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Impact of Wind and Solar Electric Generating
System in Belfast, Ireland
[Author Name]
[Institute Name]
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ContentsAbstract.................................................................................................................................................3
Chapter One: Introduction.....................................................................................................................4
1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................4
1.2 Purpose of the Thesis...................................................................................................................5
1.3 Rationale for the Thesis...............................................................................................................5
1.4 Limitations and Scope.................................................................................................................6
Limitations:.......................................................................................................................................6
Chapter Two: Literature Review...........................................................................................................7
2.1. Introduction................................................................................................................................7
2.2 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES.........................................................................................7
2.2.1 Wind and solar generation..................................................................................................10
2.2.1.1 Wind Energy....................................................................................................................11
2.2.1.2 Solar Energy....................................................................................................................12
2.2.1.2.1 Solar Power..................................................................................................................12
2.3. Current state of Ireland and the world by energy type..............................................................16
2.3.1. Renewable Energy.............................................................................................................24
2.3.2. Future.................................................................................................................................24
Chapter Three:.....................................................................................................................................27
3.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................27
3.2. Power Supply in The Area........................................................................................................28
3.3. Wind Generation On Belfast.....................................................................................................29
3.3.1. Site Selection.....................................................................................................................29
3.3.2. Location.............................................................................................................................29
Chapter Four: Elements for the Determination Of Electric Power.......................................................31
4.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................31
4.2 Evaluation of Solar and Wind Energy Resources......................................................................32
4.2.1 Solar Resource....................................................................................................................32
4.2.2. Irradiation:........................................................................................................................33
4.2.3. Heatstroke:........................................................................................................................34
4.3. Wind resource...........................................................................................................................34
4.2.4 Configuring Networked Systems............................................................................................41
4.3.3 Type Of Energy Storage.........................................................................................................43
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4.4 Selecting the Type of Generator................................................................................................46
4.4.1 Wind Generators.................................................................................................................46
4.4.2 Solar generators..................................................................................................................48
4.4.3. Solar intensity....................................................................................................................48
45 Other Considerations..................................................................................................................48
Chapter Five: Conclusion....................................................................................................................51
References...........................................................................................................................................53
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Abstract
The power generation has historically been based on mainly fossil fuels, but is forecast that
there will be shortage of these in the coming decades and that its use is the main cause of
climate change induced by humans and this It is one of the issues that are high on the global
agenda. That is why it is essential and urgent to find alternative sources of energy and
allocate the necessary resources to develop these technologies, conduct studies on the effects
they have on their connection to the network and train people to carry out its implementation.
This thesis presents the factors to be considered to carry out the interconnection of generation
from renewable sources with the network and analyse the behaviour you have in it. At first it
gives an introduction to renewable and distributed generation, after the manner in which the
potential of wind and solar energy that has a determined site explains the types of
connections there and the characteristics of the solar generators are presented and wind so
that they can make a proper selection of the type of generator depending on site
characteristics and generators. The site that was selected for this secondary analysis is
Belfast.
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Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Introduction
Wind and solar energy are some of the most renewable energy use and popularity around the
world. Other countries have already implemented renewable generators have allowed to
observe the effects they produce. Ireland has also implemented projects of this kind and has
great potential. But new challenges with the emergence and expansion in the use of these
technologies, and operation of renewable sources interconnected with the network are
presented is an area where more research is needed (Tapbury Management Limited, NA).
In many parts of the world it is working to address important issues related to electricity
generation by conventional methods, mainly including global warming, scarcity of oil, the
increase in electricity prices in many places, price volatility natural gas, lower air quality and
public health, the imminent threat of low voltage or blackouts, aging infrastructure and
network congestion, energy insecurity and inefficiency (Doherty, et al., 2006). As the costs of
conventional electricity generation become increasingly evident, the price of distributed
systems and renewable energy continues to decrease. Many people have recognized the need
to facilitate the interconnection of renewable energy, clean and place, to the electricity grid is
being delayed (Doherty, et al., 2006).
Renewable energy sources like wind power and solar can be installed on a network as large
wind farms or as distributed generation. Generally, distributed generation (DG) is defined as
one type of small-scale generation that is directly connected to distribution networks at
various levels of tension and eventually have a local load. In this thesis the two cases are
treated (Leahy, 2010).
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Interconnection is a complex issue because of the many technical and contractual
considerations that need to be addressed. Some countries and organizations have developed
interconnection standards that specify the technical and regulatory requirements and terms
under which the owners of distributed generators should operate. However, in many other
cases, and as renewable energy sources are gaining popularity, the lack of uniform standards
for interconnection significantly complicate the process of interconnection and likewise have
obstructed the development of renewable energy systems and other forms of generation
distributed (Lannoye, 2008). Because the interconnection of renewable energy sources is an
issue that involves technological challenges mainly intermittence of these resources and that
the network needs to function successfully adapt to these energies, and in turn distributed
generation defies tradition more a century of centralized generation owned utility companies,
careful technical considerations and new perspectives on the ownership and control are
required, in addition to requiring a culture that opens the door to renewable energy sources
(Connolly, 2007).
1.2 Purpose of the Thesis
Analyse what effect from the point of view of the injection operation of the electric power
generated from solar and wind energy in power systems. Knowing how to size projects and
choosing the right generator, meet the requirements for interconnection and the impact that
renewable energy sources produced in the network (Tuohy, et al. 2008).
To perform an analysis of the application of renewable generation has chosen the state of
Belfast, Ireland, as it is an area that has great wind resource i.e. Irish Sea coasts, and a nearby
region called Ulster (Tuohy, et al. 2008).
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1.3 Rationale for the Thesis
In Ireland today wind power is in the form of wind farms and solar are basically used for
rural electrification and specific household appliances. This paper attempts to analyse the
connection of this type of generation injected directly into an electrical system to analyse its
effect, since there is an important and potential for development in many parts of the country
potential. To perform the analysis the state of Belfast, Ireland was selected.
1.4 Limitations and Scope
Scope:
Validate the methodology for determining the potential of wind and solar generation.
Review the various models of injection of wind and solar generation network.
Apply methodologies for network analysis (load flow, short circuit) in Belfast, Ireland
network operating wind and solar energy.
Conclusions and recommendations for the implementation of these technologies in the
electricity grid in Ireland.
Limitations:
This paper presents an overview of the interconnection of wind and solar energy to electrical
systems so still need more specific studies on each topic presented by example on the issue of
protection, control generators, voltage stability is presented, economic, studies measuring
insolation and wind, etc., but can take as a basis for such studies.
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Chapter Two: Literature Review
2.1. Introduction
In the past, renewables were generally more expensive to use compared with fossil fuels. In
addition, renewable resources are often located in remote areas and are expensive to build
transmission lines to the cities where they are required. The use of renewable resources is
also limited by the fact that they are not always available (such as cloudy days reduce solar
energy, calm days mean that there will be no wind blowing to move wind turbines, droughts
reduce availability of water to produce hydroelectricity) (Feng, et al. 2009).
The production and use of renewable energy has grown rapidly in recent years due to the high
prices of oil and natural gas, and a number of federal and international incentives. The use of
renewable energy is expected to continue growing over the next thirty years, but still be
dependent on non-renewable fuels to meet most of our energy needs (Castronuovo and J. A.
P. 2004).
Currently the bulk of electricity production takes place in large plants (150-1000MW) in
order to avert creating demand, reduce operating costs, maintenance, etc. Usually large
generating units are power plants, hydroelectric plants, combined cycle units, nuclear,
geothermal, large wind farms (Brown, et al., 2008).
In this thesis, wind generation is connected as a conventional plant and solar generation is
connected as distributed generation. How to interconnect for large wind farms must follow
the rules of conventional generation connection, but for distributed generation
interconnection standards have created (Brown, et al., 2008).
2.2 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
Renewable energy sources play an increasingly important role in power systems, particularly
wind power, which is the technology that has greater weight in the current growth in Europe
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and the future generation from this type sources, supported by technological advances and
economic improvements of wind turbines. According to some estimates it is expected to wind
power installed capacity come to represent 18% of the world total and in Europe have
obtained 180,000 MW in 2020 (Suul, et al. 2008).
In Ireland, according to the federal program, derived from the "Law for the Use of Renewable
Energies and Financing for Energy Transition "for 2012 it is expected that 4% of demand is
served by this type of generation, taking advantage of all the benefits arising under that law,
such as for example the proceeds Certifications of Emission Reduction, among others.
Renewable energies are those whose source lies in natural phenomena, processes or materials
capable of being transformed into usable energy for humanity, and that regenerate naturally,
so are so available continuously or periodically continuous and which are listed below
(Vinatoru, 2008):
• Wind
• Solar radiation, in all its forms
• The movement of water in natural or artificial channels
• The ocean energy in its different forms, namely tidal, maremotérmica, waves, ocean
currents and salt concentration gradient
• The heat from geothermal reservoirs
• Bioenergy
Climate change
In recent years the phenomenon known as global warming has been linked to increased
greenhouse gases emitted during the use of fossil fuels, but other phenomena such as acid
rain, increased density aerosols and ozone levels in areas with high population densities,
damage to systems both at sea and on land, the loss of human lives in accidents, etc. They are
also related to energy generation processes (Deane, 2010).
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Due to global warming and that fossil fuel resources are limited and will run out someday, it
is important to take into account renewable energy sources as a serious option to help solve
this problem and at the same time provide benefits to network Electrical system and users.
It is important to consider renewable energy for the country's development because they
involve (Deane, 2010):
• Less dependence on fossil fuels, that has had a significant increase in prices over the
last decade, and therefore greater energy sovereignty.
• Increased energy diversity.
• Reduction in emissions of greenhouse gases (CO2, NOx, CH4, O3, and CFC).
• Better use of natural resources with the use of clean and inexhaustible resources.
• Boosting technological development.
• It provides important social benefits in terms of creating jobs, boosting local
economies.
• Only minimal maintenance is required to ensure the functioning of the system.
It is noted that the photovoltaic solar energy connected to the network is the fastest growing
you already that there is great potential for development because it uses the sun as a primary
source of energy, is why this type of energy is considered for this thesis. Wind power also has
a significant growth. The security of energy supply, diversification of energy supply,
environmental protection and economic and social cohesion have been the main reasons for
promoting the use of renewable energies and energy efficiency They are a priority in today's
world and have triggered the development and establishment of guidelines for reduced
dependence on hydrocarbons (Caralis and Zervos, 2007).
Meanwhile the typical ratings voltages at nodes of a system are as follows:
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• Distribution: 34.5 kV and lower
• Sub transmission: 34.5 - 138 kV
• Transmission: 115 kV and higher
Distributed generation will generally be located in the lower to 34.5 kV or equal levels and
can be of any technology (gas, diesel, mini-hydro, solar, air). In general lines we can say that
the transmission network ensures the stability and security of the system while the
distribution network ensures the quality of service received by customers.
Over 90% of the cuts experienced by customers or end consumers due to the distribution
network, which is logical, the latter being less than meshed transmission network and to be
connected most of them customer’s networks. The need for a change in the form of
distribution systems should be supported by new approaches to planning, design, operation
and management leading to optimal and economical service to consumers in electricity
(McGrane, 2010).
2.2.1 Wind and solar generation
The types of technologies are described below (Caralis and Zervos, 2010):
• Wind power
• Solar energy
Since they are to be used in this work. Other renewable energy sources are described as:
• Mini - Hydraulic
• Fuel Cell
• Biomass
• Geothermal energy
• Tidal Energy
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2.2.1.1 Wind Energy
Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy into electricity. These turbines are grouped in large
wind farms, which produce energy for the power grid. Since wind is a renewable resource,
energy generated from wind turbines is considered renewable energy.
The three main components for energy conversion in a wind turbine are the rotor, the gearbox
and generator. In Figure 1 the main components of a wind turbine are illustrated (Karki, et al.,
2006).
Figure 1 the main components of a wind turbine are illustrated
The rotor, which is where the blades are located, becomes the fluctuating wind energy into
mechanical energy and is therefore the main component of the conversion system.
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2.2.1.2 Solar Energy
There are two ways to convert the energy in sunlight into electricity: the first is called "solar
thermal generation", that is to use the sun as a heat source, it is captured, concentrated and
used to power a steam turbine, in which case the heat is used to produce steam.
The second way to capture solar energy and its conversion to electricity, involves the use of
solar or photovoltaic cells. The solar cell is a solid state device such as a transistor or
microchip using the physical characteristics of a semiconductor such as silicon, to convert
sunlight directly into electricity. Whatever its type, a solar power plant has its greatest
weakness in that only generate electricity when the sun is shining, but at night there is no
sunlight, there is no electricity. To overcome this problem, a conventional thermodynamic
solar plant type, you must have some form of backup with conventional technology or
incorporate energy storage (Eirgrid, 2009).
2.2.1.2.1 Solar Power
This technology is under development but is an interesting alternative. The basic concept of
this technology is that the heat achieved by concentrating solar radiation is used to heat a
fluid and produce steam then suitable for use in a conventional steam turbine. Generally,
fluids used are molten salts and that allow higher operating temperature.
There are basically three schemes for electricity generation with solar thermal energy
(Milligan, 2001):
• Parabolic trough:
In this scheme parabolic mirrors are used to concentrate solar radiation in a localized focus
along the manifold. The tube containing the fluid to be heated and can reach temperatures
close to 400 ° C.
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The heated fluid is led to the heat exchangers to produce and operate a steam turbine. These
systems are provided with a moving mechanism that allows tracking the sun to improve
efficiency. This movement can be in one axis (vertical or horizontal) or both.
• Central tower and heliostat:
The solar tower concentrates heat for use in a centralized facility which includes a large solar
receiver and heat sink, which is set on top of a tower. The tower is located in the middle of a
field of special mirrors called heliostats, each of whom must be able to orient the sun
independently, so that the incident light stays directly on the solar receiver. A heliostat field
can be very large, enough to generate several hundred megawatts electricity (Bresesti, et al.
2004).
At the top of the solar tower is a solar receiver comprising tubes through which flows a fluid
transfers, this has the capacity to absorb heat around the heliostat field, once that has been
heated (to about 560 ° C), fluid is pumped to the heat exchanger where heat is used to
generate steam to the steam turbine (Bresesti, et al. 2004).
• Parabolic Discs:
The solar dish is more like a parabolic mirror, in the centre of it is placed a small heat sink
and electricity generator. The reflector is aligned to the sun and focuses its energy into a
collector containing a fluid that is heated to about 750 ° C and can be used to produce steam.
Unlike the two previous technologies have been developed for generation
Large-scale utilities, the solar disk is relatively small scale, the diameters are between 5 and
15 m and output powers of 5-50 kW. The solar disc represents the most efficient technology
of all solar thermal technologies, efficiency recorded is around 30%, but can reach values up
to 40%. Its main use is for isolated remote generation, where its high efficiency and
reliability can be competitive with solar cells (Phoon Hee Yau, 2006).
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2.2.1.2.2 Solar photovoltaic
In 1839 the French physicist Edmund Becquerel discovered that certain materials produced
small electric current when exposed to light. These materials are semiconductors. The
technology uses semiconductor photovoltaic cells, generally several centimetres in size.
Photovoltaic cell is essentially composed of two layers of silicon (silicone type P and type N),
separated by a semiconductor material layers. When photons impinge on the first sheet (P),
silicon electrons, which are released through the semiconductor filter, which allows crossing
in one direction (cannot return) they are released. Then, the N layer acquires a different
polarization P, and by an external electrical conductor, return to the P layer closing the circle
of power and perpetuating the process (Carr, 2005).
A module consists of multiple cells in order to generate the required power. Unlike a wind
turbine, the installation of photovoltaic panels is static, does not require large and strong
towers, it does not produce vibration or noise and need not active cooling.
The solar cell is typically of a few square inches in size and produces about 1 W of power.
For more power, many such cells are connected in series and parallel circuits in a panel
(module) of several square inches. The solar array or panel is defined as a group of several
modules electrically connected in a series-parallel combination to generate current and
voltage required (Billinton and Yi, 2008).
For the realization of the cells, the material currently most used is silicon also used by the
electronics industry and whose production process has very high costs not justified by the
degree of purity required for photovoltaic, which are lower than those required electronically.
Other materials for making solar cells are (Liang, et al. 2009):
• Mono-crystalline Silicon: from energy efficiency to 15-17%;
• Poly-crystalline Silicon: from energy efficiency to 12-14%;
• Amorphous Silicon: less energy yield of 10%;
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• Other materials: gallium arsenide, copper indium dieseline, cadmium telluride.
Currently, the material used is the mono-crystalline silicon having performance and durability
superior time to any other material used for the same purpose.
The photovoltaic module is a robust and manageable structure on which photovoltaic cells
are placed. The modules can have different sizes (the most used have surfaces ranging from
0.5 m2 to 1.3 m2) and usually consist of 36 cells electrically connected in series. The formed
modules have a power ranging between 50 W and 150 W, depending on the type and
efficiency of the component cells. The main electrical characteristics of a photovoltaic
module can be summarized as follows (Hu, 2009):
• Peak power (Pp) power supplied by the module under standard conditions
STC (solar radiation = 1000 W / m2; Temperature = 25 ° C; Air mass = 1.5).
• Rated Current (A): current supplied by the module at the point of work.
• Voltage (V) voltage of the module.
Photovoltaic panels are widely available for both commercial and domestic uses. The panels
are less than 5 kW and units can be combined to form a system of any size. They produce no
emissions and require minimal maintenance. However, they can be quite expensive. Less
expensive components and advances in the manufacturing process required to remove
financial barriers now preventing the widespread use of photovoltaic panels systems. PV is
currently being used mainly in remote locations not connected to the network and to generate
green energy (Eirgrid, 2009).
However, the environmental impact of photovoltaic cannot be considered void. Some of the
problems and the types of environmental impacts that may negatively influence the
perception of photovoltaic systems by the citizens are as follows (Eirgrid 2010):
• The pollution caused by the production process of the components.
• The use of the territory.
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• The visual impact.
• The impact on the flora and fauna.
The main limitation to the widespread use of this technology is its high costs. Because many
of the current PV technologies use a semiconductor crystalline material similar to that of
integrated circuit chips, production costs have been high. However, between 1980 and 2004,
the capital of the PV module cost per watt of power capacity decreased from over $ 20 (USD)
per watt to less than $ 4 (USD) per watt. During the same period (1980 -2004), the cost of
energy decreased from about $ 1 (USD) to around 20 cents per kWh and now, in 2010, China
has made production costs 15 cents per kWh. The typical component costs are 60 to 70% of
the PV modules of 10 to 15% by investors, 10% elsewhere and 10% in labour (Ruimin and
Jin 2010).
2.3. Current state of Ireland and the world by energy type
The wind industry in Ireland will open its doors this week to learn more about opportunities
to invest in renewables. Twenty-four are wind farms, which compromises about 250 wind
turbines (Contaxis and Vlachos 2000).
It has been agreed that these dates to be inaugurated at the same time it celebrates Global
Wind Day, June 15 just today. In this way we try to promote this type of energy in this
country and are well known for all over with a guide launched on this day to what the
benefits would have to wind as one of the cornerstones for the energy sector.
Kenneth Matthews, director of the Irish Wind Energy Association, said there are many
companies like Ikea have invested in wind energy in Ireland and as Apple recently announced
it would invest directly in renewable and convert this country to Ireland in a positive value
this type of energy (Bogenrieder, NA).
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There is a clear desire from several renowned companies to switch to more sustainable
sources of clean power generation, so we are taking the right steps in this direction to take a
role in renewables, such as wind.
The companies that opened this week wind farms are: ABO Wind, Bord na Mona, Dundalk
IT, ESB, Ecopower, Energy, Gaelectric, Galetech, Mainstream Renewable Power, SSE
Airtricty and others (Brekken, et al., 2010).
Overall, among all wind farms it will mean approximately 800 million euros worth of wind
power infrastructure.
National Climate Change Strategy provides a framework 2007-2012 for Ireland's greenhouse
gas reduction. In 2008, "agreed EU Climate Energy Package included a target to reduce
greenhouse gases 20% below 1990 levels by the year 2020. This was two separate pieces of
legislation on greenhouse gases in Ireland: Directive 2009 / 29 / EC which requires
companies in the emissions trading scheme (ETS) to reduce their emissions by 21% below
2005 levels by 2020; Directive 406/2009 / EC which requires Ireland is not emission trading
scheme ETS emissions by 20% below 2005 levels by 2020 (Karki, et al., 2010).
Clean energy source is renewable energy, which can be saved without damaging the
environment unlike fossil fuels that emit carbon dioxide (greenhouse gas) and pollutants in
the atmosphere. In Ireland, the country's major source of CO2 emissions is electricity
generation using fossil fuels. But switching from fossil fuels to renewable sources (the
replacement energy sources through continuous cycles of nature) will significantly our
commitment to the Kyoto Protocol. Ireland is highly dependent on imported fuels, which are
about 89% of fuel for "energy in the form of fossil fuels. A renewable energy sources
indigenous to the country, as happens (Rogers, 2008).
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2007 Energy White Paper "Sustainable Energy Future for Ireland to provide" action strategy
in the Government's Energy White Paper in 2007 for a new energy future out to the year
2020. The goals of the White Paper (Papaefthimiou, et al., 2009):
• energy supplies will ensure safe,
• sustainable energy future promotion
• efficient prices economically provide for
• Irish consumers.
The White Paper next target to raise the proportion of electricity from renewable sources to
15% by 2010 and 33% by 2020 included renewable energy sources around 3.6% of Ireland's
total energy consumption in the 2008.
Energy availability is one of the most basic needs of our everyday activities. Has dramatically
increased the demand for energy in the world, but the world's climate is being changed by the
use of finite resources of coal, oil and gas (known as fossil fuels), and could stem from such
serious impacts. The EU is addressing these issues by encouraging the member states with
renewable energy resources development and exchange (Garrad Hassan for CER, 2004).
Central to Ireland's energy overall policy of renewable energy is built by contributions, as set
out in the Renewable Energy Strategy for 2012-2020. The strategy is based firmly in the
global and European context, with a focus on fundamental break with the dependence on
fossil fuels, which are more of them being sourced from outside the borders of the European
Union. Reduced dependence on fossil fuels with renewable energy, improves security of
supply and reduced greenhouse emissions growth. This creates environmental benefits, green
jobs are available in the economy, is the national competitiveness and the jobs and growth
agenda. It is a valuable national asset availability inherent power and renewable and it is
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necessary that the result for the state to maximize when we are developing (Lumb and
Hawkins, 1998).
EU Directive 2009/28 / EC: The use of energy from renewable resources, set targets for each
member state, and they will be achieved by 2020. In the case of Ireland, claimed, in target
unrelated legal commitment to , that at least 40% of electricity coming from renewable
energy by 2020 intrusion to achieve the target of 16%, a legally binding, Ireland by 2020.
The Directive also provides an overview of the possible methods to coordinate member states
together to achieve these goals (Wangdee, et al. 2010).
Because of the location and the climate we have in Ireland, has a huge potential of renewable
energy we have, especially from wind and, in the long term, from the power of waves and
tides. It has been found that Ireland's wind resources, and ocean resources later, much more
energy delivery than can be used with our national market. The potential for Ireland to
become the exporter of renewable energy in the coming years (Wangdee, et al. 2010).
This export opportunity is recognized by the Government in the Renewable Energy Strategy
2012-2020, and wishes to support the export of renewable energy to other EU member states,
provided that significant clear benefits for the Irish economy and no net cost for the Irish
consumer. Satisfy certain targets set out in the Renewable Energy Strategy 2012-2020
including more renewable electricity to achieve gradually from wind power on land and
offshore, for the national and export markets. It states that the market possibilities of
significant scale wind projects on land, and that they could in time the prospect of offering to
develop export UK market directly from the island of Ireland (Taylor and Halnes, 2010). The
Government is committed to the actions outlined in this strategy to ensure the verification of
this export opportunity. Potential significant benefits relate to wind and ocean energy
industry at the national and local levels, in terms of jobs, investment, interconnection and
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revenue potential benefits for the state. In January of 2013, signed by the Minister for
Communications, Energy and Natural Resources, Mr Pat Rabbitte, a Memorandum of
Understanding with the United Kingdom, including Ireland and the United Kingdom
dedicated to assessing how can renewable resources energy Ireland developed a common
interest to both countries by the relevant EU Directives, and opportunities to explore
renewable energy trading, and the aim of Intergovernmental Agreement establishing early
2014 (Taylor and Halnes, 2010).
It is proposed by the Government of the opportunities for renewable energy exported from
Ireland to other member states of the European Union, to the UK in the first instance, be
optimized according to European law, including Directive 2009/28 / EC: For the use of
energy from renewable resources to promote (ESB National Grid, 2004).
To help with this goal reached, Renewable Energy Export Policy and Development
Framework (spatial dimension) being developed by the Department of Communications,
Energy and Natural Resources for renewable export opportunities from Ireland, to the United
Kingdom on the Firstly, with a particular focus on large-scale projects in renewable energy
generation (ESB National Grid, 2004).
A Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) in order to provide information to the Policy
for Renewable Energy Export Development and Development Framework. HDA will also [or
Appropriate Assessment (MO)] under the Habitats Directive 92/43 / EC, as well as extensive
consultation with the public and stakeholders (Gallachoir et all, 2004).
The State reported the initial area of study for the export policy and development framework.
After initial scoping and Strategic Environmental Assessment, it is envisaged that the export
policy and development framework (Natural Energy Project Well Received, 2009):
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• Context clear national policies for energy export layout;
• Identify general strategic areas in Ireland in which renewable energy can be generated for
export; and
• Provide guidance to planning authorities, including the Planning Board, when no measure
for renewable energy exported under consideration.
• A guide to planning authorities, in consultation with the Department of Environment,
Community and Local Government, on appropriate development contributions schemes to
prepare for this development types.
Renewable Energy: a strategy for the future "in 1996 and commissioned the first landfill gas
generates station in Ireland. Ireland signed the Kyoto agreement in 1998 and the government
sent out a Green Paper on "Sustainable Energy" in 1999. In 2000, allowed free competition in
this market where electricity was generated from renewable sources. It has also recently seen
that Ireland is more committed to the development and promotion of technologies and
practices more energy efficient end-use sectors (Eirgrid, 2010).
It is expected to continue the energy demand worldwide is increasing gradually and Ireland is
also included here. As has been said, will increase the energy demand of 84% between 1990
and 2010, CO2 emissions will increase 25% and above. Targets, they have a legal basis, set
under the Kyoto agreement for greenhouse gas emission limitation and reduction. Renewable
energy was 2.7% of total primary energy requirement (TPER) in Ireland in 2006 compared
with 1.8% in 1990. The goal of the EU White Paper that 12% of energy throughout the EU by
renewable sources to TPER by 2010.
Ireland has set a goal of increasing the contribution of renewable energy in the electric power
by 2005. The progressive development of wind energy in the country will contribute greatly
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to achieve those objectives up to 500 MW. A good example of this development is the
Kilronan wind farm, located in Roscommon region which has abundant wind resources and
newspapers. In addition, there are facilities to connect to the network due to the proximity of
high voltage turrets. It is a park built in 1996 with 10 turbines of 0.5 MW each. However,
many providers are still problems in obtaining the necessary permits to develop new wind
farm projects (Caralis and Zervos, 2007).
Ireland and the United Kingdom have two mechanisms to foster the development of
renewable energies. Ireland through the Alternative Energy Requirement (EAR) and the
United Kingdom by No Fossil Fuel Obligation (NFFO); both are competitive auction system
by which the various energy suppliers respond to the offer to provide electricity to a wide
range of renewable energies (Brekken, et al., 2010). One operator that offers a higher
percentage of electricity supplied by some form of renewable source at a competitive price
which will eventually develop the service. This service is usually contracted for a long period
of time (about 15 years) and the selling price to the electricity supply network is the price that
will hit the auction. In Ireland explained by technical contracts, EAR, offered since 1994. In
1999 it was already 10 wind farms contracted by EAR technical representing 63 MW, still far
from the 167 MW planned for 2005. Once the tender won by the EAR can be ordered capital
grants supported by EU structural funds (Eirgrid, 2009).
Research on Irish wind resources are jointly conducted by the University of Dublin, RISOE
(joint research institute of the Danish government and the environmental department of the
United Nations) and others. These groups have also provided financial assistance for project
implementation feasibility of renewable energy (Wangdee, et al. 2010).
In line with these mechanisms explained Eole 1996 auction was the French project, which by
another system of competitive bidding was attempted to promote wind energy in France. The
P a g e | 24
results were limited by the low level of wind farms in the country, mostly concentrated on the
island of Corsica and some French overseas departments. This limitation on the level of
resources associated with another series of administrative barriers and few fiscal and financial
incentives have led to withdraw from the project Eole 1996 and since June 2001 France has
opted for a law obligation to purchase rather than opt for system competitive bids as Ireland
(Karki, et al., 2010).
To improve the French wind supply are developing new projects in the continent such as the
wind farm Dunkirk, in Wideheim, built in 1999 with an installed capacity of 4.5 MW.
However, you must still overcome significant obstacles and difficulties connecting to the
network, the absence of rights guaranteed access for small generators or availability still
limited financial support (Phoon Hee Yau, 2006).
Ireland is heavily reliant on imported fuels for energy production despite the fossil fuels their
consumption as a country and not just produces very little energy from renewable sources
(Bresesti, et al. 2004).
Various types of energy we use on a daily basis and each store that energy in different ways.
Energy resources are divided into two main groups - renewable (energy source we can use
again and again) and non-renewable (energy source cannot be used again within a short space
of time if you exhausted). Can renewable energy sources and non-renewable energy sources
used to create secondary, including electricity and hydrogen. It is found in nature of the
primary sources of energy, solar, coal, oil and so on (Caralis and Zervos, 2010). Creates
secondary sources of energy from primary energy sources through the use of technology -
e.g. photovoltaic cells produce electricity from solar energy or produced from coal or peat by
using turbines in power stations. Mainly used energy sources like coal, oil, gas, peat, water
P a g e | 25
(hydro) and wind to generate electricity in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland
(Milligan, 2001).
2.3.1. Renewable Energy
Possible sources of non-renewable energy replaced in a short distance. These are some of the
sources of non-renewable energy most commonly used hydropower (water), solar, wind,
geothermal and biomass. Is not a new thing to use renewable energy. Wood is provided by a
large percentage of the world's energy needs for thousands of years and to less than 150 years
ago in fact. However, potential is not much use of wood as energy source now, developed
countries in particular, because of the convenience of fossil fuels and because of them the
lowest prices (Billinton and Yi, 2008).
The low prices of fossil fuels (particularly natural gas) by applying the progress of renewable
fuels for many years. There are restrictions also renewable fuels (e.g. continuity does not
involve the time if there is a cloudy day, none of the available energy from the sun; if there
are quieter days, there will be no wind for the wind turbines to work; there are mainly dams
to control flooding and so, hydroelectric production varies according to the changing water
levels in the dam). However, more importance is attached to renewable energy worldwide,
the damned are doing consumption of fossil fuels in particular (Carr, 2005).
2.3.2. Future
The development will depend to a fully sustainable society very much on where we get our
energy from and how we use it. It is important that we ensure that a leverage as possible from
the energy sources of our present and our future. Should aim to be the long term we also
would not start using renewable sources of energy and in this way, not limit dependence on
fossil fuels. It is crucial not feel the increase could come in the future economic growth of
any induced increase in energy consumption. Energy has been studied as part of the
P a g e | 26
traditional curriculum and left the responsibility for energy use in the school by the stewards
and the engineers would now and again. It had no teachers or pupils energy management in
the past. These functions cannot be separated more however. Pressure is educational, and
financial environment is forcing schools to connect these elements together in a single energy
policy that would apply across the whole school (Karki, et al., 2006).
Some facts and figures Ireland is one of the countries most affected by global warming on a
per capita (per person).
• Fossil fuel is Ireland was getting 97% of its energy in 2006. 91% of this was imported.
There are many indigenous renewable sources in Ireland. The EU target is to generate 12% of
all European energy from renewable sources by 2010.
• Aims at Ireland the percentage of electricity generated from renewable sources increased
from 4.5% in 2006 to 15%, at least, by 2010. It is estimated that only enough oil in the world
and to last 40 other years.
• The recommended temperature to be in the classrooms than 18ºC. An additional 10% will
be paid on heating bills with every 1ºC the temperature is raised further.
• The photocopier left switched it overnight wastes enough energy it would take to make
5,300 A4 copies. You can 20% of their energy consumption to save you if you turn off the
appliance.
• Car travels 20,000km a year, on average and allows up 2,895kg of carbon in the
atmosphere. Can the school bus which she transported 72 passengers, seven road miles
travelled on one gallon of fuel. That is about 500 per gallon. A car can not only carry 5
passengers along 40 miles of road. That is about 200 per gallon.
Green Schools Objectives Teaching • Learn about the importance of different
P a g e | 27
Objectives • To show people that they can the
amount of energy they use greatly reduced
through simple small things.
• Assistance to students and the wider public
to understand that it is vital to conserve
energy to protect our environment from the
potential impact to Global Warming and to
safeguarding our future
• The link between energy use and
communication cost when appropriate.
Financial show and how that affects home
life along with the lives they live in the
school
• Keep track of energy use whenever and
wherever possible to do so.
• Use of data for curriculum work.
• Learn about the different types and different
energy sources that exist.
sources of energy to have to live from day to
day.
• Figures, etc. calculated by using strategies
and techniques of numbers would be
appropriate.
. • Results to express to others in a way that
will convince them that their behaviour and
change attitudes.
. • Collect, analyse them and present them in
different ways, through the use of
information technology and
• Be cooperative with others.
P a g e | 28
Chapter Three:
3.1 Introduction
To perform an analysis of the application of renewable generation from wind and solar
sources in electrical systems has chosen the northern state Belfast, specifically the North
Belfast as it is an area with considerable wind resources, and a nearby region. Besides having
significant wind and solar resources have proximity to electrical transmission lines and
favourable topography. All the details mentioned in this project are done via secondary
research and no primary research was conducted for the completion (Ruimin and Jin 2010).
A project of a wind farm in North Belfast by the Government of Ireland consisting of 10 MW
installed, which opened in January 2010. In this analysis the installation of these wind
turbines is simulated in that area that is connected to the 230 kV (Ruimin and Jin 2010).
• Latitude: 32 ° 34 'N
• Longitude 116 ° 38 'W
The photovoltaic plant is also located in an area near North Belfast. It will simulate a housing
complex with 500 kW peak power to be injected into the grid of 13.8 kV substations. The
city is traditionally divided into four main areas based on the cardinal points of a compass,
each of which forms the basis of constituencies for general elections: North Belfast, East
Belfast, South Belfast, and West Belfast. These four areas meet at Belfast City Centre. The
second traditional divide is that formed by the River Lagan, with the northern bank of the
River being part of County Antrim, while the southern bank is part of County Down (Eirgrid
2010).
P a g e | 29
They are analysed separately the effects of each of these technologies, but in principle the
characteristics of the existing power grid in the area and the characteristics of the software
used for the analysis will be presented.
The objective of these studies is to take care that the generators operate not affect normal
operation of the network and where appropriate correct the variation to install or make
change less generation of electrical equipment or the network configuration so that it supports
the effects generators produce (Eirgrid 2010).
3.2. Power Supply in The Area
The mains where wind and solar generation will be installed is in the area of Control Ireland
(ACBC), is an area that is not connected to the Irish Electrical System but the network
Belfast is interconnected with the transmission network United States.
The system ACBC operates permanently interconnected with other energy houses, through
two links at 230 kV. These links allow the ACBC conducting transactions of sale of
electricity in the western Ireland market (Eirgrid, 2009).
The installed generation is 2,342 MW. Generation centres are central to 1,026 MW, and gas
turbine in area of 28 MW operating in emergency situations, to meet the criteria Reserve
Western Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC).
For this scenario, they consider that all units of the CC (LaganBank) are connected to the
network of CFE, totalling 770 MW. County Imperial Valley generation infrastructure based
on a series of small geothermal fields, which together produce 571 MW; next largest two
combined cycle work based on natural gas, produce 146 MW; the 64 MW hydroelectric
system provides, there is also a centre that works with fuel oil and generates 20 MW; and
P a g e | 30
other biomass from agricultural waste and livestock manure which generates 18 MW
(Eirgrid, 2009).
3.3. Wind Generation On Belfast
Then simulations required for the analysis of behaviour of wind generation on a network are
presented.
3.3.1. Site Selection
The selected site is the North Belfast because the winds in this area meet the necessary
conditions for the smooth operation of wind generators.
Using data from studies by institutions of the country such as the Electric Power Research
Institute or documents as it is concluded that the North Belfast has significant wind potential
that can be developed. Also the place where the wind power plant will be located has not had
a specific use; however, the predominant soil in surrounding catchment area is agricultural,
being occupied lands dedicated to agriculture and livestock (Hu, 2009).
3.3.2. Location
The project is located at km. The North Belfast has a large capacity of nearly installed
generation, which makes it an ideal location to install a wind farm because wind power is
intermittent nature of wind and when there is no wind there will always be other reserve
generation plants that are available to provide the required energy.
According to the histograms of frequency of occurrence of wind speed ranges and wind
measurements made on site it is possible to determine the capacity factor and annual MWh
for a site. The CFE with the IIE and various state governments, in this case the Government
of Ireland, have carried out studies and measurements of wind speeds in different parts of the
territory. According to the data in the North Belfast they expected 27.471 MWh / year for 10
P a g e | 31
MW installed. The plant factor, which measures the electrical energy generated annually in
connection with which it would generate if it worked 100 percent of the time at rated power
is calculated as (McGrane, 2010):
Is expected to operate at an average annual capacity equivalent to 31.36% that the turbines
are operating 7.52 hours a day on average at nominal power throughout the year, but the latter
must be added the consideration that turbines They will operate longer hours and less
capacity for wind variations. The factors of the world's tallest plant reach 50%. Also wind
characteristics will vary seasonally as well as the amount of charge in that area as more
energy is consumed during the summer for the use of air conditioning due to extremely hot
temperatures.
Based on studies conducted by other institutions they indicate that the average wind speed is
adequate and frequency of annual occurrence so is, and the characteristics of the network in
that area, we can say that the selected site is suitable to install a wind farm.
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Chapter Four: Elements for the Determination Of Electric Power
4.1 Introduction
In this chapter important points that have to be taken into account in determining what kind
of technology is the most suitable for installation in a selected site they are described.
The first point has to make an assessment of the solar and wind resources place and see
which option is most suitable. The evaluation of these resources is extensive studies by
institutions such as the National Weather Service, the Electric Power Research Institute, state
governments and various institutions worldwide. When it comes to install a wind farm or a
solar plant performing these studies it requires several years to get good results on the levels
of sunlight and wind maps for a site, but there are also general data from one location
available people who want to install small generators. It does not treat this subject in depth in
this paper, only the features you must have a site to be selected will be mentioned.
Taking a selected site with adequate sun or wind characteristics, you have to see if there are
nearby grids and determine whether it is more economical to install an isolated or one
connected to the mains system, will also discuss the types of storage energy that can be used
in the case of an isolated system. A methodology to determine the load exposed to that and
depending on the variables mentioned above the type of generator to be used is selected
taking into account the future expansion of the network.
It is also important to consider other aspects of which will speak briefly below:
• The economic aspect which in most cases is crucial to carry out a project.
• The environment in a matter of seeing the benefits of using clean energy and the
possible effects on the flora and fauna.
P a g e | 33
• Review the legal aspect.
• You also need to know the future expansion of the network in order to select an
energy source that can meet future needs and leave the physical space in case it is
necessary to expand the facilities.
4.2 Evaluation of Solar and Wind Energy Resources
As it mentioned above there are institutions that are in charge of all such measures as the
National Meteorological Institute, the National Water Commission, the Institute of Electrical
Research (IIE) and the National Renewable Energy Laboratories (NREL) in the If USA
(Contaxis and Vlachos 2000).
4.2.1 Solar Resource
Photovoltaic solar generators depend basically radiation to generate electricity instead. Solar
radiation is usable in its two components (Contaxis and Vlachos 2000):
• Direct radiation. It comes directly from the solar focus, without intermediate reflections or
refractions.
• diffuse radiation. It has been modified for various reasons, for example by atmospheric
density, clouds or particles or objects with colliding.
• Radiation albedo. From the ground due to the reflection of part of the radiation incident on
mountains, lakes, buildings, etc. It depends very directly on the nature of these elements. This
is obtained from the ratio of reflected radiation incident on a surface.
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The sum of these three components results in global radiation.
Harnessing the sun's energy is determined by the intensity of radiation received at the earth,
the larger, more energy can be used. The power of radiation varies according to the latitude of
the location, time of day, weather and climatic conditions (e.g. clouds) and altitude. The
metric unit used for power is Watt per square meter (W / m2). To express the amount of
energy received kilowatt hours per square meter per day (kWh / m2 d) is used; that is the
amount of energy (measured in kilowatt-hours) reaching the area of one square meter in a
single day. The definitions of irradiation and insolation terms that are used to measure
radiation and energy are given (Taylor and Halnes, 2010).
4.2.2. Irradiation:
Irradiation is the value of the light power (energy / unit time) receiving an area of 1m2 at a
given time. When the air mass is 1.5 power of the solar radiation is 1 kW / m2 (clear sky).
P a g e | 35
The PV array receives more irradiance when oriented directly towards the sun and there are
no obstacles that make shadow as clouds and trees, or contamination (Taylor and Halnes,
2010).
4.2.3. Heatstroke:
The amount of (direct and diffuse) solar energy received during the day length at a given
point on the planet, on a flat collecting surface of 1m2, called heat stroke. Different units are
used to express the value of insolation of a place. The most convenient for our application is
the kilowatt hours per square meter (kWh / m2) (Taylor and Halnes, 2010).
4.3. Wind resource
Wind power is a renewable resource and in Ireland has great potential for development, as it
has significant wind areas as seen in figure 5 (Liang, et al. 2009).
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Figure 5: Windspeed in Ireland
Wind speed varies with height, the greater the installation height of a turbine on the ground,
the better the wind regime will find; this benefits large wind turbines that are installed in
higher towers. The wind speeds that make them attractive projects are the order of 6.5 m / s
(Liang, et al. 2009).
To develop a wind project is necessary to have a frequency histogram wind speed ranges as
the one shown in Figure 6.
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Figure 6: Frequency histogram wind speed ranges. Annual average
Such histograms used to know what the wind speeds and thus more power occurrence
suitably selected wind turbine to operate with good efficiency.
We must also consider that just as there are seasonal variations in solar radiation, there are
also variations in energy that can be produced with wind varies monthly and is always
necessary to bear in mind the sizing condition worst month or season . In such diagram it is
shown in Figure 6 (Gallachoir et all, 2004).
Figure 6. Monthly variation of wind energy.
The choice of type of generator depends on the wind characteristics. It is very important to
determine if wind speed is constant instead substantially constant or variable because it
P a g e | 38
depends a lot on the type of wind turbine used. Should also take into account the wind
direction, it is determined by means of an anemometer which can also help to address the
wind turbine. It requires checking that the ground conditions are adequate. The maintenance
of the wind turbines is basically the periodic review of their components because some
elements suffer more wear over time such as blades and gearbox basically box. It is estimated
that the cost of maintenance is about 1.5-2% of the initial investment per year.
The equations governing wind generation are (Papaefthimiou, et al., 2009):
Wind power: PV = KV 3 V Watts / m2
The power generated: P = APV
Where:
PV = power density in watts / m2
VV = speed wind turbine shaft
k = constant = 0.6386
P = total power wind turbine watts
A = area of the blades or vanes mill
The starting point for any project with wind should be a windy place, but must take into
account other factors. At very high speeds, the output of the turbine is limited. Wind speed
varies with height, the greater the installation height of a turbine on the ground, the better the
wind regime will find; this benefits large wind turbines that are installed in higher towers.
The wind speeds that make them attractive projects are the order of 6.5 m / s. The location of
the turbines depends on several factors including: the design of the turbines, the local terrain
P a g e | 39
and wind conditions (Lumb and Hawkins, 1998). Figure 7 shows an approximate how to
locate wind turbines.
Figure 7 Location of wind turbines.
Modern wind turbines incorporate forms of control for maximum performance at all wind
speeds. That is, if the wind is very strong can control the blades to create resistance and do
not rotate as fast through regulation by controlling the pitch angle ("pitch controlled")
spinning rotor blades, or vice versa. There is also the control of wind turbines stall regulation
("stall controlled") in which the blade profile has been aerodynamically designed to ensure
that, at the time when the wind speed is too high, turbulence is created in the part of the blade
that not facing the wind and thus the rotational speed is reduced (Bogenrieder, NA).
You have to make measurements over several years to determine the sunshine and the
average temperature of a place. Heatstroke in a region varies seasonally, i.e. in summer
insolation is generally higher in winter is lower, also varies depending on the time of day, the
evening is null and at dawn to dusk or on cloudy days is low. Of calculations to select the PV
panels is necessary to know the average daily insolation preferably in each month of the year,
provided the data for the month or season are taken with less sunshine and thus to properly
size panels for the condition worst and properly size the battery bank. The average daily
P a g e | 40
insolation commonly expressed in solar peak (HSP). Rush hour is a solar energy received for
one hour at an irradiance average of 1 kW / m2. That is, 1 kW-h / m2 equals 1HSP (Rogers,
2008).
The nameplate of commercial solar panels always is given for a reference 1000 W / m2.
Temperature is a factor limiting the production of energy through photovoltaic panels. You
can use a solar tracker can increase annual generation by up to 40%, with the disadvantage of
the additional cost involved. There are two types of fans sun (Rogers, 2008):
• Single-axis trackers, which track the sun from east to west during the day.
• Followers of two axes, which track the sun from east to west during the day and from north
to south during the seasons.
Regulator: It is the device that prevents overloading the battery suffers when it has a full
charge and the panels continue generating electricity. Load control also plays a passive role,
isolating the bank accumulation generation block, avoiding download (ESB National Grid,
2004).
Investor: It is the device that converts power from DC to AC panels. However, there are
devices for sale ready to work with DC and 12 V with what could be dispensed with this
component.
P a g e | 41
Figure 2. Scheme of an isolated system.
Once you have determined the level of radiation or wind conditions of the place, you must
identify the number and size of the loads that will supply energy to obtain the daily average
watts / hour consumed to determine how many modules or wind generators and batteries are
needed for the system. The dimensioning is conditioned by two factors of paramount
importance, such as: the cost of equipment and the need to ensure a constant supply even in
the worst conditions (winter months and cloudy days) and are not available from another
source power (Eirgrid, 2010).
When excess energy is generated in isolated systems is needed as resistors or heating devices
where they can dump the excess power. It is considered off some panels in the case of
photovoltaic in the months of highest insolation.
In isolated systems may also be configurations that yield greater system reliability by
installing various types of power generators such as a plot with a combined wind and in the
hours when there is no sun there may be wind to generate electricity. They can also be
P a g e | 42
incorporated diesel plants that allow a backup whenever needed (Garrad Hassan for CER,
2004).
4.2.4 Configuring Networked Systems
Are distributed generation systems from renewable sources and areas with electrified grid.
You can see two types of applications (Contaxis and Vlachos 2000):
• Solar or wind production aimed at self-supply network support in times when you lack
energy or to inject surplus power.
• Injection network of all production of the PV system as a normal consumption of the
network becomes. This option is definitely the most interesting financially when there are
laws that favour the production of electricity from renewable sources.
Connected to the grid systems are among the applications that are getting more attention in
recent years, given its high potential for use in next to the mains urbanized areas.
The fundamental difference between an autonomous system and the network is connected to
the absence in the latter case, storage subsystem, consisting of battery and load regulation. In
addition, the investor in grid connected systems must be in phase with the line voltage and to
incorporate energy in CA network from an investor you must first harmonic filter, and only
then the filtered power is fed into the grid lines (Hu, 2009).
One of the favourable factors of networked systems is the possibility of improving the service
quality of the power supplied by the network. Network to interconnect components to be used
in a wind or solar system are:
• Photovoltaic solar panels or wind generator
• Investor
P a g e | 43
• Accountant
Accountant: Element which represents the amount of electricity injected into the network
and must be an independent accountant that records consumption that makes the network or
in the case using a bidirectional meter that measures the difference between what is
consumed network and what is delivered. In Figure 3 a schematic of a system directly
connected to the network is shown.
Figure 3. Diagram of a system connected to the network.
In Figure 4 the outline of a networked photovoltaic system is shown.
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Figure 4. Outline of a networked system with auto supply.
In grid-connected systems, in CA It can be supplied by the panels when there is generation or
the network when outage. Panels can also deliver power to the grid when surpluses.
4.3.3 Type Of Energy Storage
The temporal variability of renewable energy sources is essential to use storage systems that
allow energy available continuously. These systems can assist in monitoring the demand
generation, avoiding thermal units start in a few emergencies, covering irregularities supply
planning and optimizing generation systems. It is also possible to reduce peak demand and
optimize displacing consumption at times when the price is less.
Batteries for photovoltaic use must meet the following requirements (Eirgrid, 2009):
• Low self-discharge value.
• Long life.
• Maintenance almost zero.
• High number of charge-discharge cycles.
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• Adequate storage capacity.
Of all accumulators more than 90% of the market is the lead acid batteries, in general, and
provided that maintenance can be performed, they are the best suited to photovoltaic
generation systems. In the lead-acid are the lead-calcium (Pb-Ca) and lead-antimony (Pb-Sb).
The former have in their favour a lower self-discharge and a low maintenance, while Pb-Sb
tubular open and deteriorate least succession of cycles and have better properties for low load
levels. This second type of battery supports large downloads and always has, taking into
account the conditions of use, an average life of ten to fifteen years. In Table 3.1 some types
of energy storage technologies are compared (Eirgrid 2010).
Table 1. Types of technology for energy storage.
Technology Maturity Energy
density
Life (cycles) Cost / kWh Cost / kW
Pumping ***** ***** ***** ****** *
Steering
wheel
** ** ***** **** ***
Compressed
air
*** * **** ******* *
Lead acid
battery
***** * ** *** ***
Nickel
Battery -
***** ** ** *** ***
P a g e | 46
cadmium
Battery
Sodium -
Sulphur
** *** *** *** **
SMES ** ***** ***** * ****
Ultra
Capacity
* ***** ***** *** ****
Power: Storage systems for superconducting magnetic energy (SMES) store energy in the
form of magnetic field created by the flow of direct current in a superconducting coil is
cooled to a temperature below its critical temperature of superconductivity (Ruimin and Jin
2010).
For their implementation at the commercial level also have some importance nickel-cadmium
batteries, which among other advantages over lead acid have the potential to be used without
regulatory element, the possibility of staying a long time with low state of charge, the
stability in the supply voltage and a much maintenance over time spacing. However, its cost
is four times its low capacity and slow discharge rate, so not recommended for use in much of
photovoltaic applications. These batteries can be in the form known as free or no
maintenance, which benefits for some applications. However, they have a very limited
duration over open accumulators not exist in the market accumulator’s maintenance free high
capacity and are more expensive than open (Billinton and Yi, 2008).
The remaining batteries currently no features that recommend their use in photovoltaic
systems.
Regarding the following aspects batteries should be considered:
P a g e | 47
• Install the batteries in ventilated areas and above ground level.
• Adjust the electrolyte level to the height recommended by the manufacturer, always
using distilled water, never tap water, taking special care not to touch or spill.
• After connecting the battery terminals should be covered with Vaseline.
• Not to be used together different types of batteries when they are not ready.
The batteries are connected in series arrangements - parallel to achieve the conditions of
voltage and current required by the load or by the investor. The main component to check on
a grid system is the batteries. You should check the electrolyte level periodically and clean
the terminals (Carr, 2005).
4.4 Selecting the Type of Generator
To determine the generation capacity that has a site, you need to have maps wind or
insolation level the place. To select a type of wind generator you have to see the features of
place wind to see what average wind speeds and see if wind speeds are constant or variable.
To install photovoltaic solar generation is only necessary to have the parameters described
above level of insolation and temperature Seasonal place basically to carry out an analysis
and see how convenient it is to install photovoltaic panels and how costly it would be
(Bresesti, et al. 2004).
4.4.1 Wind Generators
There are several types of wind turbines according to the technology they use (Phoon Hee
Yau, 2006):
• Direct current (D.C.)
• Alternating current (AC): synchronous or asynchronous.
P a g e | 48
The choice of the generator will depend on the wind characteristics of the place, the wind, the
characteristics of the wind turbine and voltage regulation, we must also take into account the
size and type of load that is to feed and whether it is an isolated or interconnected to the
network system. For maximum utilization wind speeds as follows are classified:
Constant speed (slip <2%). In constant speed configurations used the configuration is the
induction generator squirrel cage connected directly to the mains, the main advantage of this
configuration is its simplicity considering the aerodynamic effect on the turbine when two
poles are used in the generator. The generator connection to the network is done by means of
an electronic starter battery it requires capacitors required for reactive power compensation
demanded by the turbine (Phoon Hee Yau, 2006).
Substantially constant speed (slip <10%). The speed can constitute a problem as regards the
mechanical stresses that can arise when sudden variations in wind (bursts) are presented. One
option to solve this problem is the use of asynchronous generator rotor winding with external
resistors on the rotor so as to allow a wider variation in slip (up 10%) (Milligan, 2001).
Variable speed. The drawbacks that may have the above options to the speed control can be
theoretically solved with an arrangement of variable speed though this control scheme is
more complex way than in the market for this solution you can find two options (Karki, et al.,
2006):
• The double-fed asynchronous generators.
• Synchronous generators connected to the network via a direct current link.
In both cases like speed variations are obtained.
Slippage is defined as:
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where nsyn and ngen are synchronous speed and the generator speed in rpm respectively.
4.4.2 Solar generators
The main factors influencing the electrical design of the solar array are as follows
(Papaefthimiou, et al., 2009):
1. Solar intensity.
2. The angle of the sun.
3. The appropriate load for maximum power.
4. The operating temperature. The higher the temperature, the lower the efficiency of
photovoltaic panels.
4.4.3. Solar intensity
The current decreases drastically and not so much voltage. Solar intensity is affected by
pollution, cloudy days, obstacles, also varies seasonally (Caralis and Zervos, 2010).
In a partly cloudy day, the PV module can produce up to 80% power in full sun. It can
produce about 30% of its power even with dense clouds in a day extremely out of prognosis.
In places where it snows, snow usually not collected in the module, as it is inclined to catch
the sun. Mechanically, the module is designed to withstand hailstones the size of a golf ball
(Karki, et al., 2010).
45 Other Considerations
Renewable energy is not a resource base and cannot meet a lot of energy demand due to the
intermittency of renewable resources such as wind and sun.
P a g e | 50
Electricity currently cannot be stored on a commercial scale. Without proper storage of wind
energy, GD units must be supported by sources that generate energy from conventional
sources. For example units of natural gas, a fuel source with extreme volatility in its price.
Thus, the power of distributed generators is a resource inherently less valuable than fuel
sources that do not require support (Wangdee, et al. 2010).
That is why there are hidden costs that are attributed to (McGrane, 2010):
1. The need for backup generation to cover the times when the wind does not blow or no sun.
2. The need to stabilize the grid when renewable generators generate energy that is not
needed by the current demand.
3. Government subsidies and tax benefits for renewable energy industries.
On the other hand there is the impact on the environment. Saying that wind and solar energy
are free of contaminants or 100% clean leaves out:
• Production of concrete and steel that make turbines
• The production of solar panels requires a lot of energy.
• Keeping operating traditional sources of energy to support the turbines.
Besides wind and solar energy they require large amounts of land. This disturbs the habitat of
animals and reduces the amount of land suitable for farming, as well as previously said wind
turbines can cause death of migratory birds, dry land area where installed, create pest and
cause damages to the landscape besides the noise that may cause the turbines. In the case of
solar energy requires large surfaces to be installed and this causes the land where it is located
is not usable for any other purpose (Taylor and Halnes, 2010).
P a g e | 51
A wind turbine in open and flat terrain generally requires about 16 hectares per megawatt of
installed capacity. But as little as 1% of that area is needed for turbines and access roads,
meaning so much as 99% remain free for other uses such as ranching or earned. With
distributed generation also it helps eliminate deforestation that causes build new transmission
lines and environmental benefits that arise when moving polluting technologies (Gallachoir et
all, 2004).
Looking at these results it is found that many member states have a high absolute increase for
a given type of renewable energy, but few states possessing adequate to continue increasing
in the future, the contribution from renewable energy mix to global energy supply. It also
checks that member states in 1993 and had a high level in the use of renewable show a slower
rate of growth than others, but are still able to increase, significantly, the contribution of
renewable energy in its energy supply system; for example, in Finland the power of biomass
was already high in 1993, but continued to expand regularly and moderate growth, reaching
the end of the period 2697 GWh more than it did in 1993, assuming an increase of 47% over
1993 (Rogers, 2008).
P a g e | 52
Chapter Five: Conclusion
To consider the introduction of renewable energies in any country has successfully developed
enough, I will focus mainly on two premises or objectives:
1. An absolute increase in the use of any type of renewable energy of 10% over the average
of other Member States during the period 1993 and 1999. The 10% threshold is chosen to
identify those member states that have contributed a more noticeable the development and
implementation of a technology to exploit some form of renewable energy.
2. An increase in the overall contribution of renewable energy that exceeds the average
increase occurred in all EU countries and during the 1993-1999 periods. Thus combinations
of technologies that are already well established, they have sufficient market and therefore
have prospects for expansion are identified.
Applying these criteria is obtained solar PV is experiencing progress in its development in
Germany and Spain. These two countries represent 78% of the photovoltaic power generation
in the EU; solar thermal energy in Germany, Austria and Greece and represents 80% of the
generation of this type of energy in the EU; wind energy in Germany, Denmark and Spain,
also representing 80% of total wind power generation in Europe; biomass energy increases in
Finland, Sweden and Austria, developing projects for the promotion of biomass as fuel for
power plants or district heating from heat generated in the combustion of the same and,
finally, in the development and biofuels research including France and Austria, with only 4
member states who use biofuels in a meaningful way: Germany, Austria, Italy and France,
the latter being the undisputed market leader with a production that represents 40% of the
European total .
P a g e | 53
Overall, Germany is the EU country that has experienced better outcomes in the two above
criteria, therefore, is one of the role models regarding the development and implementation of
renewable energies. As regards technological combinations that generate higher rates of
increase in the power supplied by renewable noteworthy is EU (combination of solar
photovoltaic and wind) and Austria (combination of solar thermal and biomass for district
heating).
The Information Office of Renewable Energy (REIO) Irish Energy Centre aims to promote
the use of renewable resources and provide independent advice and information on financial,
social, environmental and technical issues relating to the development of renewable energy.
The REIO has also played a key role in identifying and targeting such issues as energy
planning and finance, crucial elements for a successful deployment of renewable energy
technologies. Other tasks of this office are to disseminate the results of successful
applications and help farmers to evaluate new technologies and deployment strategies.
P a g e | 54
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