Psychology 1

PsychologyPsychology is the science and art[1] [2] [3] of explaining and changing human and non-human animal mentalprocesses and behaviors.[4] Its immediate goal is to understand humanity by both discovering general principles andexploring specific cases,[5] [6] and its ultimate aim is to benefit society.[7] In this field, a professional practitioner orresearcher is called a psychologist, and is classified as a social or behavioral scientist. Psychologists attempt tounderstand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior, while also exploring the physiological andneurological processes that underlie certain functions and behaviors.Psychologists explore such concepts as perception, cognition, attention, emotion, motivation, brain functioning,personality, behavior, and interpersonal relationships. Some, especially depth psychologists, also consider theunconscious mind.a Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships betweenpsychosocial variables. In addition, or in opposition, to employing empirical and deductive methods,some—especially clinical and counseling psychologists—at times rely upon symbolic interpretation and otherinductive techniques. Psychology incorporates research from the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities.While psychological knowledge is typically applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health problems, it isalso applied to understanding and solving problems in many different spheres of human activity. Although the vastmajority of psychologists are involved in clinical, counseling, and school positions, some are employed in industrialand organizational settings, and in other areas[8] such as human development and aging, sports, health, the media,law, and forensics.

EtymologyThe word psychology literally means, "study of the soul" (psychē, meaning "breath", "spirit", or "soul"); and"-λογία" (-logia, translated as "study of").[9] The Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanistand Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early16th century.[10] The earliest known reference to the word psychology in English was by Steven Blankaart in 1693 inThe Physical Dictionary which refers to "Anatomy, which treats of the Body, and Psychology, which treats of theSoul."[11]

History

Wilhelm Wundt (seated) with colleagues in his psychologicallaboratory, the first of its kind. Wundt is credited with setting up

psychology as a field of scientific inquiry independent of thedisciplines philosophy and biology.

The study of psychology in philosophical context datesback to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece,China, India, and Persia. Historians point to thewritings of ancient Greek philosophers, such as Thales,Plato, and Aristotle (especially in his De Animatreatise),[12] as the first significant work in the West tobe rich in psychology-related thought.[13]

German physician Wilhelm Wundt is credited withintroducing psychological discovery into a laboratorysetting. Known as the "father of experimentalpsychology",[14] he founded the first psychologicallaboratory, at Leipzig University, in 1879.[14] Wundtfocused on breaking down mental processes into themost basic components, starting a school of psychology

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that is called structuralism. Edward Titchener was another major structuralist thinker.Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of the structuralist school of thought and was heavily influencedby the work of the American philosopher and psychologist William James. James felt that psychology should havepractical value, and that psychologists should find out how the mind can function to a person's benefit. In his book,Principles of Psychology,[15] published in 1890, he laid the foundations for many of the questions that psychologistswould explore for years to come. Other major functionalist thinkers included John Dewey and Harvey Carr.Other 19th-century contributors to the field include the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, a pioneer in theexperimental study of memory, who developed quantitative models of learning and forgetting[16] at the University ofBerlin; and the Russian-Soviet physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who discovered in dogs a learning process that was latertermed "classical conditioning" and applied to human beings.[17]

Starting in the 1950s, the experimental techniques set forth by Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and others would bereiterated as experimental psychology became increasingly cognitive—concerned with information and itsprocessing—and, eventually, constituted a part of the wider cognitive science.[18] In its early years, this developmenthad been seen as a "revolution",[18] as it both responded to and reacted against strains of thought—includingpsychodynamics and behaviorism—that had developed in the meantime.

PsychoanalysisFrom the 1890s until his death in 1939, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis, a methodof investigation of the mind and the way one thinks; a systematized set of theories about human behavior; and a formof psychotherapy to treat psychological or emotional distress, especially unconscious conflict.[19] Freud'spsychoanalytic theory was largely based on interpretive methods, introspection and clinical observations. It becamevery well-known, largely because it tackled subjects such as sexuality, repression, and the unconscious mind asgeneral aspects of psychological development. These were largely considered taboo subjects at the time, and Freudprovided a catalyst for them to be openly discussed in polite society. Clinically, Freud helped to pioneer the methodof free association and a therapeutic interest in dream interpretation.[20] [21]

Group photo 1909 in front of Clark University.Front row: Sigmund Freud, G. Stanley Hall, CarlJung; back row: Abraham A. Brill, Ernest Jones,

Sándor Ferenczi.

Freud had a significant influence on Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung,whose analytical psychology became an alternative form of depthpsychology. Other well-known psychoanalytic thinkers of the mid-20thcentury included German-American psychologist Erik Erickson,Austrian-British psychoanalyst Melanie Klein, English psychoanalystand physician D. W. Winnicott, German psychologist Karen Horney,German-born psychologist and philosopher Erich Fromm, Englishpsychiatrist John Bowlby and Sigmund Freud's daughter,psychoanalyst Anna Freud. Throughout the 20th century,psychoanalysis evolved into diverse schools of thought, most of whichmay be classed as Neo-Freudian.c

Psychoanalytic theory and therapy were criticized by psychologists andphilosophers such as B. F. Skinner, Hans Eysenck, and Karl Popper. Skinner and other behaviorists believed thatpsychology should be more empirical and efficient than psychoanalysis—although they frequently agreed with Freudin ways that became overlooked as time passed.[22] Popper, a philosopher of science, argued that Freud's, as well asAlfred Adler's, psychoanalytic theories included enough ad hoc safeguards against empirical contradiction to keepthe theories outside the realm of scientific inquiry.[23] By contrast, Eysenck maintained that although Freudian ideascould be subjected to experimental science, they had not withstood experimental tests. By the 21st century,psychology departments in American universities had become experimentally oriented, marginalizing Freudian

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theory and regarding it as a "desiccated and dead" historical artifact.[24] Meanwhile, however, researchers in theemerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis defended some of Freud's ideas on scientific grounds,d while scholars of thehumanities maintained that Freud was not a "scientist at all, but ... an interpreter."[24]

Behaviorism

Skinner's teaching machine, a mechanicalinvention to automate the task of programmed

instruction

Behaviorism became the dominant school of thought during the 1950s.American behaviorism was founded in the early 20th century by JohnB. Watson, and embraced and extended by Edward Thorndike, ClarkL. Hull, Edward C. Tolman, and later B. F. Skinner. Theories oflearning emphasized the ways in which people might be predisposed,or conditioned, by their environments to behave in certain ways.

Classical conditioning was an early behaviorist model. It posited thatbehavioral tendencies are determined by immediate associationsbetween various environmental stimuli and the degree of pleasure orpain that follows. Behavioral patterns, then, were understood to consistof organisms' conditioned responses to the stimuli in theirenvironment. The stimuli were held to exert influence in proportion to their prior repetition or to the previousintensity of their associated pain or pleasure. Much research consisted of laboratory-based animal experimentation,which was increasing in popularity as physiology grew more sophisticated.

Skinner's behaviorism shared with its predecessors a philosophical inclination toward positivism anddeterminism.[22] He believed that the contents of the mind were not open to scientific scrutiny and that scientificpsychology should emphasize the study of observable behavior. He focused on behavior–environment relations andanalyzed overt and covert (i.e., private) behavior as a function of the organism interacting with its environment.[25]

Behaviorists usually rejected or deemphasized dualistic explanations such as "mind" or "consciousness"; and, in lieuof probing an "unconscious mind" that underlies unawareness, they spoke of the "contingency-shaped behaviors" inwhich unawareness becomes outwardly manifest.[22]

Among the American behaviorists' most famous creations are John B. Watson's Little Albert experiment, whichapplied classical conditioning to the developing human child, and Skinner's notion of operant conditioning, whichacknowledged that human agency could affect patterns and cycles of environmental stimuli and behavioralresponses. American linguist Noam Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is widelyregarded as a key factor in the decline of behaviorism's prominence.[26] But Skinner's behaviorism has not died,perhaps in part because it has generated successful practical applications.[26] The fall of behaviorism as anoverarching model in psychology, however, gave way to a new dominant paradigm: cognitive approaches.[27]

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Humanism

Psychologist Abraham Maslow in 1943 posited that humans have ahierarchy of needs, and it makes sense to fulfill the basic needs first

(food, water etc.) before higher-order needs can be met.[28]

Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s inreaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Byusing phenomenology, intersubjectivity andfirst-person categories, the humanistic approach soughtto glimpse the whole person—not just the fragmentedparts of the personality or cognitive functioning.[29]

Humanism focused on fundamentally and uniquelyhuman issues, such as individual free will, personalgrowth, self-actualization, self-identity, death,aloneness, freedom, and meaning. The humanisticapproach was distinguished by its emphasis onsubjective meaning, rejection of determinism, andconcern for positive growth rather than pathology.Some of the founders of the humanistic school ofthought were American psychologists AbrahamMaslow, who formulated a hierarchy of human needs,and Carl Rogers, who created and developed client-centered therapy. Later, positive psychology opened uphumanistic themes to scientific modes of exploration.

GestaltWolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka co-founded the school of Gestalt psychology. This approach isbased upon the idea that individuals experience things as unified wholes. This approach to psychology began inGermany and Austria during the late 19th century in response to the molecular approach of structuralism. Ratherthan breaking down thoughts and behavior to their smallest element, the Gestalt position maintains that the whole ofexperience is important, and the whole is different than the sum of its parts.Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the Gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only peripherally linkedto Gestalt psychology.

ExistentialismInfluenced largely by the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger and Danish philosopher SørenKierkegaard, psychoanalytically trained American psychologist Rollo May pioneered an existential breed ofpsychology, which included existential therapy, in the 1950s and 1960s. Existential psychologists differed fromothers often classified as humanistic in their comparatively neutral view of human nature and in their relativelypositive assessment of anxiety.[30] Existential psychologists emphasized the humanistic themes of death, free will,and meaning, suggesting that meaning can be shaped by myths, or narrative patterns,[31] and that it can beencouraged by an acceptance of the free will requisite to an authentic, albeit often anxious, regard for death and otherfuture prospects. Austrian existential psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor Viktor Frankl drew evidence of meaning'stherapeutic power from reflections garnered from his own internment,[32] and he created a variety of existentialpsychotherapy called logotherapy. In addition to May and Frankl, Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger andAmerican psychologist George Kelly may be said to belong to the existential school.[33]

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Cognitivism

Baddeley's model of working memory

Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology thatstudies mental processes including how people think,perceive, remember, and learn. As part of the largerfield of cognitive science, this branch of psychology isrelated to other disciplines including neuroscience,philosophy, and linguistics.Noam Chomsky helped to ignite a "cognitiverevolution" in psychology when he criticized thebehaviorists' notions of "stimulus", "response", and"reinforcement", arguing that such ideas—whichSkinner had borrowed from animal experiments in thelaboratory—could be applied to complex humanbehavior, most notably language acquisition, in only avague and superficial manner. The postulation that humans are born with the instinct or "innate facility" foracquiring language posed a challenge to the behaviorist position that all behavior (including language) is contingentupon learning and reinforcement.[34] Social learning theorists such as Albert Bandura argued that the child'senvironment could make contributions of its own to the behaviors of an observant subject.[35]

The Müller-Lyer illusion. Psychologists makeinferences about mental processes from shared

phenomena such as optical illusions.

Meanwhile, accumulating technology helped to renew interest andbelief in the mental states and representations—i.e., thecognition—that had fallen out of favor with behaviorists. Englishneuroscientist Charles Sherrington and Canadian psychologistDonald O. Hebb used experimental methods to link psychologicalphenomena with the structure and function of the brain. With therise of computer science and artificial intelligence, analogies weredrawn between the processing of information by humans andinformation processing by machines. Research in cognition hadproven practical since World War II, when it aided in theunderstanding of weapons operation.[36] By the late 20th century,though, cognitivism had become the dominant paradigm ofmainstream psychology, and cognitive psychology emerged as apopular branch.

Assuming both that the covert mind should be studied and that thescientific method should be used to study it, cognitivepsychologists set such concepts as "subliminal processing" and

"implicit memory" in place of the psychoanalytic "unconscious mind" or the behavioristic "contingency-shapedbehaviors". Elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology were synthesized to form the basis of cognitivebehavioral therapy, a form of psychotherapy modified from techniques developed by American psychologist AlbertEllis and American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck. Cognitive psychology was subsumed along with other disciplines,such as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience, under the umbrella discipline of cognitive science.

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Biopsychosocial modelThe biopsychosocial model is an integrated perspective toward understanding consciousness, behavior, and socialinteraction. It assumes that any given behavior or mental process affects and is affected by dynamically interrelatedbiological, psychological, and social factors.[37] The psychological aspect refers to the role that cognition andemotions play in any given psychological phenomenon—for example, the effect of mood or beliefs and expectationson an individual's reactions to an event. The biological aspect refers to the role of biological factors in psychologicalphenomena—for example, the effect of the prenatal environment on brain development and cognitive abilities, or theinfluence of genes on individual dispositions. The socio-cultural aspect refers to the role that social and culturalenvironments play in a given psychological phenomenon—for example, the role of parental or peer influence in thebehaviors or characteristics of an individual.

SubfieldsPsychology encompasses a vast domain, and includes many different approaches to the study of mental processesand behavior.

Biological

MRI depicting the human brain. Thearrow indicates the position of the

hypothalamus.

Biological psychology and a number of related fields study the biologicalsubstrates of behavior and mental states. Behavioral neuroscience uses animalmodels (typically rats) to study the neural, genetic, cellular mechanisms ofhuman behavior and cognition, cognitive neuroscientists investigate theneural correlates of psychological processes in humans using neural imagingtools, and neuropsychologists conduct psychological assessments todetermine, for instance, specific aspects and extent of cognitive deficit causedby brain damage or disease.

Clinical

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Clinical psychologists work with individuals, children, families,couples, or small groups.

Clinical psychology includes the study and applicationof psychology for the purpose of understanding,preventing, and relieving psychologically based distressor dysfunction and to promote subjective well-beingand personal development. Central to its practice arepsychological assessment and psychotherapy, althoughclinical psychologists may also engage in research,teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and programdevelopment and administration.[38] Some clinicalpsychologists may focus on the clinical management ofpatients with brain injury—this area is known asclinical neuropsychology. In many countries, clinicalpsychology is a regulated mental health profession.

The work performed by clinical psychologists tends tobe influenced by various therapeutic approaches, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional andclient (usually an individual, couple, family, or small group). The various therapeutic approaches and practices areassociated with different theoretical perspectives and employ different procedures intended to form a therapeuticalliance, explore the nature of psychological problems, and encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving.Four major theoretical perspectives are psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral, existential-humanistic, and systems orfamily therapy. There has been a growing movement to integrate the various therapeutic approaches, especially withan increased understanding of issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual-orientation. With the adventof more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is evidence that most of the major therapies areabout of equal effectiveness, with the key common element being a strong therapeutic alliance.[39] [40] Because ofthis, more training programs and psychologists are now adopting an eclectic therapeutic orientation.[41] [42] [43] [44]

[45]

Cognitive

Green Red BluePurple Blue Purple

Blue Purple RedGreen Purple Green

The Stroop effect refers to the fact that naming the color of the first set of words is easier and quicker than thesecond.Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying mental activity. Perception, learning,problem solving, reasoning, thinking, memory, attention, language and emotion are areas of research. Classicalcognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as cognitivism, whose adherents argue for aninformation processing model of mental function, informed by functionalism and experimental psychology.On a broader level, cognitive science is an interdisciplinary enterprise of cognitive psychologists, cognitiveneuroscientists, researchers in artificial intelligence, linguists, human–computer interaction, computationalneuroscience, logicians and social scientists. Computational models are sometimes used to simulate phenomena ofinterest. Computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization of the mind whereasneuroscience provides measures of brain activity.

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Comparative

The common chimpanzee can use tools. This chimpanzee is using astick in order to get food.

Comparative psychology refers to the study of thebehavior and mental life of animals other than humanbeings. It is related to disciplines outside of psychologythat study animal behavior such as ethology. Althoughthe field of psychology is primarily concerned withhumans the behavior and mental processes of animalsis also an important part of psychological research.This being either as a subject in its own right (e.g.,animal cognition and ethology) or with strong emphasisabout evolutionary links, and somewhat morecontroversially, as a way of gaining an insight intohuman psychology. This is achieved by means ofcomparison or via animal models of emotional andbehavior systems as seen in neuroscience ofpsychology (e.g., affective neuroscience and socialneuroscience).

Developmental

A baby with a book.

Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through thelife span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how peoplecome to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how theseprocesses change as they age. This may focus on intellectual,cognitive, neural, social, or moral development. Researchers who studychildren use a number of unique research methods to makeobservations in natural settings or to engage them in experimentaltasks. Such tasks often resemble specially designed games andactivities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful,and researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mentalprocesses of small infants. In addition to studying children,developmental psychologists also study aging and processes throughout the life span, especially at other times ofrapid change (such as adolescence and old age). Developmental psychologists draw on the full range ofpsychological theories to inform their research.

Educational and school

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An example of an item from a cognitive abilities test used ineducational psychology.

Educational psychology is the study of how humanslearn in educational settings, the effectiveness ofeducational interventions, the psychology of teaching,and the social psychology of schools as organizations.The work of child psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky,Jean Piaget, Bernard Luskin and Jerome Bruner hasbeen influential in creating teaching methods andeducational practices. Educational psychology is oftenincluded in teacher education programs, in places suchas North America, Australia, and New Zealand.

School psychology combines principles fromeducational psychology and clinical psychology to understand and treat students with learning disabilities; to fosterthe intellectual growth of "gifted" students; to facilitate prosocial behaviors in adolescents; and otherwise to promotesafe, supportive, and effective learning environments. School psychologists are trained in educational and behavioralassessment, intervention, prevention, and consultation, and many have extensive training in research.[46]

Industrial-Organizational

Industrial and organizational psychology (I-O) applies psychological concepts and methods to optimize humanpotential in the workplace. Personnel psychology, a subfield of I-O psychology, applies the methods and principlesof psychology in selecting and evaluating workers. I-O psychology's other subfield, organizational psychology,examines the effects of work environments and management styles on worker motivation, job satisfaction, andproductivity.[47]

Personality

Personality psychology studies enduring patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion in individuals, commonlyreferred to as personality. Theories of personality vary across different psychological schools and orientations. Theycarry different assumptions about such issues as the role of the unconscious and the importance of childhoodexperience. According to Freud, personality is based on the dynamic interactions of the id, ego, and super-ego.[48]

Trait theorists, in contrast, attempt to analyze personality in terms of a discrete number of key traits by the statisticalmethod of factor analysis. The number of proposed traits has varied widely. An early model proposed by HansEysenck suggested that there are three traits that comprise human personality: extraversion-introversion,neuroticism, and psychoticism. Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of 16 personality factors. The "Big Five", or FiveFactor Model, proposed by Lewis Goldberg, currently has strong support among trait theorists.

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Social

Social psychology studies the nature and causes of social behavior.

Social psychology is the study of how humans thinkabout each other and how they relate to each other.Social psychologists study such topics as the influenceof others on an individual's behavior (e.g. conformity,persuasion), and the formation of beliefs, attitudes, andstereotypes about other people. Social cognition fuseselements of social and cognitive psychology in order tounderstand how people process, remember, and distortsocial information. The study of group dynamicsreveals information about the nature and potentialoptimization of leadership, communication, and otherphenomena that emerge at least at the microsociallevel. In recent years, many social psychologists havebecome increasingly interested in implicit measures,mediational models, and the interaction of both person and social variables in accounting for behavior.

Research methodsPsychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on knowledge from other fields to help explain and understandpsychological phenomena. Additionally, psychologists make extensive use of the three modes of inference that wereidentified by C. S. Peirce: deduction, induction, and abduction (hypothesis generation). While often employingdeductive-nomological reasoning, they also rely on inductive reasoning to generate explanations. For example,evolutionary psychologists attempt to explain psychological traits—such as memory, perception, or language—asadaptations, that is, as the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection.Psychologists may conduct basic research aiming for further understanding in a particular area of interest inpsychology, or conduct applied research to solve problems in the clinic, workplace or other areas. Masters levelclinical programs aim to train students in both research methods and evidence-based practice. Professionalassociations have established guidelines for ethics, training, research methodology and professional practice. Inaddition, depending on the country, state or region, psychological services and the title "psychologist" may begoverned by statute and psychologists who offer services to the public are usually required to be licensed.

Qualitative and quantitative researchResearch in most areas of psychology is conducted in accord with the standards of the scientific method.Psychological researchers seek the emergence of theoretically interesting categories and hypotheses from data, usingqualitative or quantitative methods (or both).Qualitative psychological research methods include interviews, first-hand observation, and participant observation.Qualitative researchers[49] sometimes aim to enrich interpretations or critiques of symbols, subjective experiences, orsocial structures. Similar hermeneutic and critical aims have also been served by "quantitative methods", as in ErichFromm's study of Nazi voting or Stanley Milgram's studies of obedience to authority.Quantitative psychological research lends itself to the statistical testing of hypotheses. Quantitatively orientedresearch designs include the experiment, quasi-experiment, cross-sectional study, case-control study, andlongitudinal study. The measurement and operationalization of important constructs is an essential part of theseresearch designs. Statistical methods include the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient, the analysis ofvariance, multiple linear regression, logistic regression, structural equation modeling, and hierarchical linearmodeling.

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Controlled experiments

Flowchart of four phases (enrollment, intervention allocation,follow-up, and data analysis) of a parallel randomized trial of twogroups, modified from the CONSORT (Consolidated Standards of

Reporting Trials) 2010 Statement[50]

Experimental psychological research is conducted in alaboratory under controlled conditions. This method ofresearch relies on the application of the scientificmethod to understand behavior. Experimenters useseveral types of measurements, including rate ofresponse, reaction time, and various psychometricmeasurements. Experiments are designed to testspecific hypotheses (deductive approach) or evaluatefunctional relationships (inductive approach). A trueexperiment with random allocation of subjects toconditions allows researchers to infer causalrelationships between different aspects of behavior andthe environment. In an experiment, one or morevariables of interest are controlled by the experimenter(independent variable) and another variable ismeasured in response to different conditions(dependent variable). Experiments are one of theprimary research methods in many areas of psychology,particularly cognitive/psychonomics, mathematicalpsychology, psychophysiology and biologicalpsychology/cognitive neuroscience.

Experiments on humans have been put under some controls, namely informed and voluntary consent. After WorldWar II, the Nuremberg Code was established, because of Nazi abuses of experimental subjects. Later, most countries(and scientific journals) adopted the Declaration of Helsinki. In the US, the National Institutes of Health establishedthe Institutional Review Board in 1966, and in 1974 adopted the National Research Act (HR 7724). All of thesemeasures encouraged researchers to obtain informed consent from human participants in experimental studies. Anumber of influential studies led to the establishment of this rule; such studies included the MIT and Fernald Schoolradioisotope studies, the Thalidomide tragedy, the Willowbrook hepatitis study, and Stanley Milgram's studies ofobedience to authority.

Survey questionnairesStatistical surveys are used in psychology for measuring attitudes and traits, monitoring changes in mood, checkingthe validity of experimental manipulations, and for a wide variety of other psychological topics. Most commonly,psychologists use paper-and-pencil surveys. However, surveys are also conducted over the phone or through e-mail.Increasingly, web-based surveys are being used in research. Similar methodology is also used in applied setting, suchas clinical assessment and personnel assessment.

Longitudinal studiesLongitudinal studies are often used in psychology to study developmental trends across the life span, and insociology to study life events throughout lifetimes or generations. The reason for this is that unlike cross-sectionalstudies, longitudinal studies track the same people, and therefore the differences observed in those people are lesslikely to be the result of cultural differences across generations. Because of this benefit, longitudinal studies makeobserving changes more accurate and they are applied in various other fields.

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Because most longitudinal studies are observational, in the sense that they observe the state of the world withoutmanipulating it, it has been argued that they may have less power to detect causal relationships than do experiments.They also suffer methodological limitations such as from selective attrition because people with similarcharacteristics maybe more likely to drop out of the study making it difficult to analyze.Some longitudinal studies are experiments, called repeated-measures experiments. Psychologists often use thecrossover design to reduce the influence of confounding covariates and to reduce the number of subjects.

Observation in natural settingsIn the same way Jane Goodall studied the role of chimpanzee social and family life, psychologists conduct similarobservational studies in human social, professional and family lives. Sometimes the participants are aware they arebeing observed and other times it is covert: the participants do not know they are being observed. Ethical guidelinesneed to be taken into consideration when covert observation is being carried out.

Qualitative and descriptive researchResearch designed to answer questions about the current state of affairs such as the thoughts, feelings and behaviorsof individuals is known as descriptive research. Descriptive research can be qualitative or quantitative in orientation.Qualitative research is descriptive research that is focused on observing and describing events as they occur, with thegoal of capturing all of the richness of everyday behavior and with the hope of discovering and understandingphenomena that might have been missed if only more cursory examinations have been made.

Neuropsychological methods

Phineas P. Gage survived an accident in which alarge iron rod was driven completely through hishead, destroying much of his brain's left frontal

lobe, and is remembered for that injury's reportedeffects on his personality and behavior.[51]

Neuropsychology seeks to connect aspects of behavior and mentalactivity with the structure and function of the brain. Cognitiveneuropsychology and cognitive neuropsychiatry study neurological ormental impairment in an attempt to infer theories of normal mind andbrain function. This typically involves looking for differences inpatterns of remaining ability (known as 'functional disassociations')which can give clues as to whether abilities are composed of smallerfunctions, or are controlled by a single cognitive mechanism.

In addition, experimental techniques are often used to study theneuropsychology of healthy individuals. These include behavioralexperiments, brain-scanning or functional neuroimaging, used toexamine the activity of the brain during task performance, andtechniques such as transcranial magnetic stimulation, which can safelyalter the function of small brain areas to reveal their importance inmental operations.

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Computational modeling

Artificial neural network with two layers,an interconnected group of nodes, akin tothe vast network of neurons in the human

brain.

Computational modeling[52] is a tool often used in mathematical psychologyand cognitive psychology to simulate a particular behavior using a computer.This method has several advantages. Since modern computers processextremely quickly, many simulations can be run in a short time, allowing fora great deal of statistical power. Modeling also allows psychologists tovisualize hypotheses about the functional organization of mental events thatcouldn't be directly observed in a human.

Several different types of modeling are used to study behavior.Connectionism uses neural networks to simulate the brain. Another method issymbolic modeling, which represents many different mental objects usingvariables and rules. Other types of modeling include dynamic systems and stochastic modeling.

Animal studies

A rat undergoing a Morris water navigation testused in behavioral neuroscience to study the role

of the hippocampus in spatial learning andmemory.

Animal learning experiments aid in investigating the biological basis ofteaching, memory and behavior. In the 1890s, Russian physiologistIvan Pavlov famously used dogs to demonstrate classical conditioning.Non-human primates, cats, dogs, rats and other rodents are often usedin psychological experiments. Ideally, controlled experimentsintroduce only one independent variable at a time, in order to ascertainits unique effects upon dependent variables. These conditions areapproximated best in laboratory settings. In contrast, humanenvironments and genetic backgrounds vary so widely, and dependupon so many factors, that it is difficult to control important variablesfor human subjects. Of course, there are pitfalls in generalizingfindings from animal studies to humans although animal models can behelpful in developing an understanding of human behavior (e.g.,addiction research).[53]

Criticism

Theory

Criticisms of psychology often come from perceptions that it is a "fuzzy" science. Philosopher Thomas Kuhn's 1962critique implied psychology overall was in a pre-paradigm state, lacking the agreement on overarching theory foundin mature sciences such as chemistry and physics. Psychologists and philosophers have addressed the issue invarious ways.e

Because some areas of psychology rely on research methods such as surveys and questionnaires, critics have assertedthat psychology is not an objective science. Other phenomena that psychologists are interested in, such aspersonality, thinking, and emotion, cannot be directly measured[54] and are often inferred from subjectiveself-reports, which may be problematic.[55] [56]

Misuses of hypothesis-testing occur in psychology, particularly by psychologists without doctoral training in experimental psychology and statistics. Research has documented that many psychologists confuse statistical significance with practical importance. Statistically significant but practically unimportant results are common with large samples.[57] Some psychologists have responded with an increased use of effect size statistics, rather than sole

Psychology 14

reliance on the Fisherian p < .05 significance criterion (whereby an observed difference is deemed "statisticallysignificant" if an effect of that size or larger would occur with 5% (or less) probability in independent replications,assuming the truth of the null-hypothesis of no difference between the treatments).Sometimes the debate comes from within psychology, for example between laboratory-oriented researchers andpractitioners such as clinicians. In recent years, and particularly in the U.S., there has been increasing debate aboutthe nature of therapeutic effectiveness and about the relevance of empirically examining psychotherapeuticstrategies.[58] One argument states that some therapies are based on discredited theories and are unsupported byempirical evidence. The other side points to recent research suggesting that all mainstream therapies are of aboutequal effectiveness, while also arguing that controlled studies often do not take into consideration real-worldconditions.

PracticeSome observers perceive a gap between scientific theory and its application—in particular, the application ofunsupported or unsound clinical practices. Critics say there has been an increase in the number of mental healthtraining programs that do not instill scientific competence.[59] One skeptic asserts that practices, such as "facilitatedcommunication for infantile autism"; memory-recovery techniques including body work; and other therapies, such asrebirthing and reparenting, may be dubious or even dangerous, despite their popularity.[60] In 1984, Allen Neuringerhad made a similar point regarding the experimental analysis of behavior.[61]

Ethics

The experimenter (E) orders the teacher (T), the subjectof the experiment, to give what the latter believes are

painful electric shocks to a learner (L), who is actuallyan actor and confederate. The subject believes that foreach wrong answer, the learner was receiving actualelectric shocks, though in reality there were no suchpunishments. Being separated from the subject, the

confederate set up a tape recorder integrated with theelectro-shock generator, which played pre-recorded

sounds for each shock level etc.[62]

Current ethical standards of psychology would not permit thefollowing studies to be conducted today. These human studieswould violate the Ethics Code of the American PsychologicalAssociation, the Canadian Code of Conduct for ResearchInvolving Humans, and the Belmont Report. Current ethicalguidelines state that using non-human animals for scientificpurposes is only acceptable when the harm (physical orpsychological) done to animals is outweighed by the benefits ofthe research.[63] Keeping this in mind, psychologists can use onanimals research techniques that would not necessarily beperformed on humans.

• The Milgram Experiment raised questions about the ethics ofscientific experimentation because of the extreme emotionalstress suffered by the participants. It measured the willingnessof study participants to obey an authority figure who instructedthem to perform acts that conflicted with their personalconscience.[64]

• Harry Harlow drew condemnation for his "pit of despair"experiments on rhesus macaque monkeys at the University ofWisconsin–Madison in the 1970s.[65] The aim of the researchwas to produce an animal model of clinical depression. Harlowalso devised what he called a "rape rack", to which the femaleisolates were tied in normal monkey mating posture.[66] In1974, American literary critic Wayne C. Booth wrote that,

Psychology 15

"Harry Harlow and his colleagues go on torturing their nonhuman primates decade after decade, invariablyproving what we all knew in advance—that social creatures can be destroyed by destroying their social ties." Hewrites that Harlow made no mention of the criticism of the morality of his work.[67]

University psychology departments have ethics committees dedicated to the rights and well-being of researchsubjects. Researchers in psychology must gain approval of their research projects before conducting any experimentto protect the interests of human participants and laboratory animals.[68]

See also• List of psychologists• List of psychology organizations• List of publications in psychology• Social science• Sociology• Philosophy of psychology• Artificial intelligence• Philosophy of mind• Consciousness

Notes• a Although psychoanalysis and other forms of depth psychology are most typically associated with the

unconscious mind, behaviorists consider such phenomena as classical conditioning and operant conditioning,while cognitivists explore implicit memory, automaticity, and subliminal messages, all of which are understoodeither to bypass or to occur outside of conscious effort or attention. Indeed, cognitive-behavioral therapistscounsel their clients to become aware of maladaptive thought patterns, the nature of which the clients previouslyhad not been conscious. At the same time, much of the unconscious mind may be adaptive from an evolutionarystandpoint.

• b Among the practices of ancient psychology were procedures such as lobotomy, which involved removal ofspecific tissues of the brain believed to cause certain mental problems. Lobotomies sometimes were used in themedical practices of Egypt, China and Persia, along with other ancient civilizations; lobotomies retained somepopularity into 20th-century psychiatry.

• c Among these schools are ego psychology, object relations, and interpersonal, Lacanian, and relationalpsychoanalysis. Modification of Jung's theories led to the archetypal and process-oriented schools.

• d For example, scientists have related brain structures to Freudian concepts such as libido, drives, theunconscious, and repression. The contributors to neuro-psychoanalysis include António Damásio,[69] [70] [71] [72]

Eric Kandel, Joseph E. LeDoux,[73] Jaak Panksepp,[74] Oliver Sacks,[75] Mark Solms,[76] [77] and Douglas Watt.• e Gregg Henriques of James Madison University, for example, published his Tree of Knowledge System in 2003

as a proposal for the theoretical unification of psychology.[78] For a general discussion and critique, see also MarkJarzombek's book, The Psychologizing of Modernity.[79]

Psychology 16

External links• Psychology [80] at the Open Directory Project• American Psychological Association [81]

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Article Sources and Contributors 19

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