tristis

Acridotheres

tristis Comon Mynah exotic Insectivore

Acrocephalus

australis

Acrocephalus

australis

Clamorous Reed

Warbler Yes Insectivore Shrub

Aegotheles

cristatus

Aegotheles

cristatus

Australian Owlet

Nightjar Yes Insectivore Aerial

Agapornis

roseicollis

Agapornis

roseicollis

Peach Faced

Lovebird exotic Alauda arvensis Alauda arvensis Skylark Yes Insectivore Ground

Anas

platyrhynchos

domesticus

Anas

platyrhynchos

domesticus Domestic Duck exotic Anas

superciliosa

Anas

superciliosa

Pacific Black

Duck Yes Omnivore Ground

Anser anser

domesticus

Anser anser

domesticus Domestic Goose exotic

x

Anthochaera

carunculata

Anthochaera

carunculata Red Wattlebird Yes Nectarivore/insectivore Shrub/canopy

Anthochaera

chrysoptera

Anthochaera

chrysoptera Little Wattlebird Yes Nectarivore/insectivore Shrub/canopy

Anthus

novaeseelandiae

Anthus

novaeseelandiae Richard'S Pipit Yes Insectivore Ground

Apus pacificus Apus pacificus Fork Tailed Swift Yes Insectivore Aerial

Aquila audax Aquila audax

Wedge Tailed

Eagle Yes Carnivore/raptor Ground

Artamus cinereus Artamus cinereus

Black Faced

Woodswallow Yes Insectivore Aerial

Artamus

cyanopterus

Artamus

cyanopterus

Dusky

Woodswallow Yes Insectivore Aerial

Artamus

personatus

Artamus

personatus

Masked

Woodswallow Yes Insectivore Aerial

Artamus

superciliosus

Artamus

superciliosus

White Browed

Woodswallow Yes Insectivore Aerial

Barnardius

zonarius

Barnardius

zonarius

Australian

Ringneck Yes Granivore Ground/shrub

Cacatua galerita Cacatua galerita

Sulphur Crested

Cockatoo Yes Granivore Ground

Cacatua

roseicapilla

Cacatua

roseicapilla Galah Yes Granivore Ground

Cacatua

sanguinea

Cacatua

sanguinea Little Corella Yes Granivore Ground

Cacatua

tenuirostris

Cacatua

tenuirostris

Long Billed

Corella Yes Granivore Ground

Cacomantis

flabelliformis

Cacomantis

flabelliformis

Fan Tailed

Cuckoo Yes Insectivore Shrub/canopy

Cairina moschata Cairina moschata Muscovy Duck exotic Calyptorhynchus

funereus

Calyptorhynchus

funereus

Yellow Tailed

Black Cockatoo Yes Granivore/insectivore Ground/canopy

Carduelis

carduelis

Carduelis

carduelis

European

Goldfinch exotic

Carduelis chloris Carduelis chloris

European

Greenfinch exotic

Certhionyx niger Certhionyx niger Black Honeyeater Yes Insectivore/Nectivore Canopy

Charadrius

ruficapillus

Charadrius

ruficapillus

Red Capped

Plover Yes Insectivore Ground

Chenonetta

jubata

Chenonetta

jubata

Australian Wood

Duck Yes Herbivore Ground

Cheramoeca

leucosternus

Cheramoeca

leucosternus

White Backed

Swallow Yes Insectivore Aerial

Chrysococcyx

basalis

Chrysococcyx

basalis

Horsfield'S

Bronze Cuckoo Yes Insectivore Shrub/canopy

Chrysococcyx

lucidus

Chrysococcyx

lucidus

Shining Bronze

Cuckoo Yes Insectivore Shrub/canopy

xi

Cincloramphus

cruralis

Cincloramphus

cruralis Brown Songlark Yes Insectivore Ground

Cincloramphus

mathewsi

Cincloramphus

mathewsi Rufous Songlark Yes Insectivore Ground

Circus

approximans

Circus

approximans Swamp Harrier Yes Carivore/raptor Ground

Circus assimilis Circus assimilis Spotted Harrier Yes Carivore/raptor Ground

Cisticola exilis Cisticola exilis

Golden Headed

Cisticola Yes Insectivore Shrub

Climacteris

picumnus

Climacteris

picumnus

Brown

Treecreeper Yes Insectivore Bark

Colluricincla

harmonica

Colluricincla

harmonica

Grey Shrike

Thrush Yes Insectivore Canopy/bark

Columba livia Columba livia Rock Dove exotic Coracina

novaehollandiae

Coracina

novaehollandiae

Black Faced

Cuckoo Shrike Yes Insectivore Canopy

Corcorax

melanorhamphos

Corcorax

melanorhamphos

White Winged

Chough Yes Insectivore Ground

Cormobates

leucophaeus

Cormobates

leucophaeus

White Throated

Teecreeper Yes Insetivore Bark

Corvus mellori Corvus mellori Little Raven Yes Carnivore/raptor Ground

Coturnix

pectoralis

Coturnix

pectoralis Stubble Quail Yes Granivore Ground

Coturnix

ypsilophora

Coturnix

ypsilophora Brown Quail Yes Granivore Ground

Cracticus

nigrogularis

Cracticus

nigrogularis Pied Butcherbird Yes Carnivore/raptor Shrub/ground

Cracticus

torquatus

Cracticus

torquatus Grey Butcherbird Yes Carnivore/raptor Shrub/ground

Cuculus pallidus Cuculus pallidus Pallid Cuckoo Yes Insectivore Canopy

Dacelo

novaeguineae

Dacelo

novaeguineae

Laughing

Kookaburra Yes Carnivore/raptor Ground

Daphoenositta

chrysoptera

Daphoenositta

chrysoptera Varied Sittella Yes Insectivore Bark

Dicaeum

hirundinaceum

Dicaeum

hirundinaceum Mistletoebird Yes Frugivore Canopy

Dromaius

novaehollandiae

Dromaius

novaehollandiae Emu Yes Insectivore / herbivore Ground

Elanus axillaris Elanus axillaris

Black Shouldered

Kite Yes Carnivore/raptor Ground

Elseyornis

melanops

Elseyornis

melanops

Black Fronted

Dotterel Yes Insectivore Ground

Epthianura

albifrons

Epthianura

albifrons

White Fronted

Chat Yes Insectivore Ground

Eurostopodus

argus

Eurostopodus

argus Spotted Nightjar Yes Insectivore Aerial

Falco berigora Falco berigora Brown Falcon Yes Carnivore/raptor Ground

xii

Falco

cenchroides

Falco

cenchroides Nankeen Kestrel Yes Carnivore/raptor Ground

Falco

longipennis

Falco

longipennis Australian Hobby Yes Carnivore/raptor Aerial

Falco peregrinus Falco peregrinus Peregrine Falcon Yes Carnivore/raptor Aerial

Falco subniger Falco subniger Black Falcon Yes Carnivore/raptor Aerial

Falcunculus

frontatus

Falcunculus

frontatus Crested Shrike Tit Yes Insectivore Canopy

Gallinago

hardwickii

Gallinago

hardwickii Latham'S Snipe Yes Insectivore Ground

Gallirallus

philippensis

Gallirallus

philippensis Buff Banded Rail Yes Insectivore Ground

Geopelia cuneata Geopelia cuneata Diamond Dove Yes Granivore Ground

Geopelia placida Geopelia placida Peaceful Dove Yes Granivore Ground

Gerygone

olivacea

Gerygone

olivacea

White Throated

Gerygone Yes Insectivore Canopy

Gliciphila

melanops

Gliciphila

melanops

Tawny Crowned

Honeyeater Yes Nectarivore/insectivore Shrub/canopy

Glossopsitta

concinna

Glossopsitta

concinna Musk Loikeet Yes Nectarivore Canopy

Glossopsitta

porphyrocephala

Glossopsitta

porphyrocephala

Purple Crowned

Lorikeet Yes Nectarivore Canopy

Grallina

cyanoleuca

Grallina

cyanoleuca

Australian

Magpie Lark Yes Insectivore Ground

Gymnorhina

tibicen

Gymnorhina

tibicen

Australian

Magpie Yes Carnivore Ground

Haliaeetus

leucogaster

Haliaeetus

leucogaster

White Bellied Sea

Eagle Yes Carnivore/raptor Aerial

Haliastur

sphenurus

Haliastur

sphenurus Whistling Kite Yes Carnivore/raptor Aerial

Hieraaetus

morphnoides

Hieraaetus

morphnoides Little Eagle Yes Carnivore/raptor Ground

Hirundapus

caudacutus

Hirundapus

caudacutus

White Throated

Needletail Yes Insectivore Aerial

Hirundo neoxena Hirundo neoxena

Welcome

Swallow Yes Insectivore Aerial

Lalage tricolor Lalage tricolor

White Winged

Triller Yes Insectivore Aerial

Larus

novaehollandiae

Larus

novaehollandiae Silver Gull Yes Insectivore Ground

Lichenostomus

chrysops

Lichenostomus

chrysops

Yellow Faced

Honeyeater Yes Nectarivore/insectivore Shrub/canopy

Lichenostomus

ornatus

Lichenostomus

ornatus

Yellow Plumed

Honeyeater Yes Nectarivore/insectivore Shrub/canopy

Lichenostomus

penicillataus

Lichenostomus

penicillataus

White Plumed

Honeyeater Yes Nectarivore/insectivore Shrub/canopy

Lichenostomus

virescens

Lichenostomus

virescens

Singing

Honeyeater Yes Nectarivore/insectivore Shrub/canopy

xiii

Lophoictinia

isura

Lophoictinia

isura

Square Tailed

Kite Yes Carnivore/raptor Canopy

Malurus cyaneus Malurus cyaneus

Superb Fairy

Wren Yes Insectivore Ground/shrub

Malurus lamberti Malurus lamberti

Variegated Fairy

Wren Yes Insectivore Ground/shrub

Malurus

leucopterus

Malurus

leucopterus

White Winged

Fairy Wren Yes Insectivore Ground/shrub

Manorina

flavigula

Manorina

flavigula

Yellow Thoated

Miner Yes Nectarivore/insectivore Shrub/canopy

Manorina

melanocephala

Manorina

melanocephala Noisy Miner Yes Nectarivore/insectivore Shrub/canopy

Megalurus

gramineus

Megalurus

gramineus Little Grassbird Yes Insectivore Shrub

Melanodryas

cucullata

Melanodryas

cucullata Hooded Robin Yes Insectivore Shrub

Melithreptus

brevirostris

Melithreptus

brevirostris

Brown Headed

Honeyeater Yes Nectarivore/insectivore Canopy

Melithreptus

gularis

Melithreptus

gularis

Black Chinned

Honeyeater Yes Nectarivore/insectivore Canopy

Melithreptus

lunatus

Melithreptus

lunatus

White Naped

Honeyeater Yes Nectarivore/insectivore Canopy

Melopsittacus

undulatus

Melopsittacus

undulatus Budgerigar Yes Granivore Ground

Merops ornatus Merops ornatus

Rainbow Bee

Eater Yes Insectivore Aerial

Microeca

fascinans

Microeca

fascinans Jacky Winter Yes Insectivore Shrub

Milvus migrans Milvus migrans Black Kite Yes Carnivore/raptor Aerial

Mirafra javanica Mirafra javanica Singing Bushlark Yes Insectivore Aerial

Myiagra inquieta Myiagra inquieta

Restless

Flycatcher Yes Insectivore Aerial

Neochima

temporalis

Neochima

temporalis

Red Browed

Finch Yes Granivore Ground

Neophema

chrysostoma

Neophema

chrysostoma

Blue Winged

Parrot Yes Granivore Ground

Neophema

elegans

Neophema

elegans Elegant Parrot Yes Granivore Ground

Neophema

petrophila

Neophema

petrophila Rock Parrot Yes Granivore Ground

Ninox

novaeseelandiae

Ninox

novaeseelandiae

Southern

Boobook Yes Carnivore/raptor Ground

Nymphicus

hollandicus

Nymphicus

hollandicus Cockatiel Yes Granivore Ground

Ocyphaps

lophotes

Ocyphaps

lophotes Crested Pigeon Yes Granivore Ground

Oriolus sagittatus Oriolus sagittatus

Olive Backed

Oriole Yes Insectivore Shrub/canopy

xiv

Pachycephala

pectoralis

Pachycephala

pectoralis Golden Whistler Yes Insectivore Shrub/canopy

Pachycephala

rufiventris

Pachycephala

rufiventris Rufous Whistler Yes Insectivore Shrub/canopy

Pardalotus

punctatus

Pardalotus

punctatus Spotted Pardalote Yes Insectivore Canopy

Pardalotus

striatus

Pardalotus

striatus Striated Pardalote Yes Insectivore Canopy

Passer

domesticus

Passer

domesticus House Sparrow Exotic Pavo cristatus Pavo cristatus Indian Peafowl Exotic Petrochelidon

ariel

Petrochelidon

ariel Fairy Martin Yes Insectivore Aerial

Petrochelidon

nigricans

Petrochelidon

nigricans Tree Martin Yes Insectivore Aerial

Petroica

goodenovii

Petroica

goodenovii

Red Capped

Robin Yes Insectivore Ground/shrub

Petroica

multicolor

Petroica

multicolor Scarlet Robin Yes Insectivore Ground/shrub

Petroica rosea Petroica rosea Rose Robin Yes Insectivore Shrub/Canopy

Phaps

chalcoptera

Phaps

chalcoptera

Common

Bronzewing Yes Granivore Ground

Phaps elegans Phaps elegans

Brush

Bronzewing Yes Granivore Ground

Phylidonyris

albifrons

Phylidonyris

albifrons

White Fronted

Honeyeater Yes Nectarivore/insectivore Shrub

Phylidonyris

novaehollandiae

Phylidonyris

novaehollandiae

New Holland

Honeyeater Yes Nectarivore/insectivore Shrub/canopy

Phylidonyris

pyrrhoptera

Phylidonyris

pyrrhoptera

Crescent

Honeyeater Yes Nectarivore/insectivore Shrub/canopy

Platycercus

elegans

Platycercus

elegans Crimson Rosella Yes Granivore Ground

Platycercus

eximius

Platycercus

eximius Eastern Rosella Yes Granivore Ground

Podargus

strigoides

Podargus

strigoides

Tawny

Frogmouth Yes Carnivore/raptor Aerial

Pomatostomus

superciliosus

Pomatostomus

superciliosus

White Browed

Babbler Yes Insectivore Ground/bark

Psephotus

haematonotus

Psephotus

haematonotus

Red Rumped

Parrot Yes Granivore Ground

Psittacula

krameri

Psittacula

krameri Indian Ringneck Exotic Pycnonotus

jocosus

Pycnonotus

jocosus

Red Whiskered

Bulbul Exotic Rhipidura

fuliginosa

Rhipidura

fuliginosa Grey Fantail Yes Insectivore Aerial

Rhipidura

leucophrys

Rhipidura

leucophrys Willie Wagtail Yes Insectivore Ground

xv

Sericornis

frontalis

Sericornis

frontalis

White Browed

Scrubwren Yes Insectivore Ground

Smicrornis

brevirostris

Smicrornis

brevirostris Weebill Yes Insectivore Canopy

Stagonopleura

bella

Stagonopleura

bella Beautiful Firetail Yes Granivore Ground

Stagonopleura

guttata

Stagonopleura

guttata Diamond Firetail Yes Granivore Ground

Stiltia isabella Stiltia isabella

Australian

Pratincole Yes Insectivore Strepera

versicolor

Strepera

versicolor Grey Currawong Yes Carnivore/raptor

Streptopelia

chinensis

Streptopelia

chinensis Spotted Dove Exotic Streptopelia

risoria

Streptopelia

risoria Barbary Dove Exotic Sturnus vulgaris Sturnus vulgaris Common Starling Exotic Taeniopygia

guttata

Taeniopygia

guttata Zebra Finch Yes Granivore Ground

Thinornis

rubricollis

Thinornis

rubricollis Hooded Plover Yes Insectivore Ground

Threskiornis

molucca

Threskiornis

molucca

Australian White

Ibis Yes Insectivore/carnivore Ground

Threskiornis

spinicollis

Threskiornis

spinicollis Straw Necked Ibis Yes Insectivore/carnivore Ground

Todiramphus

sancta

Todiramphus

sancta Sacred Kingfisher Yes Carnivore Ground

Trichoglossus

haematodus

Trichoglossus

haematodus Rainbow Lorikeet Yes Nectarivore Canopy

Turdus merula Turdus merula

Common

Blackbird Exotic

Turnix varia Turnix varia

Painted Button

Quail Yes Granivore Ground

Turnix velox Turnix velox

Little Button

Quail Rare Granivore Ground

Tyto alba Tyto alba Barn Owl Yes Carnivore/raptor Ground

Vanellus miles Vanellus miles Masked Lapwing Yes Insectivore Ground

Vanellus tricolor Vanellus tricolor Banded Lapwing Yes Insectivore Ground

Zoothera

lunulata

Zoothera

lunulata Bassian Thrush Yes Insectivore Ground

Zosterops

lateralis

Zosterops

lateralis Silvereye Yes Frugivore Shrub/canopy

xvi

D. Species Richness

A summary table of the species richness for each Local Government Area (LGA) for both

time periods

LGA 1980 2010

ADELAIDE 71 54

BURNSIDE 97 66

CAMPBELLTOWN 77 61

CHARLES STURT 56 55

HOLDFAST BAY 26 24

MARION 38 68

MITCHAM 112 93

NORWOOD 41 45

ONKAPARINGA 138 120

PLAYFORD 132 108

PORT ADELAIDE ENFIELD 65 82

SALISBURY 96 106

TEA TREE GULLY 68 86

UNLEY 33 54

WALKERVILLE 63 53

WEST TORRENS 62 87

E. SA Land Cover – Urbanisation

Summary table of the proportional cover of urban land in metropolitan Adelaide for 17 Local

Government Areas (LGAs)

LGA 1990 2015

Relative

Increase

ADELAIDE 0.5779 0.5938 0.0275

BURNSIDE 0.6299 0.6581 0.0447

CAMPBELLTOWN 0.7839 0.8122 0.0362

CHARLES STURT 0.8298 0.8426 0.0154

HOLDFAST BAY 0.8704 0.8813 0.0126

MARION 0.6325 0.6657 0.0526

MITCHAM 0.3379 0.3639 0.0770

NORWOOD 0.9580 0.9352 -0.0238

ONKAPARINGA 0.1512 0.1743 0.1526

PLAYFORD 0.1374 0.1616 0.1762

PORT ADELAIDE ENFIELD 0.6810 0.6928 0.0172

PROSPECT 0.9737 0.9752 0.0016

SALISBURY 0.3787 0.4121 0.0882

TEA TREE GULLY 0.4316 0.4703 0.0897

UNLEY 0.9592 0.9670 0.0082

WALKERVILLE 0.9315 0.9418 0.0110

WEST TORRENS 0.7042 0.7236 0.0276

xvii

Summary table of the km2 for each Local Government Area (LGA) of urban land in

metropolitan Adelaide.

LGA 1990 2015

Relative

Increase

ADELAIDE 8.997 9.245 0.0275

BURNSIDE 17.342 18.117 0.0447

CAMPBELLTOWN 19.087 19.778 0.0362

CHARLES STURT 43.267 43.932 0.0154

HOLDFAST BAY 11.942 12.092 0.0126

MARION 34.786 36.616 0.0526

NORWOOD 14.458 14.121 -0.0233

MITCHAM 25.579 27.549 0.0770

ONKAPARINGA 78.400 90.366 0.1526

PLAYFORD 47.410 55.764 0.1762

PORT ADELAIDE ENFIELD 64.018 65.119 0.0172

PROSPECT 7.604 7.616 0.0016

SALISBURY 59.877 65.157 0.0882

TEA TREE GULLY 41.091 44.778 0.0897

UNLEY 13.706 13.818 0.0082

WALKERVILLE 3.260 3.296 0.0110

WEST TORRENS 26.105 26.825 0.0276

F. SA Land Cover – Native vegetation

Native Vegetation (km2)

LGA 1985 2010

Onkaparinga 210.660 202.821

Playford 137.499 131.840

Salisbury 49.110 45.814

Norwood 43.764 42.694

Tea Tree Gully 35.844 35.596

Port Adelaide Enfield 15.759 16.010

Marion 10.051 10.076

Burnside 8.404 7.919

West Torrens 3.816 3.560

Campbelltown 3.467 3.264

Charles Sturt 2.801 2.803

Adelaide 2.090 2.170

Holdfast Bay 0.866 0.825

Mitcham 0.406 0.408

Unley 0.326 0.259

Walkerville 0.135 0.130

xviii

A map of the estimated native vegetation cover from the 2010-2015 SA Land Cover dataset

xix

G. Population and Dwellings

Summary table of total dwellings for each LGA were obtained from the census years of 1986

and 2016. Proportional numbers were calculated by dividing the counts for each LGA by the

LGA area (km2). The relative increase in the proportional dwelling and population counts from

1986 to 2016 for each LGA were calculated.

Dwellings Dwelling Density

LGA Km2 1981 2016 1981 2016

Relative

Dwelling

Increase

Adelaide 15.6 5,517 11,539 354.34 741.1 1.0915

Burnside 27.5 15,794 19,311 573.7 701.45 0.2227

Campbelltown 24.4 15,751 21,603 646.86 887.19 0.3715

Charles Sturt 52.1 40,691 51,163 780.42 981.26 0.2573

Holdfast bay 13.7 15,497 18,036 1129.52 1314.58 0.1638

Marion 55.5 27,861 39,764 502 716.47 0.4272

Mitcham 75.7 23,323 26,658 308.1 352.15 0.143

Norwood 15.1 14,394 17,493 953.25 1158.48 0.2153

Onkaparinga 518.4 37,346 71,692 72.04 138.29 0.9196

Playford 345.0 19,675 36,294 57.03 105.2 0.8446

Port Adelaide

Enfield 94.0 39,796 53,557 423.36 569.76 0.3458

Prospect 7.8 8,069 8,919 1033.16 1142 0.1053

Salisbury 158.1 31,421 55,210 198.74 349.21 0.7571

Tea Tree Gully 95.2 23,757 40,071 249.52 420.87 0.6867

Unley 14.3 15,025 17,097 1051.43 1196.43 0.1379

Walkerville 3.6 2,894 3,509 810.64 982.91 0.2125

West Torrens 37.1 19,088 26,840 514.92 724.04 0.4061

xx

Summary table of the total populations for each LGA were obtained from the census years of

1986 and 2016. Proportional numbers were calculated by dividing the counts for each LGA by

the LGA area (km2). The relative increase in the proportional dwelling and population counts

from 1986 to 2016 for each LGA were calculated.

Population

Population

Density

LGA Km2 1981 2016 1981 2016

Relative

Population

Increase

Adelaide 15.6 14,157 22,063 909 1,417 0.559

Burnside 27.5 37,198 43,911 1,351 1,595 0.181

Campbelltown 24.4 43,352 50,164 1,780 2,060 0.157

Charles Sturt 52.1 102,485

111,75

9 1,966 2,143 0.09

Holdfast bay 13.7 32,147 35,360 2,343 2,577 0.1

Marion 55.5 69,695 88,618 1,256 1,597 0.271

Mitcham 75.7 61,213 64,805 809 856 0.058

Norwood 15.1 32,413 35,362 2,147 2,342 0.091

Onkaparinga 518.4 107,818

166,76

6 208 322 0.548

Playford 345.0 58,343 89,372 169 259 0.533

Port Adelaide

Enfield 94.0 100,824

121,23

0 1,073 1,290 0.202

Prospect 7.8 18,299 20,527 2,343 2,628 0.122

Salisbury 158.1 96,618

137,97

9 611 873 0.429

Tea Tree Gully 95.2 73,838 97,734 776 1,027 0.323

Unley 14.3 36,195 37,721 2,533 2,640 0.042

Walkerville 3.6 6,813 7,550 1,908 2,115 0.108

West Torrens 37.1 43,639 57,901 1,177 1,562 0.327

xxi

A map of the relative population increase (A) and relative urban increase (B) from 1986 – 2016.

xxii

H. Temporal Turnover

A summary table of the proportional turnover of bird communities in each Local Government

Area (LGA).

Turnover Metric

LGA

Total

Turnover Additions Deletions

Adelaide 0.454 0.12 0.333

Burnside 0.377 0.038 0.34

Campbelltown 0.444 0.157 0.287

Charles Sturt 0.317 0.178 0.139

Holdfast Bay 0.764 0.2 0.564

Marion 0.592 0.49 0.102

Mitcham 0.359 0.115 0.244

Norwood 0.419 0.27 0.149

Onkaparinga 0.284 0.091 0.192

Playford 0.359 0.065 0.295

Port Adelaide 0.39 0.329 0.062

Salisbury 0.349 0.228 0.122

Tea Tree Gully 0.463 0.273 0.19

Unley 0.586 0.529 0.057

Walkerville 0.385 0.125 0.26

West Torrens 0.385 0.289 0.096

xxiii

Residual plots and Q-Q plots were produced to visually analyse the separate linear models that

were fitted to assess the relationships between temporal turnover and the explanatory variables

relative dwelling increase meets the normality assumptions of linear regression

xxiv

I. Species Abundance

A summary table of the mean rank shift and rate of change between the two time periods for

each LGA

LGA

Mean Rank

Shift

Rate of

Change

Adelaide 10.254 140.054

Burnside 9.924 193.564

Campbelltown 12 66.895

Charles Sturt 11.913 110.955

Holdfast Bay 2.462 15.232

Marion 10.225 277.218

Mitcham 17.31 466.203

Norwood 9.535 218.628

Onkaparinga 25.638 709.427

Playford 37.827 403.243

Port Adelaide Enfield 13.067 251.8

Salisbury 20.894 1091.709

Tea Tree Gully 16.338 149.395

Unley 8 155.689

Walkerville 13.508 139.331

West Torrens 14.157 1006.786

xxv

Residual plots and Q-Q plots were produced to visually analyse the separate linear models that

were fitted to assess the relationships between mean rank shift and the explanatory variables

relative dwelling increase meets the normality assumptions of linear regression

xxvi

Residual plots and Q-Q plots were produced to visually analyse the separate linear models that

were fitted to assess the relationships between rate of change and the explanatory variables

relative dwelling increase meets the normality assumptions of linear regression

xxvii

J. Species presence/absence: Multivariate analysis

An ordination plot utilised to visualise multivariate patterns. A Non-metric Multidimensional

Scaling (NMDS) was conducted utilising the Bray-Curtis dissimilarity to quantify the

compositional dissimilarity between all the sites

xxviii

A Shepard plot of the observed dissimilarity of the nMDS ordination result utilised to assess

the goodness of fit.

xxix

K. Species presence-absence: Model-based analysis

A residual plot of the generalised linear model fitted to the multivariate species

presence/absence data with LGA and time as explanatory variables. Model assumptions,

particularly assessing the appropriate variance model for the multivariate responses, were

assessed visually using residual plots

xxx

L. Species abundance – multivariate analysis

An ordination plot utilised to visualise multivariate patterns of species abundance. A Non-

metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS) was conducted utilising the Bray-Curtis

dissimilarity to quantify the compositional dissimilarity between all the sites

xxxi

A Shepard plot of the observed dissimilarity of the nMDS ordination result utilised to assess

the goodness of fit for species abundance.

xxxii

M. Species abundance – model

A mean variance plot to assess the relationship between species abundance and relative

dwelling increase.

xxxiii

A residual plot of the generalised linear model fitted to the multivariate species abundance data

with LGA and time as explanatory variables. Model assumptions, particularly assessing the

appropriate variance model for the multivariate responses, were assessed visually using

residual plots