IFP Issue 27

An MDM PUBLICATIONIssue 27 – August 2006

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THE GLOBAL VOICE FOR PASSIVE & ACTIVE FIRE PROTECTION


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INTERNATIONAL FIRE PROTECTIONINTERNATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION

IFP27 OFC 28/9/06 8:35 am Page ofc1

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INTERNATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION 1

Front Cover Picture: WIND TURBINEFIRE. Pic courtesy of Danfoss Semco.© Danfoss Semco

PublishersMark Seton & David Staddon

Editorial ContributorsMads Warming, Zeke Bochenek,Sarah Colwell, Andrew Shiner, AnnaRabin, Palle Madsbjeg, Bobby Patrick,Ian Stewart, S. M. V. Gwynne, Robert E. Henderson, J. C. Jones,Robert J. Wheeler

IFP is published quarterly by:MDM Publishing Ltd 18a, St James Street, South Petherton, Somerset TA13 5BWUnited KingdomTel: +44 (0) 1460 249199Fax: +44 (0) 1460 249292 e-mail: [email protected]: www.ifpmag.com©All rights reserved

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The views and opinions expressed inINTERNATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION are notnecessarily those of MDM Publishing Ltd.The magazine and publishers are in noway responsible or legally liable for anyerrors or anomalies made within theeditorial by our authors. All articles are protected by copyright and writtenpermission must be sought from thepublishers for reprinting or any form ofduplication of any of the magazinescontent. Any queries should be addressedin writing to the publishers.

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August 2006 Issue 27

65-68

3-11 News &Product Profiles

13-16 Assessingthe fire performanceof external claddingsystems

19-24 Cleansuppression agentscome of age

27-30 New FireSafety Rules Cominginto Force on 1October 2006

33-35 The wind ofchange

37-42 ProtectingHigh Value PropertyWith PreactionSprinkler Systems

45-46 Passive FireProtection: StructuralSteel, Vessels andStorage Tanks in theOil and Gas Industries

49-53 Post-WTCManagement ofEmergency Movementfrom Tall Buildings

55-59Understandingcombustible sensorperformance

61-63 Fireprotection of storagevessels for flammableliquids

65-68 Chutes andEmergency Egress

70-71 Fireprotection – theimportant third!!

72 Advertisers’ Index

49-53

45-46

37-42

19-24

13-16

61-63

55-59

Contents

P. 1 Contents 28/9/06 8:55 am Page 1

Chemetron w/p 8/8/06 10:33 am Page 1

KIDDE FIRE PROTECTION now offers the mostextensive range of clean agent firesuppression systems designed for use with3M™ Novec™ 1230 Fire Protection Fluid.Kidde Fire Protection is part of UTC Fire &Security, a unit of United Technologies Corp.(NYSE:UTX).

The Novec 1230 fluid systems are designedto protect critical high-value assets from firewith minimal down-time and clean-up costs.Typical applications includetelecommunication switch rooms, computerand electronic control rooms, and aboardships. They are the latest addition to thecompany’s wide range of clean agent systemsthat includes FM-200, Argonite and CarbonDioxide.

The company has invested in the newsystems because it believes Novec 1230 fluidrepresents sustainable, long-term technologythat meets both today’s environmentalregulations and those in the foreseeablefuture. It has a low Global Warming Potential(GWP) rating of just one, an Ozone DepletingPotential (ODP) of zero and a low atmosphericlifetime of only five days.

Kidde Fire Protection offers three differentNovec 1230 fluid systems to suit a widevariety of applications. A standard 25 barsystem for industrial applications, a specialist25 bar marine system and a 42 bar systemthat offers increased design flexibility forlarger or more complex facilities.

All the systems are European TPED(Transportable Pressure Equipment Directive)and PED (Pressure Equipment Directive)compliant and manufactured to ISO 9001:2000standards. The 25 bar industrial system isapproved by Underwriters Laboratories (UL)

and FM Global, while the 25 bar marinesystem is Marine Equipment Directive (MED)compliant and approved by ABS, Lloyd’sRegister and DNV. The 42 bar system isapproved by VdS.

Novec 1230 fluid is stored as a liquid anddischarged into the hazard zone by speciallydesigned nozzles as a colourless, non-conductive and non-corrosive gas. It puts firesout quickly by reaching its extinguishingconcentration in 10 seconds or less and thenabsorbing heat from the fire. It has the highestheat capacity of any commercially availablechemical suppression agent, giving it thelowest extinguishing concentration of 4 to 6 percent.

In occupied spaces at normal designconcentrations, Novec 1230 fluid presents norisk to personnel. US EPA SNAP has classifiedit as acceptable for use as a total floodingagent in occupied spaces. It provides a safetymargin of nearly 100 percent, which is by farthe largest safety margin of any clean firesuppression agent available on the markettoday.

The new technology is supported by KiddeFire Protection global sales, technical andcustomer service resources. Systems aredesigned by specially trained and certifiedengineers using hydraulic calculation softwarethat optimises performance while minimisinginstallation costs.

This latest announcement reinforces theposition of Kidde Fire Protection as the marketleader in clean agent fire suppression systemtechnology. Since pioneering theirdevelopment more than 10 years ago thecompany has supplied several thousandchemical and inert gas systems world wide.

Kidde Fire Protection manufactures cleanagent fire suppression systems at Bentham,North Yorkshire, and electronic fire detectionand alarm equipment at Peterlee, CountyDurham. It provides product sales and

customer support from Thame, near Oxford.Kidde Fire Protection is part of UTC Fire &Security, a United Technologies Corp. businessunit that provides fire safety and securitysolutions to more than one million customersaround the world. UTC Fire & Security isheadquartered in Connecticut, USA.

3M and Novec are trademarks of 3MCompany.

For more information contact: Kidde Fire ProtectionJonathan BrittainTel: +44 (0) 1844 265021Email: [email protected]


NEWS

Kidde offers full range of Clean AgentSystems

From the EditorMay Issue IFP – Issue 26

In my article ‘Testing and Assessment ofFire Stopping and Penetration SealingSystems: The British Regime’ in the MayIssue of IFP on page 56, para 2, line3 states “the likely effect on fireperformance must be evaluated. This isnormally conducted via anassessment report provided by aUKAS accredited test laboratory”In fact this should say “This is normallyconducted via an Assessment Reportprovided by a UKAS accredited testlaboratory or by competentauthority/persons appropriate tothe complexity of the evaluationundertaken” – Graham Ellicott ASFP

Furthermore:The pictures used in this article shouldhave been accredited to Rectorseal®and their Metacaulk® product range.We thank them for letting us use theirphotography and apologise for thisomission.

News P. 3, 4, 10 28/9/06 8:59 am Page 3

ANGUS FIRE have announced that BP, oneof the world’s largest energy companies,will feature Angus’ specialist fire fightingfoam equipment in a new booklet on

extinguishing liquefied natural gas (LNG)fires. Angus Fire is part of UTC Fire &Security, a unit of United TechnologiesCorp. (NYSE:UTX).

The booklet, titled “LNG Fire Protection& Emergency Response,” is set to becomethe industry standard on LNG spill and fireprotection. It explains the dangers of LNGas well as the special fire hazardmanagement and emergency responsemeasures required in the event of an LNGfire.

“Until now the only fire test dataavailable on LNG has been based onoutdated storage and handlingtechniques,” said Mike Willson, ProductManager for Angus Fire. “This newbooklet describes modern solutions forrealistic operating conditions, and is all themore important because global demandfor LNG as an energy resource is growingrapidly.”

The booklet’s recommendations arebased on extensive testing of the

effectiveness of different types of foamsand application techniques in a range ofrealistic LNG emergency scenarios. Thetests were carried out at the new LNGtesting and training facility developed andsponsored by BP in collaboration with theEmergency Services Training Institute atTexas A&M University.

The booklet describes how a goodquality high expansion foam applied at acontrolled rate and expansion ratio ishighly effective in reducing vapour levels atLNG spills and in achieving rapid anddramatic reductions in the heat emissionsof LNG fires.

Only specialist high expansion foamgenerators and foam concentrates thathave been proven to withstand the intenseheat of LNG fires should be used, such asthe Angus Fire LNG Turbex generator andExpandol foam that are both featured inthe booklet.

Company experts recently addressedthe LNG Technical Committee at theNational Fire Protection Association WorldSafety Conference in Orlando and theSociety of International Gas Tanker andTerminal Operators (SIGTTO) AGM inAthens. SIGTTO is the world’s leading LNGsafety organization and represents virtuallythe entire world’s LNG tanker and terminaloperators.

Angus Fire is also co-operating withResource Protection International, theindependent fire protection consultancyappointed by BP Group Technology toprepare the new booklet, in establishing anew LNG fire training programme forSIGTTO in Europe.

The new booklet is the seventh in theBP Fire Booklet Series (“blue books”) andis available from BP International.

For more information contact:Angus FireTel: +44 (0) 1844 265021Email: [email protected]

4 INTERNATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION

NEWS

New BP Booklet features Angus FoamTechnology for LNG Applications

C-TEC’s state-of-the-artResearch andDevelopment facility inthe heart of Lancashire isnow complete. The newCentre of Excellence inMawdesley features threenew laboratories and anextensive array ofmeeting rooms andcustomer demonstrationareas. The officialopening was timed tocoincide with thecompany’s 25th birthdaycelebrations.

Comments AndrewFoster, C-TEC’s MD, ‘Theconstruction of this newfacility marks a turningpoint for C-TEC as it willsignal a significantincrease in our researchand development capabilities. The purpose-built environment and additional space willenable the company to investigate newtechnologies and we are now activelyrecruiting to expand our engineering staff’.

C-TEC’s reputation as manufacturers oftop-quality fire alarm control panels, voicealarms and disability equipment hasresulted in the company enjoyingconsiderable year-on-year growth.

The company’s ambitious expansionplans also include a new 15,000 sq ft unitat its Wigan site to increase stockholdingcapacity and to accommodate two newsurface mount assembly machines.

For more information contact C-TEC’s marketing department on +44(0)1942 322744 or visit www.c-tec.co.uk

New C-tec Research andDevelopment Facility

News P. 3, 4, 10 28/9/06 8:59 am Page 4


Clean Agent TechnologyArgonite is ideal for protecting business-criticalcomputer and telecoms rooms, and also preciousartefacts in archives, museums and art galleries. Itgets organisations back to normal quickly withminimal damage, disruption and clean-up costs. Itdoes not cause collateral damage to whatever it isprotecting from fire because it does not leavebehind any water or particulates.

Naturally SuperiorArgonite is an inert gas blend consisting of a50:50 mixture of the two gases Argon and Nitro-gen that occur naturally in the atmosphere. Withzero Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP), zero GlobalWarming Potential (GWP) and zero atmosphericlife time, Argonite has excellent environmentalcredentials.

High PerformanceArgonite is effective against fires in almost all com-bustible materials and flammable liquids. It worksby displacing oxygen from the atmosphere andreducing it from the normal 21% to a level below15% that will not support combustion. A typicaldesign concentration of 40% will reduce theoxygen level to 12.5% within 60 seconds.

Low Space RequirementArgonite systems consist of one or more cylinders,usually at 300 bar pressure, connected via a com-mon manifold. System actuation can be manual orautomatic and the gas is distributed through apipe network and enters the protected areathrough special discharge nozzles.

A range of cylinders is available offering achoice of fills and pressures. The latest LPCBapproved systems with cylinder storage pressuresof 300 bar offer 30% space savings over previous

200 bar systems. The cylinders are mounted inrows and may be stored in any suitable location,even over 100 metres away from the protectedareas.

If more than one area in a building needs to beprotected, then a single Argonite system, designedto protect the largest room, can be used, withautomatic valves directing the appropriate amountof Argonite into the required protected space.Provided that there is a low risk of more than onefire in the facility at any one time, this can providesignificant cost and space savings.

Reliable & AffordableGinge-Kerr has over ten years design and installa-tion experience. Factory trained and certifieddesign engineers offer flexible design packages forthe most cost-effective fire protection solutions.System design, the quantity of gas used, togetherwith computer calculated pipe and nozzle dimen-sions ensure that the correct amount of Argoniteis released effectively.

The Argonite system has been tested andapproved by independent regulatory bodiesthroughout the world. In addition, system compo-nents are manufactured in accordance with ISO9001:2000 Quality Management System and com-ply with all relevant legislative requirements suchas US DOT and EU Transportable Pressure Equip-ment Directive (TPED) for cylinders and PressureEquipment Directive (PED) for pressure components.

Argonite systems have low recharge and main-tenance costs. The cylinder valves are designed toensure reduced pipe sizes and low installationcosts as well as optimum system performance. Thevalve design also allows a worldwide network ofdistributors to re-charge the cylinders easily with-out the need for replacement parts.

Global ReachArgonite systems have a proventrack record of success withmore than 15,000 installedworldwide since 1993. Originallymanufactured in Denmark, theyare today produced at a newadvanced fire suppression sys-tem facility at Bentham in theUK. System design and customersupport is provided from Thame,near Oxford, with a world widenetwork of factory trained dis-tributors. Ginge-Kerr is a UTCFire & Security Company, whichprovides fire safety and securitysolutions to more than onemillion customers around theworld. UTC Fire & Security isheadquartered in Connecticut,USA. IFP

Argonite Argonite inert gas fire suppression systems from Ginge-Kerr are used extensivelyaround the world to protect high value assets. Ginge-Kerr is part of UTC Fire &Security, a unit of United Technologies Corp. (NYSE:UTX)

PRODUCT PROFILE

For more informationcontact:Ginge-KerrThame Park Road, Thame,Oxfordshire OX9 3RT, UKTel: +44 (0) 1844 265098Email: [email protected]

Profiles P. 5,6,8,11 28/9/06 9:06 am Page 5


PRODUCT PROFILE

Danfoss Semco will take over the responsibilityfor the development and production ofSemco’s fire fighting systems. By combining

Danfoss’ research and development, managementand manufacturing capabilities with Semco’s tech-nology, Danfoss Semco will ensure a growingshare of the marine industry and create newopportunities for high-pressure water-mist firesuppression technology in the fast growing land-based market.

Marine-based fire suppression Semco Maritime fire fighting department is one ofthe world’s leading suppliers of fire suppressiontechnologies – including high pressure water mistand CO2 – to the marine industry. For the last 14years the company has pioneered the use of high-pressure water mist and with the creation ofDanfoss Semco this technology can continue todevelop. By combining Semco’s existing expertisewith Danfoss nozzle technology, we can securethe future of water mist technology and furtherimprove its price/performance ratio.

Our expertise means that Danfoss Semco canoffer fire-fighting systems throughout the marineindustry. From exposed sites such as car decks andheli-pads, to engine rooms, kitchens and accom-modation decks, our goal is to always have two

alternative systems for all areas. This is the onlyway to ensure that the solution is always the rightone for the client. Being able to deliver a completefire-protection system reduces servicing costs forthe owner but it also saves time and money duringthe building process. Work on the boat or rig canbe scheduled around one rather than numeroussuppliers and any complications or queries can bedealt with immediately via a single point ofcommunication and support.

Land-based fire suppressionFrom complex fire suppression systems foruniversities to industrial applications for the foodmanufacturing and wind turbine industries, Semcois already making successful inroads into land-based fire protection with high-pressure watermist. At the same time Danfoss continues tocement its position as the world’s leading manu-facturer of nozzles. Danfoss Semco will be able toexploit this nozzle technology as well as Danfoss’enviable research and development and manu-facturing capabilities in order to develop andimplement fire protection solutions for other land-based industries. All of which creates theideal foundation for a very exciting future. IFP

Danfoss Semco:A new power in fire suppressionDanfoss and Semco Maritime fire fighting department have joined forces toform a new mutual company named Danfoss Semco A/S Fire Protection. Atechnical design, production and installation contractor for the oil and gas,shipbuilding, food and pharmaceutical industries, Semco also develops fire-fighting systems. While, with a turnover in excess of a2 billion, Danfoss is a major manufacturer within the Refrigeration & Air Conditioning, Heating & Water and Motion Controls industry and the major shareholer in the newcompany.By Mads Warming

Managing DirectorDanfoss Semco

DanfossFounded: 1933Employees: more than18,000 Business areas: developmentand production ofmechanical and electroniccomponents for severalindustrial branches withinrefrigeration & airconditioning, heating &water and motion controlsPresence: 53 factories in 21countries110 sales companies in 57countriesWebsite: www.danfoss.com

Semco MaritimeFounded: 1945Employees: 900Business areas: technicalcontracting comprisingdesign, production,installation and service forthe oil and gas industry, theshipbuilding industry, thefood industry and thepharmaceutical industry. Presence: Branches inDenmark, UK, Norway andthe USA plus representativesthroughout the worldWebsite:www.semcomaritime.com


At OCV Control Valves, failure is unacceptable. Avoiding loss of property or human life is the only motivation we

need to produce products that meet or exceed industry standards worldwide. In nearly every country around

the world, we are known by name – and more importantly by our reputation for providing the best fire protection

control valves in the industry. Whatever the application, our commitment to quality and reliability remains.

So relax, OCV Control Valves can handle the pressure. OCV Control Valves is ISO 9001 certified and has many

valves that are UL listed and FM approved. For more information, contact us today. www.controlvalves.com

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OCV w/p 16/2/06 1:38 pm Page 1

Seeking to create clean, modern lines as well asfunctional space, architects challenged all dis-ciplines to help them keep their vision. This

meant squeezing utilities into as little space aspossible, including a fire sprinkler system that metnew seismic codes.

No room for traditional seismic jointsAs a rule, seismic joints are not small, and notpretty. They require a convoluted Rube-Goldbergstyle arrangement of connections that wouldallow movement in all directions. “There was justno room for all that extra hardware,” explainedDavid McMahon, Senior Project Manager, SIRINAFire Protection Corp. “Seismic codes are a relativelynew issue in our part of the country, and to usethe traditional grooved coupling configuration justwould not cut it. That’s when we found theFireloops. They solved all our problems.”

The unique design of seismic Fireloop expansionjoints makes designing fire sprinkler piping runs a lotsimpler. Capable of up to ±4 and ±8 inches ofmovement in all directions, Fireloops can fit snuglyup in the ceiling, in walls, and can even be “nested”within each other, making them a more elegant andefficient solution for extremely tight piping runs.

“We installed dozens of Fireloops throughoutthe terminal in places I know we could not haveused any other type of seismic joint,” commentsRocco Abbate Executive vice President, SIRINA FireProtection Corp. “The loops (Fireloops) solved a lotof issues.

“In fact, it was the first set of Fireloops weordered that convinced us it was the right product,”he continues. “They were so easy to install in thefirst phase of construction we knew it was the per-fect seismic joint to use for the rest of the project.”

What happens when it starts to fly?The “wing-like” architecture of the terminal evencreated an interesting challenge. “We had to havesome special Fireloops created that would accom-modate up to 12 inches of movement and installed

them in the ceiling at building separations,”explains Tom Field, Eastern Region Sales Managerfor Reliable Automatic Sprinkler Company, fromwhom SIRINA purchased the Metraflex Fireloops.“We needed extra movement and flexibility therebecause of the expected rise and fall of the facilityfrom wind and snow.” High winds across the wing-like roofline were expected to raise the roofline upto five inches. And the snow loading could causethe roof to deflect downward as much as an inch.

Fireloop expansion joints, developed and manu-factured by Metraflex, have been used in thousandsof installations in seismic applications nationwide.Their unique design provides the flexibility and free-dom architects and engineers need to advance theirdesigns. And the ease of installation and small foot-print helps contractors speed through installationsand meet construction deadlines and budgets.

The American Airlines terminal, which started in1999, is a four-phase project slated for completionin 2007. The terminal will centralize ground accessand passenger processing at JFK Airport. It willhave 37 jet gates and 18 commuter gates, largecustoms and immigration halls, and a streamlinedbaggage system. IFP


By Zeke Bochenek

The Metraflex Company

PRODUCT PROFILE

Fireloops solve seismicdesign challenges for firesprinkler system in newAmerican Airlines JFKterminalUnique expansion loops allow simpler, tighter pipingruns in New York terminal

Roof’s wing design causes terminal to “take flight”A 1,840,000 square foot behemoth that holds three complete concourses.Passenger check-in space big enough to hold Giants Stadium. A facility capable ofaccommodating 14 million passengers annually. Yet, the new American Airlinesmega terminal at Kennedy Airport in New York pushed the envelope for designers,engineers and contractors who seemed to have less space to work with, not more.

Visit www.fireloop.info formore information, CADdownloads, pressure dropcharts and other valuableinformation on designingwith and installing Fireloopsin a host of applications. Or contact: The Metraflex Company2323 W. Hubbard, Chicago, IL 60612 Tel: 312-738-3800Fax: 312-738-0415Email: [email protected]

Fireloops designed for 12 inches of movementwere installed in the ceiling to allow for roofsmovements of up to 5 inches upward and 1 inch downward


20137 Milano - Via Ennio, 25 - ItalyTel.: + 39 02 5410 0818 - Fax + 39 02 5410 0764E-mail: [email protected] - Web: www.controllogic.it CONTROL LOGIC s.r.l.

20137 Milano - Via Ennio, 25 - ItalyTel.: + 39 02 5410 0818 - Fax + 39 02 5410 0764E-mail: [email protected] - Web: www.controllogic.it CONTROL LOGIC s.r.l.

CONTROL LOGICSparkdetector

designed fordust collectionsystemsto protectstorage silosfrom the riskof fi re.

Sparks fl yat high speed.

They travel at a hundred kilometresper hour along the ducts of the dustcollection system and reach the silo

in less than three seconds

The CONTROL LOGICSPARK DETECTOR

is faster thanthe sparks themselves.

It detects them with its highlysensitive infrared sensor,

intercepts and extinguishesthem in a fl ash.

It needs no periodic inspection.

The CONTROL LOGIC system is designed for “total supervision”.

It verifi es that sparks have been extinguished, gives prompt warning of

any malfunction and, if needed, cuts off the duct and stops the fan.

BETTER TO KNOW IT BEFOREEye is faster than nose.

In the event of live fi re the IR FLAME DETECTOR

responds immediately

CONTROL LOGICIR FLAME DETECTOR

the fastest and most effective fi re alarm devicefor industrial applications IR FLAME DETECTOR

RIV-601/FAEXPLOSIONPROOFENCLOSURE

For industrial applications indoorsor outdoors where is a risk of explosionand where the explosionproof protection is required.One detector can monitor a vast areaand responds immediately to the fi re, yet of small size.

IR FLAME DETECTORRIV-601/F

WATERTIGHTIP 65 ENCLOSURE

For industrial applications indoorsor outdoors where fi re can spread out rapidly due to the presence of

highly infl ammable materials,and where vast premises need an optical

detector with a great sensitivityand large fi eld of view.

Also forRS485 two-wire serial line

25SF-c275x185gb.indd 1 24-06-2005 12:50:37

Control Logic w/p 16/2/06 12:22 pm Page 1


NEWS

MAGHAZEL FACTORY –EVOLUTION SYSTEMThis is a state owned textile factory inDamascus manufacturing cotton fabricswhich are sold to manufacturersthroughout Syria and overseas.

The Evolution system comprises a 13Loop EVA-1 control panel monitoring over1300 EV-PH Multisensor Detectors plus 60Beam Detectors.

INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL –HOMS

This is a newly built private school partlyowned by the Syrian Cham Palace Hotelchain.

The Evolution system comprises of anEVA-1 control panel and repeater panelwith 4 loops protected by EV-PPhotoelectric Detectors. The school will beexpanded later this year.

SEMIRAMIS HOTEL ATPALMYRAThe Semiramis Hotel is a brand new 5 Starhotel in Palmyra which is a major Syriantourist attraction. Visitors from all over the

world come to see the well preservedremains of a large Roman city.

The Sensortec fire detection systemcomprises of an FX20 addressable controlpanel with Sensortec Smoke and Heatdetectors fitted throughout the hotel. Thehotel plans to double in size over the next12 months.

BLOUDAN GRAND HOTELThe Bloudan Grand Hotel is a 5 Star hotelin the mountain resort town of Bloudan.

The Sensortec fire detection systemcomprises of Morley networked ZX controlpanels (2 x ZX5E panels in the main hotelbuilding and 1 x ZX2E panel in the Leisure/ Pool complex) with ST-P-AS Photoelectricand ST-H-AS Heat detectors fittedthroughout the hotel.

For more information contact:Nittan (UK) LimitedTel: +44 (0) 1483 769555 Fax: +44 (0) 1483756686 M: +44 (0) 7834 120836Email: [email protected]: www.nittaneurope.eu

Focus in Syria – Nittan and EssCompany Win New ProjectsThe following systems were designed and installed by Nittan’s ESIPreferred Partner – ESS Company:

Main entrance to International School– Homs

Semiramis Hotel

Bloudan Grand Hotel

COOPER MENVIER today announced that it hasacquired, from inventor Howard Stapleton’scompany, Compound Security Ltd, the marketingand manufacturing rights to ‘The Mosquito’, arevolutionary crowd dispersal system.

Whilst most young people are law-abidingand cause no problems, the presence of certaingroups of teenagers can often discouragegenuine customers from entering shops andother premises with a subsequent detrimentaleffect on turnover and profits. This type of anti-social behaviour has become the biggest threatto private property over the last decade andthere has been no effective solution until now.The Mosquito ultrasonic deterrent provides thefirst practical solution to the eternal problem ofunwanted gatherings of youths and teenagersin shopping malls and other retail areas.

The Mosquito generates a high frequencysound that is audible only to teenagers. It iscompletely harmless even with long-term use andrarely affects older people as it relies on a

medical phenomenon known as presbycusis, orage related hearing loss. This begins after the ageof 20 but is usually significant only in personsover 65. It first affects the highest frequencies (18to 20 kHz), which is where Mosquito operates.

With an effective range of between fifteenand twenty meters, field trials have shown thatteenagers are acutely aware of the Mosquitoand usually move away from the area withinjust a couple of minutes.

The ultrasound produced has no effects onpets or other animals and can safely be used inall public areas, business or domestic premises.

Mosquito has generated unprecedentedpress interest around the World, being featuredon prime-time television in over 50 countries,and is set to become one of the British SecurityIndustry’s biggest success stories.

Two different Mosquito models will beproduced at the Cwmbran, South Wales, factoryof Fulleon Limited, Cooper Menvier’s market-leading alarm signaling division. These will bemarketed as:Mosquito from Fulleon – which will beavailable through Fulleon’s normal electricaland fire distribution channels;Mosquito from Cooper Security – which willform part of Cooper Security’s portfolio ofadvanced-technology security products.

For further information contact:Robert CampbellSales DirectorFulleon Limited Tel: +44 (0)1633 628500

Mosquito Crowd Dispersal System

News P. 3, 4, 10 28/9/06 8:59 am Page 10

VSD is based on sophisticated computeranalysis of the video image seen by theCCTV camera (optical sensor). Using

advanced image-processing technology andextensive detection algorithms, VSD can automati-cally identify the distinct characteristics of smokepatterns. The VSD system uses standard CCTVequipment linked to a proprietary processing unitwhich is capable of recognising small amounts ofsmoke within the video image. Fire events aredetected at source in any voluminous environ-ment. The end user is alerted of events by fullyconfigurable relay contacts which then activate the fire system the video image is simultaneouslysent to the end user coupled with the real-timesmoke overlay providing high impact visualverification of fire events. All alarm conditions arelogged, time/date stamped and stored within the system’s memory. A VSD system can betailored for any size installation in the most diverseenvironments.

Late in 2005, D-Tec launched its new camera-based video smoke detection system, FireVu. Theconcept moves video smoke detection into a newera. Now offering Flame detection to complementthe early warning smoke detection provides

enhanced capability to provide AND/OR function-ality with regards to event activation. All eventsare distributed over IP to provide additional fea-tures such as remote monitoring. This distributedvisual confirmation complements the hard wiredoutputs.

Since its release the number of installationsaround the world has continued to grow. Firesafety professionals from around the world arenow turning to D-Tec for its solution to prob-lematic areas such as Atria, Tunnels, Hangars,Warehouses, Chemical Plants, Recycling Plants andPower Generation Turbine Halls. We have recentlycommissioned systems in the Sydney HarbourTunnel, Royal Ascot Racecourse, Swiss-Re buildingin London, Airbus A380 Royal Airwing Hangar at the Dubai International Airport and FMCLithium Chemicals (UK). With such prominentglobal installations D-Tec’s reputation is firmlyestablished.

Within the last year D-Tec has appointed rep-utable companies in Portugal, Slovenia and Bel-gium in order to introduce VSD to the Europeanmarket and make it a solution to problematicareas such as Forests, Aviation, Power GenerationPlants and Road Tunnels. IFP


PRODUCT PROFILE

For a full reference list visitthe D-Tec website atwww.dtec-fire.com

Video SmokeDetection – Aproven alternativeThe D-Tec Video Smoke detection system (VSD) continues to lead the camerabased fire detection market by continually improving and addressing thedemands of client’s applications around the world.


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EXTERNAL CLADDING

Losses from commercial property can be con-siderable. The Basingstoke fire in 1991, inwhich two floors of a 14-storey office block

were damaged, resulted in a £15.6M claim andthe more recent fire in Madrid, in 2005, led tosignificant property and consequential losses.

It was estimated in 2001 that there were over5,000 blocks of flats in England, representingabout 300,000 homes. One the fire issues raisedwith this type of building is the potential for fire tospread via the external cladding on the structure,as seen in the Knowsley Heights fire in 1991.

The Garnock Court fire in Irvine, Scotland in

1999, gave rise to a Parliamentary inquiry into thepotential risk of fire spread in buildings via externalcladding. One of the recommendations from theinquiry included the statement that “we do notbelieve it should take a serious fire in which peopleare killed before all reasonable steps are takentowards minimising the risks.” As a consequenceof this, BRE’s sister company the Loss PreventionCertification Board (LPCB) constantly develop andpublish certification schemes that protect peopleand their property. Some examples can be foundat the end of this article. For a full listing visit:www.redboolive.com

By Sarah Colwell

BRE

System under test onBRE External CladdingTest Facility

Assessing the fireperformance ofexternal claddingsystemsThe IssueFires involving multi-storey buildings are fortunately rare but when they occur,they have the potential to be dangerous, both in terms of risk to life andproperty loss. They can generate major disruption to commercial business ordomestic life if dwellings are involved.

P. 13-16 Assessing the fire 28/9/06 9:09 am Page 13

External Fire Spread Fires can occur within a property or in closeproximity to the building envelope. If no interven-tion occurs, the fire within the building may devel-op to flashover and break out from the room oforigin via a window opening or doorway. Flamesbreaking out of a building from a post flashoverfire will typically extend 2m above the top of theopening irrespective of the material used toconstruct the outer face of the building envelopeand the potential then exists for any externalcladding system to become involved in the fire.

BS 8414: Part 1: 2002 – Fire performance of external cladding systems. Part 1. Testmethod for non-loadbearing external claddingsystems applied to the face the building.

BS 8414 : Part 1: 2002, based on BRE Fire Note 9,is a full-scale test designed to investigate the fireperformance of non-loadbearing exterior wallsystems, including external wall insulation systemsand curtain walling, fitted to a masonry substratewhen exposed to an external fire source at arealistic scale.

A 9.6m high test facility is used with a mainface 2.8m wide and includes a right angle internalreturn wall, a minimum of 1.5m deep. The firesource is designed to represent a post flashoverfire exiting from an opening such as a window in apost flashover room. The duration of the firesource is 30 minutes.

Thermocouples are placed at the mid-depth ofeach combustible layer and cavity where present.The thermocouples are located at two heightsabove the fire source; 2.5m and 5m and the timetaken for the fire to spread between these twolevels is determined for each layer and cavity in thesystem. Any system collapse or delamination isalso noted. The test method does not assess thefire resistance of the exterior wall assembly.

BR135 – Fire Performance of External ThermalInsulation for Walls of Multi-Storey Buildings.Second Edition.The second edition of the BRE Report ‘BR135 –Performance of External Thermal Insulation forWalls of Multi-Storey Buildings’ was published in2003. This document provides updated guidanceon the fire performance of external cladding sys-tems and a classification system for the BS 8414 –1:2002 test method. The principles behind theclassification system are based on fire spread awayfrom the initial fire source and the rate of firespread. Additionally if fire spreads away from theinitial fire source, the rate of progress of firespread, or tendency for collapse, should not undu-ly hinder intervention by the emergency services.

BS8414: Part 2:2005 – Fire performance ofexternal cladding systems. Part 2. Testmethod for non-loadbearing externalcladding systems applied to a steel frame.The increasing use of lightweight framed systemsand offsite construction techniques for these typesof buildings identified a need to provide a secondpart of the test standard to allow these types ofsystems to be assessed. This part of the standardcan be used for assessing the fire performance ofnon-loadbearing external cladding systems sup-ported by a building frame, such as curtainwalling, glazed units, infill panels and insulatedcomposite panels at full-scale. The specimen sizes,fire exposure conditions and monitoring locationsare the same as those used in Part 1 of theBS 8414-1:2002.

As with part 1 of the test method, a classifica-tion system for this part of the test standard iscurrently being drafted as an annex to the BR135document.

Guidance for current BuildingRegulations in England and WalesWhere the guidance provided in ApprovedDocument B (AD B) (Fire Safety) to the BuildingRegulations 2000 cannot be met for the fireperformance of external cladding system, analternative method such as BRE Fire Note 9 can be used to demonstrate that the risks of spread of


Knowsley Heights

ASSESSING THE FIRE PERFORMANCE OF EXTERNAL CLADDING SYSTEMSEXTERNAL CLADDING

Test facility


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The last thing you need behind a rainscreencladding system is flammable insulation,particularly in a multi-storey construction.A careless cigarette, an act of arson or anelectrical fault could all be sufficient to start afire. Combine that with the chimney effect of aventilated cavity and you could be looking at atowering inferno scenario in no time. Unless,that is, you have had the foresight to install aninsulation material that will limit the spread of fire.

The advantages of specifying such a materialfor any building are obvious – limited fire andsmoke damage means less property damage,lower remedial costs and most importantly,greater chance of escape for occupants.

Fortunately, help is at hand from KingspanInsulation.

Kingspan K15 RainscreenBoard has been successfully tested at theBuilding Research Establishment toBS 8414-1: 2002 and when assessed inaccordance with BR 135 it is acceptable foruse above 18 metres in accordance with theEnglish, Scottish and Irish BuildingRegulations. Kingspan Kooltherm® K15Rainscreen Board also achieves a Class O /Low Risk fire rating to the BuildingRegulations / Standards, and less than 5%smoke obscuration when tested to BS 5111.

Kingspan Kooltherm® K15 Rainscreen Boardconsists of premium performance rigidphenolic insulation which is CFC/HCFC-freewith zero Ozone Depletion Potential (zeroODP). With a thermal conductivity as low as0.021 W/m.K, Kingspan Kooltherm® K15Rainscreen Board achieves required U-valueswith minimal thickness, thus maximisingavailable space.

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fire over external walls have been minimised. Thistest method does not assess the fire resistance ofthe systems nor does it address the provisions forfire spread between buildings. BR135 SecondEdition, BS 8414-1:2002 and BS 8414-2:2005have superseded BRE Fire Note 9.

Technical ApprovalAs part of the Construction Products Directive(CPD), an ETAG (European Technical ApprovalGuideline has been produced by EOTA to enableCE marking of these types of products), ETAG 004for External Thermal Insulation Composite Systemswith Rendering was published in 2000 to providea route for CE marking of these products. As partof this ETAG, the reference to fire performanceincludes the provision for the use of full-scaletesting to evaluate the performance of fire barriersfor insulated systems, if required.

CertificationOne method of ensuring that the product meets astandard is to choose one that is approved by anationally accredited certification body, such as theLoss Prevention Certification Board (LPCB). Certifi-cation by LPCB is independent third party confir-mation that the product meets and continues tomeet the appropriate standard. The certificationprocess involves rigorous assessment and testingof products coupled with regular audits of qualityprocedures governing the factory productionprocess to ensure that they meet quality standardsreviewed by a team of experts which include man-ufacturers, installers, designers, clients, regulators,insurers, engineers and scientists. This differs froma test which is basically a snapshot showing thatthe product passed the test on a given day,

whereas certification, through regular audits,ensures that the product continues to comply withthe standard and meet the specification.

In order to meet the demands from the marketfor certification schemes to cover the fire per-formance of composite systems, a new LPCBscheme has been launched as part of the LPS1181 series of fire growth tests for LPCB approvalof construction product systems. LPS1181 part 4covers systems tested under BS8414-1:2002 with a part 5 scheme in preparation to cover BS 8414-2:2005 systems.

There are many approval bodies including somewith their own strong brands. However, not all ofthem have their own on-site testing facilities andexpertise. LPCB, together with its predecessor theFire Offices’ Committee (FOC) has been involvedfor over 150 years in working with specifiersincluding clients, insurers, and regulators to set thestandards necessary to ensure the quality ofproducts in the market place.

ListingOnce a product, service or company meets therequired standard, a certificate is issued and listedin the relevant ‘Red Book’, either under the List ofApproved Fire and Security Products and Servicesor List of Approved Companies and ConstructionProducts. Listing in the Red Book is a very usefulmarketing tool for the approved companies asthousands of specifiers and insurers around theworld use the Red Book to select their suppliers.The Red Book is published in January each yearand on CD ROM in January and June of each year.A “live” copy of the Red Book is continuallyupdated online at www.RedBookLive.com.

A small list of LPCB certificationschemes:● LPS 1107-1.1 Requirements, Tests and Methods

of Assessment of Passive Fire ProtectionSystems for Structural Steelwork

● LPS 1132-4.1 Requirements and Tests for LPCBApproval of Wall and Floor Penetration andLinear Gap Seals

● LPS 1158-2.1 Requirements and Tests for FireResistant Glazing Systems

● LPS 1208-2.1 LPCB Fire Resistance Require-ments for Elements of Construction Used toProvide Compartmentation

● LPS 1181 Part 1-1.1 Requirements and Tests forBuilt-up Cladding and Sandwich Panel Systemsfor Use as the External Envelope of Buildings.

● LPS 1181: Part 2 – Issue 2.0 Requirements andTests for sandwich panels and built-up systemsfor use as internal constructions in buildings

● LPS 1181: Part 4 – Issue 1 Requirements andTests for External Thermal Insulated CladdingSystems with rendered finishes (ETICS) or RainScreen Cladding systems (RSC) applied to theface of a building.

● LPS 1196-1.1 Requirements and Tests forExposed Surfaces Having Reaction to FireClassifications of Class 0 and Class 1

● LPS 1204-2.1 Requirements for Firms Engagedin the Design, Installation and Commissioningof Fire Fighting Systems

● LPS 1260-2.2 Requirements for Testing PlasticPipes and Fittings for Sprinkler Systems

● LPS 1261-1.1 Requirements for Testing FlexibleHoses for Sprinkler Systems IFP


Principle behind BS 8414parts 1&2 and BR 135

ASSESSING THE FIRE PERFORMANCE OF EXTERNAL CLADDING SYSTEMSEXTERNAL CLADDING

Rapid Fire Spread

Cladding system contributes toflame spread resulting in risk ofmultiple simultaneous secondaryfires

Restricted Fire Spread

Cladding system does notunduly contribute to flame

spread. Risk of secondary fireslimited

Externalcladdingcontributesto flamespread –risk ofsecondaryfires at alllevels If secondary

fire isallowed todevelop thenprocess isrepeated

Initial fire isallowed todevelopand flashesover

Secondaryfire

Flamesbreakout andattackadjacentwindows

Externalfireincident



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Tyco Hygood w/p 15/8/06 1:43 pm Page 1


SUPPRESSION AGENTS

Long before the politicians put pen to paper inthe late 1980s to seal the fate of Halon 1301with the signing of the Montreal Protocol on

Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, firesafety companies around the world had alreadydevoted thousands of man-hours in the quest foran alternative. High on their agendas was that thesolutions should be acceptable to the increasinglypowerful environmental lobby, and that they hadto be long-term solutions – “sustainability” was,and still is, a key word.

The fact that global warming results in climatechange is now widely accepted. So much so, thatthe Kyoto Protocol – or to give it its formal title:the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Frame-work Convention on Climate Change – has, as itsgoal, the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions,of which Carbon Dioxide makes up 84 percent.Rainfall patterns are changing, as can be seen bythe increased flooding in many parts of the world;sea levels are rising; glaciers are retreating; polar

sea-ice is thinning; and the incidence of extremeweather is increasing in some parts of the world.

If this trend continues, scientists predict that it isinevitable that there will be permanent flooding ofmany low-lying regions. Heat waves have alreadyproved fatal to the old and infirm, and there arereal concerns that heavy rainfall can increase theincidence of water-borne diseases such as typhoid,cholera and malaria. Water-borne diseases alreadyfill half of the world’s hospital beds. At the sametime, two-fifths of the world’s population alreadyface serious water shortages.

Sadly, some of the first attempts to find cleanalternatives failed to live up to expectations. ManyHalocarbons – Halon-like compounds – genericallyknown as HFCs – failed due either to their ineffi-ciency as a firefighting agent, or their toxicity. Themore successful and acceptable were broadlyembraced, and it is beyond dispute that their avail-ability on the market certainly assisted the Halonphase out programme, and powered the transition

By Andrew Shiner

Director of Marketing,Europe, Middle East &AfricaTyco Fire and Security’sFire Suppression Group

Clean suppressionagents come ofageThe banning of Halon 1301 gave the fire industry the much-needed boost todevelop clean suppression agents. Here, Andrew Shiner, Director of Marketing,Europe, Middle East and Africa for Tyco Fire and Security’s Fire SuppressionGroup, looks at the new systems that tick the environmentalists’ boxes.

P. 19-24 Clean Suppression 28/9/06 9:12 am Page 19

away from ozone depleting substances. Theimportant point, however, is that these agentswere not without an environmental downside.Without exception, all had significant globalwarming potential.

Inert gas systemsOne answer to the global warming challenge wasthe wider adoption of inert gases. They haveprecisely the environmental credentials that themarket seeks: zero ozone depletion potential, zeroatmospheric lifetime and zero global warmingpotential. Inert gases are non-toxic, they will notharm sensitive electronic equipment, art treasuresor documents, and are safe to use in enclosedareas where people may be working.

These gases are a non-conductive and non-corrosive blend of naturally occurring gases – suchas a combination of Nitrogen, Argon and CarbonDioxide – or, less frequently, a single naturallyoccurring gas. Inert gas suppression systems, suchas Tyco’s Inergen inert gas system, which is avail-able under the Ansul brand, and Tyco’s newHygood i3 system, work by lowering the oxygencontent of the protected area to a point that willnot support combustion, but is sufficient to sustain

human life. This is not unlike the way in whichCarbon Dioxide systems work. Unfortunatelythough, when used at design concentration,Carbon Dioxide is lethal to room or enclosure occu-pants, which additionally limits its applications.

However, certain factors focused the industry’sattention on finding a chemical solution. Theseincluded the demand for more space to store theinert gas suppressant’s cylinders and, a require-ment for more onerous venting. To illustrate thispoint, an inert gas installation typically takes up toseven times the space of a comparable Halon1301 installation, which is a serious considerationwhere, in London’s West End for example, officespace costs in the order of US$1,300 a squaremetre a years. This is not to say that inert gases donot have their attractions, particularly to organisa-tions where specifying a non-chemical suppressantis of overriding importance, or where storagespace is not a determining factor.

Sustainable chemical suppressantThe latest solution meets all of the market’srequirements and is the result of more than fouryears concentrated effort and testing. It is a highperformance fire-extinguishing agent that has a


CLEAN SUPPRESSION AGENTS COME OF AGESUPPRESSION AGENTS


FireTrace w/p 8/8/06 10:23 am Page 1

negligible impact on the environment and isdesigned primarily to protect essential and delicatetelecommunications and data processing equip-ment, plus it has applications within the culturalheritage sector protecting artefacts that wouldotherwise be destroyed by water from traditionalsprinkler systems. This solution has an insignificantglobal warming potential, lower than any of thehalocarbon agents acceptable for use in occupiedspaces. In a word, the solution is sustainable.

It is a fluid-based suppression system, calledSapphire, that uses 3M Novec 1230 Fire ProtectionFluid, a sustainable, long-term technology that notonly satisfies today’s regulations, it also meets allof those in the foreseeable future. It utilises newtechnology and has several advantages over otherHalon alternatives, or extinguishants currently onthe market with unacceptably high global warm-ing potential. International certification of the newfluid-based system includes LPCB approval, FM

approval and UL listing. The Novec 1230 fluid is not an HFC; it is a

fluorinated ketone with a chemical structure of CF3CF2C(O)CF(CF3)2. This molecule was chosen, after careful consideration, because it pro-vides an ideal combination of fire extinguishingperformance, toxicological and environmentalproperties.

Installations of the new system have a footprintsimilar to that of chemically-based systems, thelowest level of design concentration, and the high-est safety margin of any viable Halon 1301 orchemical alternative. The suppressant also hasimpressive “environmental footprint” credentialswith zero ozone depleting potential and a remark-ably low atmospheric lifetime of just five days. Thiscompares with an atmospheric life for Halon 1301of an astounding 107 years. Most significantly, it isnot included in the basket of greenhouse gasesidentified by the Kyoto Protocol.

To put this into perspective, the Novec 1230fluid has a global warming potential of just “one”.Compare this with a not untypical HFC – HFC 125– that, incidentally has a atmospheric lifetime of33 years, against the new fluid’s five days. For therelease of just one kilogramme of HFC 125, astaggering 2,800 kilograms or 2.8 tonnes of theNovec 1230 fluid would have to be released tohave the same impact on climate change.

The Novec 1230 fluid is stored in cylinders as alow vapour pressure fluid that transmutes into acolourless and odourless gas when discharged.Unlike most fluid fire extinguishing agents, it canbe used with absolute confidence to suppress firesinvolving electronic, computing or communi-cations equipment. This has frequently beengraphically demonstrated by immersing a laptopcomputer into a tank of the fluid and showingthat, not only does the laptop still work after thedunking, it works while it is still immersed in thetank. Similarly, the suppressant’s suitability forprotecting archives and museums has been estab-lished in similar witnessed trials that prove that adocument can be immersed in the Novec 1230




Nohmi Bosai w/p 8/8/06 10:42 am Page 1

fluid without damaging it, or even causing the inkto run!

Typical total flooding applications use betweenjust four and six percent by volume of the fluid,which is well below the agent’s saturation orcondensation level. When discharged, the agent isdispersed through natural ventilation, leaving noresidue to damage sensitive electronic equipment;it is also non-conductive and non-corrosive.

One of the significant attractions of Halon 1301was that it was seen to be safe for humans atnormal use concentrations, which led to itsacceptance for use in occupied spaces. Howevercomparing the gases’ NOAEL or No ObservedAdverse Effect Level with its normal designconcentration of five percent clearly shows thatHalon, in reality, had no safety margin. Whilecertain HFCs and inert gases are used at designconcentrations that are below the NOAEL, withsafety margins that range from seven percent to20 percent, no other Halon alternative comes any-where close to the Novec 1230 fluid’s 92 percentsafety margin.

Of particular importance to the system installeris the fact that Novec 1230 fluid can be transportedsafely – even by air – in bulk quantities withoutany onerous restrictions and, because it is a non-pressurized fluid, refilling a system after dischargeis simpler and faster than with many gaseousagents.

Water mist optionWhile the majority of the industry’s attention hasgone on finding a chemical solution, work has alsoprogressed on the development of water-basedsystems. So much so that water mist systems have

been introduced that are appropriate for a numberof applications. Systems, such as Tyco’s new HighPressure Water Mist (HPWM) system, are extremelypopular from an environmental standpoint, as theycontain nothing but pure, potable water and soare completely safe for people and totally harmlessto the environment.

The Tyco HPWM system is water that, at a pres-sure of 100bar, converts on discharge to a fineatomised mist. This fine mist evaporates veryquickly and is converted into steam that smothersthe fire and prevents further oxygen from reachingit. At the same time, the evaporation of the watercreates a significant cooling effect. So the fire isextinguished by oxygen depletion and cooling.This combines the fire suppression characteristicsof both conventional water-based suppressionsystems – deluge or sprinkler systems – andgaseous fire suppression systems.

Another environmental plus in its favour is that,when compared with conventional water sprinklersystems, the HPWM system uses only ten percentof water for a given area. This also has the benefitof minimising the potential for water damage ondischarge or in the unlikely event of an unwantedsystem release. Smaller pipework dimensions resultin a considerable reduction in weight, and enablethe system to be installed in confined spaces.

While water mist systems have been used forsome time in industrial and certain types ofcommercial premises, the scope for using them inoffices and archives, for paint spray booth andindustrial deep fat fryer protection, maritimestorage and accommodation areas, engine roomand even wind turbine protection is only nowbeing realised. IFP



Andrew Shiner is Director ofMarketing, Europe, MiddleEast & Africa for Tyco Fire

and Security’s FireSuppression Group. He has

worked in the fire safetyindustry for the past 15 years

and has extensiveinternational experience.

Andrew has an MBA, a postgraduate Diploma inMarketing, and is a

Chartered Marketer.

Further details are availableby telephone on

+44 (0) 1493 41760, by fax on +44 (0) 1493417700, or via email at

[email protected]


hbsad_final.pdf 7/26/06 1:56:10 PM

Patterson Pumps w/p 8/8/06 9:54 am Page 1


NEW FIRE SAFETY RULES

What does RRO 2005 cover?

RRO 2005 will repeal or amend of over 70pieces of legislation, including the Fire Precau-tions Act 1971 and Fire Precautions (Work-

place) Regulations 1997.The following changes to the current fire safety

laws are of particular note:● Fire certificates will no longer be valid when

RRO comes into force.● The focus of RRO 2005 is on risk assessment.

This builds on the approach to fire safety estab-lished by the Fire Precautions (Workplace) Reg-ulations 1997 under which an employer isrequired to comply with the regulations inrespect of any workplace under the employer’scontrol.

● Compliance with RRO 2005 is the duty of the“responsible person”.

● Employees are subject to general duties underRRO 2005, including a duty to co-operate andto alert the employer to certain risks.

● In multi-occupied buildings, the owners andoccupiers of other parts of the building arerequired to co-operate with the responsibleperson in making arrangements for mainte-nance of facilities, equipment and devices forfire safety.

● Duties in respect of fire safety are owed notonly to employees but also to “relevant per-sons”, which include anyone lawfully on thepremises or in the vicinity of the premises andat risk from fire at the premises.

● If premises are subject to separate licensingcontrol (for example, theatres and sportsgrounds), fire safety requirements specified inthe licence must be consistent with thosecontained in RRO 2005.

● The Department for Communities and LocalGovernment (DCLG) (which replaces the Officeof the Deputy Prime Minister as from 5 May2006) is required, under RRO 2005, to issueguidance to assist “responsible persons” in thecarrying out of their duties under RRO 2005.

● Enforcement of the provisions of RRO 2005

remains the responsibility of the local fireauthority for most types of premises. Sanctionsfor failure to comply with RRO 2005 includefines and imprisonment.

Who is a “responsible person”?A “responsible person” is defined in Article 3 ofRRO 2005 as:(a) in relation to a workplace, the employer, if the

workplace is to any extent under his control;(b) in relation to any premises not falling within

paragraph (a):

(i) the person who has control of the premis-es (as occupier or otherwise) in connectionwith the carrying on by him of a trade,business or other undertaking (for profit ornot); or

(ii) the owner, where the person in control ofthe premises does not have control in con-nection with the carrying on by that personof a trade, business or other undertaking.

A person with obligations under a lease or anyother contractual agreement for maintenance orsafety of the premises is considered to have controlof the premises. Otherwise, the obligation falls onthe owner, for example, in the case of a newly con-structed building which has yet to be occupied.

By Anna Rabin

Head of Construction Jeffrey Green Russell

New Fire SafetyRules Cominginto Force on 1 October 2006The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 (RRO 2005), originally intendedto be brought into force on 1 April 2006, is coming into force on 1 October2006 and anyone who is classed as a “responsible person” under RRO 2005needs to be aware of the changes in relation to fire safety on premises and makeprovision for them.

Duties in respect of fire

safety are owed not only to

employees but also to

“relevant persons”, which

include anyone lawfully on the

premises or in the vicinity of

the premises and at risk from

fire at the premises.

P. 27-30 New Fire Safety Rules 28/9/06 9:13 am Page 27

What must the “responsible person”do?Article 8 of RRO 2005 sets out the general dutiesof the responsible person.

The responsible person must:(a) take such general fire precautions as will

ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, thesafety of any of his employees; and

(b) in relation to relevant persons who are not hisemployees, take such general fire precautionsas may reasonably be required in the circum-stances of the case to ensure that the premisesare safe.

Essentially, “general fire precautions” in relationto premises means:(a) measures to reduce the risk of fire on the

premises and the risk of the spread of fire onthe premises;

(b) measures in relation to the means of escapefrom the premises;

(c) measures for securing that, at all materialtimes, the means of escape can be safely andeffectively used;

(d) measures in relation to the means for fightingfires on the premises;

(e) measures in relation to the means for detect-ing fire on the premises and giving warning incase of fire on the premises; and

(f) measures in relation to the arrangements foraction to be taken in the event of fire on thepremises, including:(i) measures relating to the instruction and

training of employees; and(ii) measures to mitigate the effects of the fire.

Identification of general fire precautions ismade as a result of the responsible person carryingout risk assessments, which must be regularlyreviewed to ensure they are up-to-date. There are

provisions which need to be adhered to in relationto any “dangerous substance” (for example a sub-stance which is explosive or flammable) that is oris liable to be present in or on the premises.

GuidanceThe Department for Communities and LocalGovernment has published a number of guidesrelating to the different types of premises that arecovered by the RRO 2005. These guides may bedownloaded free of charge by logging on to

www.odpm.gov.uk and going on to the pages ofthe website dealing with Fire Safety Law. Theguides are summarised below and are designed sothat a responsible person, with limited formaltraining or experience, should be able to carry outa fire risk assessment.

■ Fire Safety Risk Assessment – Officesand Shops This guide is applicable to buildings where themain use of the building, or part of the build-ing, is an office or shop including:● purpose built or converted office blocks; and● individual office or shop units which are part

of other complexes.Those responsible for the overall management

of multi-use shopping areas should refer to theLarge Places of Assembly guide.

■ Fire Safety Risk Assessment – Factories andwarehousesThis guide is for use in connection with premis-es where the main use of the building, or partof the building, is a factory or warehouseincluding:● large and small factories;● manufacturing warehouses;


NEW FIRE SAFETY RULESRRO 2005

Identification of general fire

precautions is made as a result

of the responsible person

carrying out risk assessments,

which must be regularly

reviewed to ensure they

are up-to-date.

The Department for

Communities and Local

Government has published a

number of guides relating to

the different types of

premises that are covered

by the RRO 2005.


● storage warehouses; and● factories with warehouses.

■ Fire Safety Risk Assessment – SleepingaccommodationMost domestic premises are excluded from therequirements of the RRO 2005. However, thelegislation has limited application to sleepingaccommodation, including: ● common areas of houses in multiple occupa-

tion, flats and maisonettes and shelteredaccommodation where care is not provided;

● holiday chalets, holiday flat complexes,camping, caravan and holiday parks (otherthan privately owned individual units);

● areas in work places where staff “sleepingin” is a condition of the employment or abusiness requirement as in licensed premisesor hotels.

Hospitals, residential care and nursing homesand prisons and other establishments where

people are in lawful custody are excluded from thescope of this guide.

■ Fire Safety Risk Assessment – EducationalpremisesThis guidance relates to:● schools including Sunday schools and after

school clubs;● universities;● academies;● crèches;● adult education centres;● outdoor education centres; and● music schools.

■ Fire Safety Risk Assessment – Small andmedium places of assembly For the purposes of this guidance “small”means premises accommodating up to 60people and “medium” means premisesaccommodating up to 300 people. This guid-ance is relevant to the following types ofpremises:● public houses;● clubs;● village halls and community centres;● churches and other religious centres; and● marquees and tents.Sports grounds and common areas of shopping

malls are covered by separate guidance.

■ Fire Safety Risk Assessment – Large placesof assemblyThis guidance is applicable to the following



Hospitals, residential care and

nursing homes and prisons and

other establishments where

people are in lawful custody

are excluded from the scope

of this guide.

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types of premises, if more than 300 peoplecould gather there:● sports stadia;● exhibition and conference centres;● large nightclubs;● churches, cathedrals, other places of wor-

ship;● community centres and village halls;● common areas of shopping malls; and● premises that adjoin other complexes such

as shopping centres.

■ Fire Safety Risk Assessment – Theatres andcinemas This guidance is designed for premises wherethe main use of the building, or part of thebuilding, is a theatre, cinema or multi-screencinema. Concert halls are also covered by thisguidance.

There are four further specific guides which arecurrently being developed by DCLG and will bepublished in due course.

■ Fire Safety Risk Assessment – Residentialcare premisesThis guide will be for premises where the mainuse of the building, or part of the building, is toprovide residential care. It will be intended fornon-domestic residential premises with staff in

attendance at all times and where many, mostor all of the residents would require carer assis-tance to be safe in the event of a fire i.e. whereresidents would not be able to make their wayto a place of safety unaided. These couldinclude:● residential and nursing homes; ● rehabilitation premises providing residential

treatment and care for addiction; and● care homes and care homes with nursing (as

defined by the Care Standards Act).The guide will not be for day-care centres with

no residential clients, sheltered accommodationwhere no care is provided, hospitals or out-postednursing care in single private dwellings.

■ Fire Safety Risk Assessment – OutdoorEventsThis guide will cover premises holding outdoorevents and venues will include:

● zoos;● music concerts; ● sporting events; ● firework displays; and● markets.

■ Fire Safety Risk Assessment – HealthcarePremisesThis guide will be for premises where the mainuse of the building, or part of the building, is toprovide healthcare including:● hospitals; ● medical centres; and ● other healthcare premises.

This guide will not be intended for use in careand nursing homes, rehabilitation premises, day-care centres with no residential clients, shelteredaccommodation, out-posted nursing care in singleprivate dwellings and staff accommodation.

■ Fire Safety Risk Assessment – Transportpremises and facilitiesThis guide will cover transport premises andfacilities including:● train, bus, coach and airport transportation

terminals and exchanges; ● rail and road tunnels; ● passenger ferry ports and facilities; ● taxi stands and facilities; and ● shipping ports and terminals.

This guide will not apply to the offices andshops within transport premises and facilities.

A basic guide (Entry Level Guide – A shortguide to making your premises safe from fire)is also available that provides simple and practicaladvice to people responsible for fire safety in smalland medium businesses. IFP



For further information,please contact: Anna Rabin of JeffreyGreen Russell Tel: 020 7339 7038Email: [email protected]

This guide will be for

premises where the main

use of the building, or part

of the building, is to

provide residential care.

This guidance is designed for

premises where the main use

of the building, or part of the

building, is a theatre, cinema

or multi-screen cinema.

This guide will cover transport

premises and facilities.

This guide will be for premises

where the main use of

the building, or part of the

building, is to provide

healthcare.


Vetrotech SGI w/p 16/2/06 1:34 pm Page 1


WIND TURBINES

Total loss

When a fire starts in a wind turbine, thedestruction can be complete. Many exist-ing fire prevention systems merely detect

fire and raise the alarm, but as a turbine can be upto 100 metres tall, with rotor blades longer indiameter than the wingspan of a jumbo jet, thereis very little the fire brigade can do to reach andtackle the blaze once summoned. Therefore, thedamage has to be considered as a total loss, froman insurance point of view. But the loss of theturbine is not the only risk. Without adequateprotection in place, it can be very difficult to evac-uate technicians working in the turbine’s nacelle,particularly when the turbine is off-shore, whiledue again to this sheer height, and the size of

the rotors, burning debris falling to the ground or caught on the wind can result in seriousunforeseen structural and fire damage in thesurrounding area.

UnderstandingAs a country that generates 20% of its electricitywith wind power, Denmark has for many yearsboasted some of the industry’s market leaders inthe production of wind turbines. As a result, manyDanish sub-suppliers have become experts within,and brought innovation to, numerous areasaround wind turbine performance, design andsafety. One such company is Danfoss Semco A/S, aspecialist in developing and supplying fire-fightingsystems for use on land and at sea.

By Palle Madsbjeg

Sales ManagerDanfoss Semco

It is very dangerouswhen the fire gets outof control in a windturbine, after a whileburning parts will startfalling to the ground

The wind of changeWind generated power is the fastest growing energy source in the world. Thisis not surprising when you consider that a single wind turbine is capable ofgenerating up to 1.5 megawatts. As a result, wind farms are already foundacross America and in every country in Europe yet the industry is growing by 20-30% annually. And as the popularity of this technology continues to grow,so must the focus on effective means of protecting wind turbines and theirsurrounding environment from the risk of fire.

© D

anfo

ss S

emco

P. 33-35 The wind of change 28/9/06 10:06 am Page 33

The problemA wind turbine’s profitability is determined by itssize. Winds are stronger at higher altitudes so thetaller a turbine’s blades stand, the more efficientand cost effective its performance. And as the sizeand use of wind turbines have grown, so has thework within and around the industry to identify

and eliminate areas of vulnerability. The structureof both turbines and their towers has beenaddressed to reduce vibrations and structuralweaknesses. And because they are so difficult toaccess much has already been done to protectagainst fire caused by exploding transformers,lightning or overheated brakes. However, the largeamount of oil used in a wind turbine, from thehydraulic system to the oil-cooled transformersand oil-lubricated gearboxes continues to presenta huge fire risk, one that has the potential tospread throughout the whole construction andcause damage further a field.

The solutionThe Danfoss Semco water-mist system combinesfire detection and fire-fighting to ensure thatrather than hope for the fire brigade, a fire can beidentified and extinguished before damage occurs.When the sensors detect fire, they shut down theturbine, thus reducing damage to moving partsand isolating the fire, before dispersing a mist ofwater droplets to tackle the fire. Fitted within thenacelle, and powered by a pump capable of pro-ducing 100 Bars at the nozzle, this high-pressuremist evaporates to absorb heat, displace availableoxygen and cool the nacelle, all of which starvethe fire and prevent the chance of re-ignition.

The challengesThere are a number of challenges to successfullydesigning and implementing a system such as this.It’s not enough that it can extinguish a fire undertest conditions, it also has to fulfil the require-ments of insurers, wind turbine producers andlocal authorities. But through thorough researchand development and the combination of its firesuppression technology and manufacturing capa-bilities, Danfoss Semco has been able to overcomethese obstacles and develop and roll out system tomeets the needs of this growing industry.

SensorsThe first consideration is the origin of any poten-tial fire – the nacelle. All wind turbines have one inwhich the gearbox, generator, brakes and thevarious shafts are housed and where techniciansgain access to carry out maintenance. However,though all turbines work on the same principles,when it comes to the nacelle, one size definitelydoes not fit all. So for the system to work its firedetectors have to be tested within and engineeredto operate in every specific nacelle space.

Water-mist technologyAnd like the sensors, the type of fire extinguisherwas also informed by the conditions inside thenacelle. As the nacelle presents a challenging


Side view of a nacelle ofa wind turbine, withhigh pressure water mistextinguishing systeminstalled

THE WIND OF CHANGEWIND TURBINES


environment of draughts, high humidity and large differences in temperature, identifying theright fire-suppression technology is critical. High-pressure water mist was finally selected followinginitial tests with gas. Powered by a pump, the mistsystem offers better coverage and a longer disper-sion time than a one-shot gas system powered bya cylinder. What’s more, as the pump is poweredby electricity and not gas, it eliminates the needfor pressure bottles to be stored in the nacelle,taking up space and adding to the potential risksfor technicians working on the turbine.

Constant powerTo secure this power to the pump, no matter whathappens, the system has a triple supply. Con-nected to the wind turbine and the public powersupply, the system also has a battery bank toguarantee it never fails. Charged by the turbine,the battery bank can run the pump for a completeextinguishing period if all other sources of powerwere lost.

Extra protectionIn addition to the Danfoss Semco water mistsystem to protect the nacelle, a special indepen-dent system is also available to protect thehydraulics within the rotating hub. Though oftenoverlooked, its potential fire risk is not to beignored. Developing fire-fighting systems thatcould be incorporated into the hub requiredextensive research and development and was onlypossible due to strong relationships with andcooperation from wind turbine producers.

The futureThe growth of wind power shows no signs ofabating. 13 countries throughout the developingworld are currently undertaking studies with theUnited Nations in the hopes of adapting windturbine technology. Meanwhile in the west, thetechnology is being used more and more in orderto reduce carbon emissions in line with the KyotoProtocol. In Europe, where available land is at apremium, this means the development of offshorewind farms in order to generate 50,000megawatts of power by 2025. And as the industrycontinues to develop, particularly at sea whererisks are even greater and access is furtherdiminished, so will the demands of insurers andlocal authorities to install an effective fire-fightingsystem. It’s the only way to ensure that windpower really will protect the environment. IFP


The compact pumpsystem brings severaladvantages, and is theheart of the system

THE WIND OF CHANGEWIND TURBINES

The power of two

WATER MISTSYSTEM

HIGH & LOW PRESSURECO2 SYSTEMS

FOAM F IRE EXT INGUI SH INGSYSTEM

DRY CHEMICAL POWDER F IREEXT INGUI SH ING SYSTEM

DANFOSS SEMCO A/S

FIRE PROTECTION

SVENDBORGVEJ 253 ,

DK-5260 ODENSE C.

PHONE: +45 7026 3801 ,

FAX: +45 70263802 ,

[email protected]

www.danfoss-semco.com

IMAGINE a �re �ghting system that puts out the �re in seconds, with minimal consumption of water and water damage, while giving you the best possible protection. At Danfoss Semco, that is what you get.

Focused exclusively on high-technology �re �ghting solutions for countless applications, Danfoss Semco A/S is a new and powerful �re protection company. Founded on more than 30 years of expertise in the design, manufacturing and installation of high-technology �re �ght-ing systems, Danfoss Semco unites two worldwide industrial leaders: Danfoss A/S and Semco Maritime A/S.


Eusebi w/p 18/5/06 10:37 am Page 1


SPRINKLER SYSTEMS

Designers frequently employ clean agentsystems to protect high value property,susceptible to water damage. Clean agent

systems are gaseous fire suppression systemscapable of detecting and extinguishing fires veryearly in their development. These systems arenormally designed to provide adequate suppres-sion without damage to property or occupants.Generally there is little or no clean up after adischarge. Clean agent systems are well suited as a first line of defense. Unfortunately, clean agentsystems have significant drawbacks making themless attractive when used alone.

There is a better way. Combining automaticsprinkler systems with clean agent systems is anattractive option. This exploits the strengths, andminimizes the weaknesses of each system. Still notconvinced? Read on…

In this article we establish a generic frameworkto compare and contrast clean agent systems withautomatic sprinkler systems. The objective is tosurvey strengths and weaknesses of each system.Ultimately, we will demonstrate that combiningsystems, results in more effective protection,improved reliability, and lower costs of ownershipthan clean agent systems alone.

First let’s establish some boundaries on the typeof property and fire hazard considered. For thepurposes of this article, it is property or spaces abuilding owner considers irreplaceable or critical tooperations. Examples include computer equipmentrooms, and historical artifacts holdings. In moretechnical terms, we are addressing Class A (normalcombustibles) and Class C (electrical or electronicequipment) fires. Other types of fires such as Class B(flammable and combustible liquids), Class D (com-bustible metals), and Class K (cooking oil) requireconsiderations beyond what is addressed here.

Characteristics of SuccessfulExtinguishing SystemsProtecting high value property places emphasis onsome key characteristics of fire protection systems.The following questions normally must beaddressed by such a system:1 Does it extinguish or control the type of fire

expected?2 Does it extinguish the fire early in its

development?3 Does it protect against reignition?4 Does it operate reliably?5 Does it minimize collateral damage and cleanup?6 Is it maintainable?7 Is it cost effective?

Clean Agent FundamentalsClean agent systems generally consist of detec-tion, notification, control panels, piping, tanks,and discharge nozzles. They are usually interfacedto HVAC systems, the main fire alarm panel,automatic door closers, and power systems forprotected equipment.

Storage tanks are usually stored near the spaceprotected. The tanks are equipped with a valve(actuator) which releases agent from the tanks intoa piping network. The piping network terminatesat nozzles that discharge into the protected space.

Detection is a critical piece of the clean agentsystem. The detection system can take the form ofspot type smoke detectors, air sampling systems oreven flame detectors. The detection should besuited to the hazard.

The logic or sequence of events is handled bythe releasing panel. Normally, the releasing panelmonitors the detection system to determine if afire is present. Upon alarm, the releasing panelmay close HVAC dampers, close doors, de-energize

By Bobby Patrick

Consulting EngineerRolf Jensen &Associates, Inc.

Protecting HighValue PropertyWith PreactionSprinkler SystemsDon’t throw the baby out with thebathwater!“I don’t want water anywhere near my data center!”; “If this room goes down,it costs us hundreds of thousands of dollars per minute”; “These are pricelessartifacts which simply can’t be protected with water”. Building owners quicklydiscard the use of automatic fire sprinkler systems in sensitive areas, based onunfounded fears of water damage. Unfortunately, removing automatic sprinklersystems as an option, removes the most reliable form of protection available.

P. 37-42 Protecting High Value 28/9/06 9:32 am Page 37

electrical equipment, and open the actuator at thestorage tanks.

A critical component of the clean agent systemis the integrity of the space protected. The pro-tected space must be constructed so that it cancontain the agent during a discharge. Penetrationsin the walls, floors, and ceilings must be sealed toprevent leakage. Dampers in HVAC system mustclose during the discharge. Door sweeps must beinstalled to minimize leakage. In addition tocontaining the agent, the protected space must becapable of withstanding the pressure changes thatoccur during a discharge. This is typically accom-plished with carefully designed vent relief systemthat are tailored to the agent.

Preaction Automatic SprinklerFundamentalsPreaction sprinkler systems consist of a delugevalve, piping, closed sprinkler heads, detection andcontrol, an air supply, and a water supply.

Preaction sprinkler systems are a variation ofwet and dry pipe sprinkler systems. The primarypurpose of preaction systems is to control fire,while reducing the possibility of accidental waterrelease. Preaction systems employ a deluge valveto keep water out of the piping over the protectedarea until it is needed to control a fire.

Preaction systems depend on two distinctevents to occur before water is discharged. First, adetection and control system must provide a signalto the deluge valve. Secondly, a sprinkler headmust actuate or “open”. These two events can becombined in three four different ways to deter-mine how the system introduces water into thepiping. The trade off in each of these schemes isbalancing water delivery time with the potentialfor accidental water discharge.

Non-interlock – If detection devices signal alarmor if a sprinkler head opens, the deluge valve opensand water fills the piping. This configurationprovides the fastest discharge of water onto thefire. It is not an optimal solution for high valueproperty susceptible to water damage. If the pipingor sprinklers are damaged, water immediately fillsthe pipe and discharges from the damaged area.

Single interlock – If detection devices signalalarm, the deluge valve opens and water fills thepiping. Water will not discharge from the pipinguntil a sprinkler head opens. This provides a goodbalance between water delivery time and protec-tion against accidental discharge.

Double interlock (electric/electric) – If detectiondevices signal alarm and a sprinkler head opens,the deluge valve opens and water fills the piping.Both events must occur for water to enter thepiping. This configuration provides the slowestresponse time of the three. It is often used infreezing environments where a false detection canfill the system with water, which in turn can freezeand disable the system.

Double interlock (electric/pneumatic) – The oper-ation of this type system is identical to theelectric/electric double interlock system with onemain difference. The loss of system piping air pres-sure is monitored mechanically via a pneumaticactuator instead of electrically via a pressure switch.

The double action system configurationsprovide the slowest response time.

Evaluating Strengths and WeaknessesNow, using the framework outlined earlier we willreview each item against clean agent and preactionsprinkler systems. Each framework component willbe ranked (comparatively) high, medium, or lowfor each system. A discussion for each ranking isprovided.

Does it extinguish or control the typeof fire expected?How effectively can the system extinguish firesexpected within the protected space? This purelyevaluates the ability of the extinguishing mech-anism to control the fire assuming the systemoperates as designed.

Preaction (HIGH)Water is the most effective extinguishing agent forfighting the majority of fires (Friedman). It is highlyeffective at controlling Class A fires and canefficiently control Class C fires when properlyinstalled and maintained (Frank).

On average, where sprinkler systems areinstalled, property damage was reduced by 53%for office settings and higher in other settings. Theaverage number of fire deaths was reduced by60% for manufacturing, 74% for office settings,and higher for other properties (Rohr).

Clean Agent (MEDIUM)Clean agents are selected and designed to extin-guish fires expected to occur in a given space. Inmost cases Class A and Class C fires use identicaldesigns. A key factor in the design of these sys-tems is the selection of the proper concentrationof agent. In most cases a 20% safety factor isadded to the concentration.

Clean agents are not as effective as water forextinguishing fires. Much scrutiny surrounds cleanagents’ ability to fully extinguish Class A fires(Robinson). NASA noted that the ability for Halon1301 to extinguish Class A fires is poor (Robinson)because it doesn’t have a substantial cooling effectwhich may result in reignition once the agent dissi-pates. It is important to understand that Halon1301 is generally a more effective extinguishingagent than its current clean agent predecessors.

Does it extinguish a fire very early inits development?Extinguishing the fire very early limits the impactof fire and smoke. As a fire grows it releases moreheat and smoke. High value property protection is


PROTECTING HIGH VALUE PROPERTY WITH PREACTION SPRINKLER SYSTEMSSPRINKLER SYSTEMS


highly dependent on very early detection andextinguishment.

Preaction (LOW)As pointed out previously, preaction systemsdepend on two inputs to actually deliver water tothe fire. The detection system can be designed todetect fires very early. The same detection systemsavailable for clean agent can be used for preactionsystems. So, with early detection we can fill thepiping with water. You may remember, however,that no water will be released until a sprinklerhead actuates. Sprinkler heads are essentially heatdetectors which do not provide very earlyresponse. Sprinkler heads do not actuate untilsignificant amounts of heat collect at the ceiling.This results in a very slow response compared toclean agent systems.

Clean Agent (High)Clean agent systems rely on the detection systemfor discharge. The sensitivity of the detection sys-tem can be adjusted to provide earlier response.Of course there is a trade off between early dis-charge and the potential for a false or unwanteddischarge. Verly early warning smoke detection,such as air sampling, can be used to augment the release detection system but not play a part inthe release sequence.Of course there is a trade offbetween early discharge and the potential for falsedischarge. Once the fire is detected, clean agentscan discharge immediately. Compared to preactionsystems, clean agent systems provide a muchearlier response to fire.

Does it protect against reignition?If the burning surface is not adequately cooled,flaming can easily resume. The system shouldprovide adequate protection against reignition.

Preaction (HIGH)Water extinguishes combustion through combin-ations of the following: cooling the surface,cooling the flame, oxygen displacement (viasteam), and blocking radiation (via fog).

Automatic sprinkler systems generally musthave at least a 30 minute water supply (includingwater for manual fire fighting) (NFPA 13, 2002 ed.Table 11.2.3.1.1). Normally these systems are con-nected to a city water supply which can provide




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fire fighting water much longer. After the fire isextinguished the sprinkler system will likely betemporarily turned off to limit water damage. If afire reignites, the sprinkler system can be reactivatedalmost effortlessly.

Cooling the surface and providing an abundantwater supply provides strong protection againstreignition.

Clean Agent (LOW)Clean agents have various modes of extinguishment.Clean agents generally provide extinguishmentthrough some combination of cooling the flame,chemical interruption of the combustion process,and local oxygen displacement.

If the agent doesn’t successfully cool the sourceof the fire, reignition can occur. For example, ifsufficient quantities of Halon agent do not reachthe source of the fire in liquid form, cooling doesnot occur at the burning surface (even though thegaseous flame is extinguished). As the agent leaksout of the room reignition can readily occur(Friedman).

A significant weakness for clean agent systemsis that they empty the tank contents immediately.In some cases, a reserve supply is provided. If theinitial supply didn’t extinguish the fire, the reservesupply may not be successful either.

Does the system operate reliably?Reliability is the ability of the system to operate underdesignated operating conditions for a designatedperiod of time or number of cycles (Modarres).

Preaction (HIGH)Fire sprinkler systems are inherently simple. Theirsimple construction and means of operationmakes them highly reliable. Recent data showsthat fire sprinkler systems failed to function in

about 7% of structure fires. Two thirds of thefailures occurred because the system was manuallyshut off some time before the fire occurred (Rohr).The majority of sprinkler system failures wereactually caused by human intervention, not thesystem. To be fair, preaction sprinkler systems areless reliable than standard wet pipe systems. This isdue to the fact that preaction systems are morecomplicated and have more failure modes thanstandard wet systems.

Clean Agent (MEDIUM)Clean agent systems are more complicated thansprinkler systems. Clean agent systems are subjectto more failure modes. To work properly, thesesystems typically depend on detection, proper con-trol sequence, closing dampers in HVAC systems,closing doors (where closes are employed),mechanical actuation of valves and the ability ofthe enclosure to hold the agent long enough forextinguishment. Failure at any of these points cancause complete failure of the system. Simplypropping open the door can cause completesystem failure.

Does the system minimize collateraldamage and cleanup?

Preaction (MEDIUM)The most controversial aspect of using water toprotect high value property is its potential impacton the property its self. It has been shown that if afire is large enough to activate the sprinkler sys-tem, the water delivered will not substantiallyincrease damage beyond what is already occurringdue to fire, smoke, and manual hose streams(Frank). Water damage caused by fire sprinklers islikely to be less extensive than fire and smokedamage in their absence (Rasbash).

Cleanup after sprinkler discharge can be some-what more challenging. This requires drying outequipment or property and draining water fromthe room. Without a sprinkler system, the water(from hose streams) and fire damage cleanupwould likely have been more extensive than watercleanup from a sprinkler system alone.

Clean Agent (HIGH)The strongest selling point of clean agent systemsis their minimal collateral damage and cleanup (ifany). Most of these agents don’t require anysignificant cleanup.

Is the system easily maintainable?

Preaction (HIGH)Preaction sprinkler systems only require typicalinspections for the alarm and sprinkler systems.These are typical maintenance and inspectionsgenerally required within most buildings.

Clean agent (MEDIUM)Clean agent systems also require typical inspec-tions of the detection and releasing equipment.These inspections are somewhat more involvedthan typical alarm and sprinkler type inspections.All system interfaces such as HVAC dampers andunits must be thoroughly tested.

Most importantly the enclosure integrity mustbe maintained over time. Very often, penetrationsin the walls or above the ceiling are not properly




Reliable 8/8/06 9:48 am Page 1

sealed. Over time, the ability to hold the agentafter discharge degrades.

Is the system cost effective?

Preaction (HIGH)Preaction sprinkler systems are more expensivethan conventional systems because detectionsystems, and deluge valves must be installed.Compared to other forms of protection, preactionsprinkler systems are highly affordable.

Clean agent (LOW)Clean agent systems are more expensive thanpreaction systems primarily due to the cost of theagent. In some cases the agent costs are very low;however, this is offset by more expensive equip-ment costs (in those cases). Clean agent systemsalso require that the enclosure be properly sealed,and tested. They require interfaces to varioussystems such as dampers in the HVAC system anddoor closers. All of theseThese considerationsmake clean agent systems relatively expensive.

ConclusionIn most cases, one should not be decidingbetween sprinkler systems and preaction cleanagent systems to protect high value property.Rather, combining the two systems provides thebest overall solution (see Table 1). This creates twodistinct lines of defense in which each system’sstrengths compensate for the other’s weakness.The two systems, one backing up the other, alsobuy precious time. The clean agent system canhold a fire in check allowing for possible human

intervention. Using a preaction sprinkler system toprotect high value property essentially eliminatesthe risk of accidental water discharge in theprotected area. If called upon during a fire, the sprinkler system will actually minimize collateraldamage compared to no sprinkler system andmanual fire fighting. So, randomly discardingsprinkler systems to avoid water damage is like“throwing the baby out with the bathwater”! Usethe right type of sprinkler system to fulfill yourproject’s needs.

ResourcesFrank, John A. “Characteristics and Hazards of Water andWater Additives for Fire Suppression.” Fire ProtectionHandbook. Nineteenth Edition. Quincy, Massachusetts:National Fire Protection Association, Inc., 2003. pp. 10-7through 10-15.Friedman, Raymond. “Theory of Fire Extinguishment.”Fire Protection Handbook. Nineteenth Edition. Quincy,Massachusetts: National Fire Protection Association,Inc., 2003. pp. 2-83 through 2-95.Rasbash, D.J., et al. Evaluation of Fire Safety. WestSussex, England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2004. Rohr, Kimberly D., Hall, John R. “U.S. Experience With Sprinklers and Other Fire Extinguishing Equip-ment”. Quincy, Massachusetts: National Fire ProtectionAssociation, Inc., 2005Modarres, Mohammad., Joglar-Billoch, Francisco.“Reliability.” The SFPE Handook of Fire Protection Engi-neering. Third Edition. Quincy, Massachusetts: NationalFire Protection Association, Inc., 2002. pp. 5-24through 5-39.Robinson, R.M. “Fire Extinguishing Systems forComputers in Australia: Halon 1301 vs. Water”.Unpublished.

IFP



Bobby Patrick is aConsulting Engineer for RolfJensen & Associates, Inc., aleading fire protection and

life safety consulting firm. Heis based in the Chicago officeand can be reached by phone

(312-879-7200) or Email([email protected])

Criterion Preaction Clean agent Combined Discussion

Does it extinguish or HIGH MEDIUM HIGH The combined systems provide two lines ofcontrol the type of fire defense. Clean agents provide early suppression,expected? while preaction protects the overall structure

from catastrophic loss.

Does it extinguish a fire LOW HIGH HIGH The clean agent system provides early detectionvery early in its and control.development?

Does it protect against HIGH LOW HIGH The preaction system provides complete backup reignition? to protect against reignition after the clean

agent system has emptied its contents.

Does the system operate HIGH MEDIUM HIGH The preaction system provides overall reliability reliably? against catastrophic loss.

Does the system minimize MEDIUM HIGH HIGH The clean agent system acts early to extinguish collateral damage and the fire before the sprinkler system engages. Ifcleanup? the sprinkler system engages, it provides less

collateral damage than the fire and manual firefighting operations.

Is the system easily HIGH MEDIUM MEDIUM Combining the two systems does not alleviate maintainable? the need to maintain the clean agent system.

Alternatively it doesn’t make overall maintenance more difficult.

Is the system cost HIGH LOW MEDIUM Often, the alternative to combining these effective? systems, is to provide primary and secondary

clean agent quantities. This effectively doubles (or more) the amount of agent required on site.Using a single discharge of clean agent (nosecondary) with a preaction sprinkler system asbackup is significantly cheaper.

Table 1. Impact of Combining Preaction and Clean Agent Systems for Protecting High ValueProperty


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POOL AND JET FIRES

Ahydrocarbon fire will generate temperatures of more than 1000°C within ten minutes of ignition with heat fluxes of around

150 KW/m2. A jet fire will exhibit the same tem-perature rise, but the heat flux could be doublethat of the pool fire.

There are two types of passive fire protectionnormally used in hydrocarbon processing complexes,namely cementitious and epoxy intumescent.

Cementitious products are generally based onPortland cement plus exfoliated vermiculite andlightweight aggregates. These products are deliv-ered to the jobsite in sacks or one-ton bags andare mixed with water before being spray or trowelapplied. Cementitious materials protect the steel intwo ways. Firstly, they contain trapped water of

crystallisation, which in a fire situation will bereleased and keep the steel around 100°C untilthe water has all been released. The product thenacts secondly as an insulator.

Epoxy intumescent coatings are two com-ponent, usually solvent free materials, which aredelivered to the jobsite in drums, which are mixedtogether before being spray and trowel applied. Inthe event of fire these coatings intumesce (i.e.they swell to 4 or 6 times their original thickness)to form a tough insulating carbonaceous char.

The areas that are fire protected to resist hydro-carbon fire in land based oil and gas-processingfacilities are, pipelines, vessels, structural steel andstorage tanks.

It is important that passive fire protection

By Ian Stewart

Ameron Coatings

Passive FireProtection: Structural Steel, Vessels andStorage Tanks in the Oil and GasIndustries In the oil and gas industries there is always the ever present risk of a major fire.There are two scenarios of fire that may occur in a hydrocarbon-processingcomplex and both can be devastating. The first is a pool fire and this occurswhen a flammable liquid leaks from a vessel or pipeline to form a fluid reservoir,which then ignites. The second and potentially more dangerous type is a jet fire,which can happen following the rupture of a pressurized vessel and or gaspipeline.

Picture courtesy ofAmeron Coatings

P. 45-46 Passive Fire 28/9/06 9:33 am Page 45

products are fire tested to the appropriatestandard. In the past Hydrocarbon fire testing hasbeen carried out to BS476 Part 20 and 21:1987following the hydrocarbon time/temperaturecurve. In America testing is carried out to theUnderwriters Laboratory UL 1709 hydrocarbon firetest. Recently, fire testing has been carried out tothe European Standard ENV 13381-4:2002 follow-ing the hydrocarbon time/temperature curve usingthe new plate thermocouple to measure thefurnace temperature.

Jet fire testing is carried out in accordance withOTI 95-634 Offshore Technology Report – Jet Fireresistance test. In France a GASAFE test is carriedout for the passive fire protection of LPG and LNGStorage tanks.

The passive fire protection material is applied ata thickness to maintain the steel, in the case ofstructures, below the critical temperature of550°C. The thickness depends on the steel sectionsize. Typically passive fire protection materialswould be expected to delay the collapse of aloaded steel section for 2 hours in a hydrocarbonfire. The higher the mass per linear metre of thesteel section, the lower the thickness of passivefire protection will be required for the same timeperiod.

In the case of steel vessels, pipelines and stor-age tanks consideration has to be given to vesselwall thickness and the likely temperature at which

the steel would rupture. The thickness of passivefire protection applied to the surface of a vesselwould be related to critical temperature, which istypically 400°C. The process engineer woulddefine the actual critical temperature at the designstage.

The life of the passive fire protection system willalways be dependent on using the best primersystem to give optimum corrosion protection of theunderlying steel. In addition, weather protectionand chemical resistance can be improved by usingthe latest advanced protective coating topcoatse.g. engineered epoxy polysiloxane topcoats.

In comparison, passive fire protection productssuch as cementitious and epoxy intumescent offer many benefits. The primary benefit beingthat the fire protection is not reliant on a systemthat requires activation either automatically ormanually. If properly applied by experiencedinstallers, passive fire protection products requirelittle maintenance and thus their whole life cost is low.

So whether it’s a pool fire or jet fire, there is apassive fire protection solution to a hydrocarbonfire exposure. These solutions in many cases havebeen in use since the 1970’s and now have thetrack record to complement our knowledge oftheir long term performance. IFP


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P. 45-46 Passive Fire 28/9/06 9:33 am Page 46

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EVACUATION

Since the World Trade Centre incident 2001,there have been concerns regarding theresponse of a population to an emergency

procedure. It is feared that there may be somereluctance in following emergency procedures,particularly where sections of the population areexpected to remain in the structure while othersare evacuated. This reluctance may have alwaysexisted, but has become more of a factor since theWorld Trade Centre incident and the confused andcontradictory procedural instructions provided,and the widespread portrayal of this in the media,has brought this issue to the fore.

The concept of the emergency procedure isbased on the assumption that a population isreceptive to instruction and that they will followthe established protocol. In order to satisfy the

need for procedural designs, a speciality engineer-ing discipline has emerged over the past fewdecades to provide to this need. However, the useof some of the basic tools available to the proce-dural designer (e.g. the ability to defend in place,to perform phased evacuations, etc.) have nowcome into question. These new problems can beadded to those that have clearly been with us fora while; e.g. getting people to respond whenrequested, managing their movement, etc. [ref]This article raises some of the problems with man-aging and designing for the evacuation from a tallbuilding and discusses some remedial actions.

The Procedural PhasesThe development of an emergency (and theresponse to it) is categorised into three broad

By S. M. V. Gwynne

Hughes Associates, Inc.

Post-WTCManagement ofEmergencyMovement fromTall BuildingsAn emergency evacuation as a result of fire or other emergency, forces apopulation into an unusual and stressful situation. The safety of this populationrequires organisation by emergency managers who determine who needs to actand what needs to be done. This is especially true in tall structures. Withoutthese procedures, the egress routes within many tall structures would behopelessly overloaded1,2 and their simultaneous use (primarily staircases) wouldexceed their design limits.

P. 49-53 Post-WTC Management 28/9/06 9:35 am Page 49

phases: Preparation, Notification and Response,and Procedural Implementation. In reality, thesephases often overlap and interact with each other.

These phases pose different problems and requiredifferent procedural, technological and structuralactions in order to address them. In the next sectionseach of these phases are discussed in terms of theproblems that they may pose, the means of address-ing these issues and the consequences of failure.

Phase I – Preparation: Implementing anEffective DesignSafety managers and designers employ severaltechniques to prepare a resident population for anemergency. These include emergency training,documentation, lectures and exercise drills. All of these events occur prior to the event andshould take place over a period of time. Thepreparation for the evacuation procedure is aprocess that therefore requires assessment, designand reinforcement over a period of time.

In reality, these preparatory measures are oftenseen by the resident population as a burden. Thetraining is reluctantly attended and the drillsavoided if possible. Where drills are announced,residents often take action to reduce the incon-venience of the event. When drills are unan-nounced, producing more reliable feedback onperformance, there is usually an associated degreeof resentment. Unfortunately safe preparation isnot often given the given the time and attentionrequired. This has consequences.

To successfully prepare a population and for anemergency procedure to be effective, several keyobjectives need to be achieved: ● the procedure needs to produce an efficient

evacuation; ● the procedure should be instilled into the resi-

dent population, such that they have sufficientknowledge and familiarity to follow it;

● the population (which may include impaired,intoxication, fatigued, etc.) must be able toperform the actions required of them;

● the population’s familiarity with the procedureneeds to be maintained;

● and finally, the population needs to havesufficient confidence in the procedure in orderto trust it and enact it. These objectives are inextricably linked. A well-

designed, simple procedure that is sufficientlyexplained on a regular basis is more likely to beunderstood, and then to be followed. However, itis contended that the first four of these objectivesare completely irrelevant unless the final objectiveis met. This final objective is often overlooked; it isalso the most difficult issue to resolve. It is sensitiveto issues beyond the fire safety of the structure inquestion and is not simply about design.

One approach that might be employed toaddress this problem is to increase the involvementof the resident population during the designpreparation. By doing so, and encouraging theirinput and engaging them throughout, two mainadvantages may be gained: 1 The designer may gain valuable insight into the

actual use of the building from the residentpopulation. This information may be of greatvalue during the design process. For instance,by having a more realistic assessment of the‘normal’ use of the building, the design of the procedure can take it into considerationand better cater for it. The greater the similaritybetween emergency and normal activities, thesmaller the adjustment that has to be made bythe population.

2 The resident population will be more likely tounderstand the procedures employed and theirunderlying assumptions. They will then be morelikely to feel part of the design process ratherthan being subject to it. It may also help thepopulation deal with situations where eventshave superseded the procedure. By knowingthe procedure’s underlying principles, they maythen be able to adapt in situations where theyhave to fend for themselves.Both of these encourage the population to be

more engaged and have more confidence in the procedure. This may increase the probability of them following the procedure during anemergency.

Tall structures often have numerous tenants.Depending on their size, these tenants may havetheir own emergency procedures. The proceduresmay therefore differ between neighbouring tenants.If there are serious discrepancies between differenttenants then several problems may emerge: 1 The procedures may interfere with each other.

The design calculations made regarding theeffectiveness of these procedures may then notbe accurate. Usually these calculations wouldhave been performed without taking intoconsideration the procedures employed byneighbouring tenants.

2 The sight of alternative procedures beingemployed may confuse evacuees. They maythen choose to deviate from the procedureemployed by their organisation. This maydisrupt the outcome of the procedure and may detract from the performance of theprocedures concerned.It is therefore vital that an integrated approach

is adopted between tenants, or that they at leastare familiar with other’s procedures. As part of thepreparation for an incident, the proceduresemployed by neighbouring organisations shouldbe taken into consideration. This becomes all themore important when neighbouring tenantsemploy people that speak different languages. Insuch cases, it may not be possible to easily estab-lish the procedure being employed during theemergency.

Phase II – Notification and Response:Making People Aware of the incident Although the emergency procedure should beimplemented once notification has taken place,there will inevitably be a delay in doing so – oftena significant delay.3,4,5 The delay may be due to avariety of factors and will be dependent of the


POST-WTC MANAGEMENT OF EMERGENCY MOVEMENT FROM TALL BUILDINGSEVACUATION

The preparation for the

evacuation procedure is a

process that therefore requires

assessment, design and

reinforcement over a

period of time.


incident scenario. For example, it may involve thepopulation:● Processing notification; e.g. differentiating the

message from other emergency and non-emergency announcements.

● Confirming the nature of the event; e.g. seek-ing further information, confirming informationwith colleagues and safety personnel.

● Performing activities that are not part of theprocedure; e.g. collecting bags, finishing meal,etc.

● Performing role-based activities as part of theprocedures; e.g. shut-down activities.

● Confirming what is required of them.● Preparing to perform the actions required of

them; e.g. determining their first action.Initially, notification requires that the population

diverts their attention away from the activities inwhich they are engaged. The success of this isinitially associated with the clarity of the receptionof the alarm signal – is the population physicallyable to receive the message? Members of thepopulation who do not clearly receive alarm infor-mation may misinterpret or ignore the messageentirely.5,6 It then requires them to comprehendthe significance of the message provided; i.e. thatthey receive the message and then accept that itrepresents an actual event. To attract the attentionof the population, the message needs to clearlydenote the occurrence of an emergency incident.The population needs to be able to differentiatebetween the emergency message and othersignals from adjacent sound systems (on otherfloors, from other companies, security alarms, etc.)or background noises.7 Any difficulty in doing thismight significantly hinder their safe progress.

To comprehend the significance of the message,the population must believe that the messagesignifies a real and imminent threat. The accuracyof this perception is influenced by the frequencywith which the alarm system is tested, thefrequency of malfunctions, and the frequency offalse alarms.7 If these events occur too frequentlythen it may detract from the manner in whichoccupants respond to the signal.6

Therefore, notification systems need to beheard, recognised, and believed. Ideally, theyshould also provide information on the nature ofthe incident and guidance on the requiredresponse, in support of the training provided. Forinstance, a public address system that is able toclearly inform the population of the nature andseverity of the incident leaves less room for mis-interpretation than a tone or signal.8 The provisionof accurate and timely information to thepopulation is more likely to convince them of anincident than a signal alone and may aid them

during their response. A signal might alert them ofan incident, but provide no further information.

There is a misconception that providing timelyinformation will cause the population to paniconce they have realised the nature of the incident.This idea has been largely debunked over the lastfew decades.3,9-10 Instead, it is now widely acceptedthat ineffective behaviour is more likely when theprovision of detailed information is delayed,ambiguous, or avoided altogether, causing adelayed response.8 During such a delay, conditionsmight deteriorate further resulting in less time inwhich to make a decision and fewer alternativesfrom which to choose. In contrast, a moreinformed population is better able to assess the sit-uation and respond accordingly. The same logic isthen applied to the evacuee as to the safety man-ager: timely information helps appropriate actions.

A delay in responding to an incident can haveserious consequences.3,5-7 The longer that theincident has to develop, the greater the risk posedto the resident population. This may involve theloss of potential routes, the worsening of con-ditions, and the contraction of the proceduraltimeline. Therefore it is important for the entireemergency response that the population is notifiedof the incident as quickly as possible, that theybelieve this message and that sufficient infor-mation is provided to them to encourage anappropriate response (i.e. in support of the pro-cedure). The procedure can then be implementedmore quickly. Ironically, this quick response is stillimportant even for those who are initially expectedto remain behind. They may still be required toevacuate at some stage, and will then be able to do so earlier in the timeline of the fire, whenthe egress routes have cleared.

Phase III – Getting People to FollowInstructions Once the population is aware of the incident andhave completed their preparatory actions, they arethen ready to respond to the incident. Ideally thiswould involve them following behaviours allocatedto them by the procedure. This might then involvethem:● Moving towards a place of safety (outside or to

a refuge). In tall structures this will inevitablyinvolve a sizable portion of the populationusing staircases.

● Remaining in place until further notice.There are numerous problems that may arise

during this phase of the emergency. It is the mostcomplex and dynamic phase, given that it involvesthe movement of different sections of the popula-tion. If it progresses ineffectually, it is difficult tocorrect. The problems may be technological,procedural, structural and/or behavioural:● Are the occupants familiar with the procedure?

If not, are there means to inform them of it(e.g. PA systems, staff,etc.)?

● Do the occupants follow the procedure? Isthere staff in place to encourage them to doso?

● Is there sufficient capacity for the egress move-ment to take place? Are there alternative routesavailable?

● Are the occupants familiar with routes avail-able? Is there wayfinding assistance in place tohelp them? Is there staff available to interveneto prevent overcrowding?



The provision of accurate and

timely information to the

population is more likely to

convince them of an incident

than a signal alone and may aid

them during their response.


● Is the capacity available exploited efficiently?Are there means available to manage the use ofthe routes available?

● Does the incident impinge upon this capacity?Are there staff available to redirect peoplewhere necessary or inform them of the condi-tions ahead? As mentioned previously, the consequences of

the occupants not following procedures are seri-ous. This is true especially where the procedurewas specifically designed to prevent overcrowdingat critical components in the egress path. Ifoccupants decide not to remain in the building asintended, then the capacity of the staircasesemployed may be overloaded. This staircase cap-acity will rarely suffice for a full evacuation. It willhave been designed to cope with the simul-taneous use of only a section of the population(those deemed to be at the highest risk).

The capacity of the staircases may also beoverestimated during the original design of theprocedure. Standard calculations generally assumea laminar flow of evacuees along staircase andthat the capacity of the staircase increases linearlywith the (effective) width of the staircase. Thesecalculations are not able to account for the multi-tude of factors that detract from flow on stairs.These include: 1 Physical capabilities of the occupants: fatigue,

differences in physical capabilities, injuries,interaction with physically impaired occupants;

2 Behavioural factors: people moving in groups,information seeking, searching for friends,counter-flow, resting, talking, etc.;

3 Environmental conditions: presence of smoke,darkness, debris, noise from alarm;

4 Procedural issues: insufficient signage/guidance,presence of emergency personnel, familiaritywith various routes. Although the assumed width of the staircase is

often restricted (based on the assumption that aboundary layer is not used1) this reduction wouldstill not account for the numerous factors that maydetract from performance. This estimation is madeless accurate when it is recognised that thesefactors interact and can then reduce performancestill further. Even where more sophisticatedmethods are used, the representation of staircasemovement is still a simplification, excluding manyof the most important factors.11

If, during the design, the stair flow is set toooptimistically, then it may have severe con-sequences. Primarily, it may lead to insufficientcapacity being provided, even assuming that theprocedure is followed. This may be exacerbated if

more people than expected chose to evacuate or iftoo many arrive simultaneously at a location; e.g.this may be due to unnecessary delays in themovement of sections of the population. This maydelay the evacuation of those deemed mostexposed to the incident. It may also mean thatpopulations inadvertently merge at bottlenecks,potentially leading to critical crush conditionsbeing produced. This is especially dangerous whenthe environmental conditions are deterioratingrapidly.12

The four areas identified as detracting from theuse of staircase (i.e. the physical, behavioural,environmental and procedural) can be addressedin a variety of ways, although none of themethods presented resolve the problem completely.With our increasing expertise and additionalmeans to examine this performance undernumerous scenarios (e.g. applying sophisticatedcomputer models), the procedural designer is nowfar better able to determine the effectiveness ofthis measure. However, great expertise is requiredin order to do this, along with the time and themotivation. The time and resources to explorethese issues are not always available and notalways sought.

One method of overcoming the physical limita-tions of the population and the staircase capacityof the structure is to make use of other egressroutes already available within the structure; e.g.protected elevator systems.13 Assuming thatelevators are used by the majority of the popu-lation to enter a tall structure (i.e. that they aremore familiar with the elevators than the stairs),the fire-proofing of these same elevators and theirinclusion within the procedure, may complimentthe use of the staircases during an emergency.Although the inclusion of elevators within anemergency procedure is not trivial (e.g. where dothey stop? How often do they stop? Who getson?, etc.), elevators may provide extra capacityand a level of redundancy during an incident. Forinstance, in the event of a staircase beingunexpectedly overloaded, elevators may provideadditional means of egress that alleviates theoverloading on the stairs. It may also provide ameans for those will large distances to cover orthose with impairments (e.g. the disabled, theinjured, the elderly) to leave the structure quicklyand without interacting with other evacuees. Evenif the elevator system was not considered part ofthe primary egress routes (i.e. they were only usedas secondary routes to assist during overloading orthe movement of the impaired). They would be avaluable asset. The use of elevators needs to be


Simplified Schematic ofKey Procedural DesignQuestions



considered in the procedural design.The behavioural issues highlighted can be

aided, although not removed, by training andevacuation drills (see Phase I). During theseactivities, the likelihood of behavioural ‘problems’arising can be better understood and accountedfor. The sub-optimal behaviours are not consideredan aberration, but an expectation. Therefore, theyshould be assumed to occur as part of theemergency movement. Provisions can also bemade to reduce the impact of declining environ-mental conditions that may be experienced duringthe evacuation. For instance, the impact ofreduced visibility on movement and wayfinding(e.g. due to light smoke or darkness) can bereduced through light emitting guidance systems.

In both instances, there is a recognition thatsystems do not always perform perfectly (e.g.smoke can enter protected areas) and that peoplewill certainly not behave exactly as you wish (e.g.they will delay, move slowly, investigate, etc.).Once this is recognised then it is possible to incor-porate this into the design. The design shouldassume sub-optimal behaviours and include fallback positions based on the assumption that somesystems will fail. The procedure should still bedesigned to get people to safety as quickly aspossible. However, it should not be based on theunrealistic expectation that everything will goexactly as expected. Therefore some accountshould be taken of sub-optimal (although notentirely unexpected) events that detract from theperformance and some redundancy should bebuilt into the procedure.

Discussion/ConclusionMany components are required to adequatelyprepare and respond to a fire emergency in a tallstructure. These may involve technological andstructural measures. Although vital, these measurescan be undermined or not utilised, if the emer-gency procedures employed are not appropriate orare not followed. The responding population is asimportant to the outcome of the procedure asthose managing the event.

These procedures need to be employed bothbefore and during the event. The designer thenhas to answer several key questions to appropri-ately design an emergency procedure (see figure).

The design of an emergency evacuationprocedure from a tall structure should both takeadvantage of the resident population’s capabilitiesand account for their limitations.

The likelihood of the population following aprocedure can be influenced by events beyond theimmediate control of the designer (e.g. the eventsof the WTC). Therefore, measures should be takento engage the population and convince them ofthe value of the procedure. Just as the populationcannot be required to perform unfamiliar andheroic actions as part of a procedure, they alsocannot be expected to follow a procedure thatthey don’t understand or trust.

Once the procedure is engaged the designer/procedural managers can provide assistance to aidin the movement of the population. This aidbecomes critical if the environmental conditionsinterfere with the movement of the population, or ifroutes become overloaded. This can improve theroutes available to the population, their movementand in the decisions that they make.

In this article the emergency process wascategorised into three phases involving prepar-ation, notification and response, and proceduralimplementation. All three of these phases requirethe resident population to be placed at the centreof any designs, calculations and assessments.Although other aspects of the design process maybe more reliable and more predictable, the humanperformance during the emergency will dictatewhether it is a success or failure. Therefore, it isthis population that needs to be informed duringpreparation, to be comprehensively notified during the incident, and assisted during theirresponse.

References1. Pauls, J., (1996), ‘Movement of People’, SFPE Hand-book of Fire Protection Engineering (ed: DiNenno, P.),Second Edition, National Fire Protection Association,MA, 3-263-285.2. Proulx, G., (2001), ‘HIghRise Evacuation: A Question-able Concept’, Human Behaviour in Fire, SecondInternational Symposium on Human Behavior in Fire,Boston, MA, March 2001, pp. 221-230, InterscienceCommunications, London.3. Proulx, G. and Sime, J., (1991), ‘To Prevent Panic InAn Underground Emergency: Why Not Tell People TheTruth?’, Fire Safety Science – 3rd Symposium, Elsevier,Appl. Sci., NY, pp. 843-853.4. Fahy, R. and Proulx, G., (2001), ‘Towards Creating aDatabase on Delay Times to Start Evacuation and Walk-ing Speeds for Use in Evacuation Modelling’, HumanBehaviour in Fire, Second International Symposium onHuman Behavior in Fire, Boston, MA, March 2001,pp. 175-184, Interscience Communications, London.5. Proulx, G., (1994), ‘Time Delay To Start EvacuatingUpon Hearing The Fire Alarm’, Proceedings Of HumanFactors And Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting,pp. 811-815.6. Gwynne, S., Galea, E.R., Owen, M. and Lawrence,P.J., (1999), ’Escape As A Social Response’, ReportPublished By The Society Of Fire Protection Engineers.7. Tong, D. and Canter, D., (1985), ‘The Decision ToEvacuate: A Study Of The Motivations WhichContribute To Evacuations In The Event Of A Fire’, FireSafety Journal , 9, pp. 257-265.8. Mileti, D.S., (1990), ‘Communication of EmergencyPublic Warnings: A Social Science Perspective andState-of-the-Art Assessment’, Prepared for FEMA,ORNL-6609.9. Sime, J., (1990), ‘The Concept Of Panic’, , Fires AndHuman Behaviour, 2nd Edition Ed. D. Canter, Fulton, 1-85346-105-9, pp. 63-82.10. Johnson, N.R., (1997), ‘Panic At “The Who ConcertStampede”: An Empirical Assessment’, Social Problems,Vol 34, No.4, October.11. Kuligowski, E.D. and Peacock, R.D. (2005), ‘Reviewof Building Evacuation Models’. NIST TN 1471; NISTTechnical Note 1471; p. 153.12. Jiang, H., Gwynne, S., Galea, E.R., Lawrence, P., Jia,F., and Ingason, H., (2003 ), ‘The Use of EvacuationSimulation and Experimental Fire Data in Forensic FireAnalysis’, Proceedings of the 2nd International Confer-ence on Pedestrian and Evacuation Dynamics (PED2003), (ed. Galea, E.R.), Fire Safety Engineering Group,CMS Press, University of Greenwich, UK, pp. 341–354.13. Kuligowski, E.D., (2003), ‘Elevators for OccupantEvacuation and Fire Department Access. Strategies forPerformance in the Aftermath of the World TradeCenter. CIB-CTBUH Conference on Tall Buildings. Pro-ceedings’, Task Group on Tall Buildings: CIB TG50. CIBPublication No. 290. October 20-23, 2003, KualaLumpur, Malaysia, Shafii, F.; Bukowski, R.; Klemencic,R., Editor(s), pp. 193-200.

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COMBUSTIBLE SENSORS

What do percent LEL combustible gassensors measure

In order for an atmosphere to be capable ofburning explosively, four conditions must be met.The atmosphere must contain adequate oxygen,

adequate fuel, a source of ignition, and sufficientmolecular energy to sustain the fire chain reaction.These four conditions are frequently diagrammedas the “Fire Tetrahedron”. If any side of thetetrahedron is missing, incomplete or insubstantial,combustion will not occur.

The minimum concentration of gas or vapor inair that will ignite and explosively burn if a sourceof ignition is present is the Lower Explosive Limit.

Different gases and vapors have different LELconcentrations. Below the LEL, the ratio ofcombustible gas molecules to oxygen is too lowfor combustion to occur. In other words, themixture is “too lean” to burn.

Most (but not all) combustible gases and vaporsalso have an upper limit of concentration beyondwhich ignition will not occur. The Upper ExplosionLimit or UEL is the maximum concentration ofcombustible gas or vapor in air that will supportcombustion. Above the UEL, the ratio of gas tooxygen is too high for the fire reaction to propa-gate. In other words, the mixture is “too rich” toburn. The difference in concentration between the

By Robert E.Henderson

BW Technologies

Understandingcombustible sensorperformance

The potential presence of combustible gases and vapors is one of the mostcommon of all categories of atmospheric hazards. It stands to reason that thesensors used to measure combustible gases are the most widely used type of sensorincluded in portable atmospheric monitors; especially those used in confined spaceatmospheric monitoring procedures. In spite of the millions of combustible sensorequipped atmospheric monitors in service in the world, there is still a lot ofmisinformation and misunderstanding when it comes to the performancecharacteristics and limitations of this very important type of sensor. Understandinghow combustible sensors detect gas is critical to correctly interpreting readings, andavoiding misuse of instruments that include this type of sensor.

Picture courtesy of BWTechnologies

P. 55-59 Understanding Comb. 28/9/06 9:37 am Page 55

LEL and UEL is commonly referred to as the Flam-mability Range. Combustible gas concentrationswithin the flammability range will burn or explodeprovided that the other conditions required in thefire tetrahedron are met.

Because the flammability range varies widelybetween individual gases and vapors, mostregulatory standards express hazardous conditionthresholds for combustible gas in air in percent LEL concentrations. The most commonly citedhazardous condition threshold concentrations are5 or 10% LEL. Ten percent LEL is the default alarmsetpoint on many instruments. Most combustiblegas instruments read from 0 to 100% LEL. For thisreason, most combustible gas reading instrumentsalso display readings in percent LEL increments,with a full range of 0 – 100% LEL. Typically, thesesensors are used to provide a hazardous conditionthreshold alarm set to 5% or 10% of the LELconcentration of the gases or vapors beingmeasured. Readings are usually displayed inincrements of + 1% LEL.

A fire hazard should always be deemed to existwhenever readings exceed 10% LEL. This is theleast conservative (or highest acceptable) alarmsetpoint for instruments used for monitoringcombustible gases and vapors in confined spaces.An important consideration is that manycircumstances warrant a more conservative, loweralarm setpoint. The presence of any detectableconcentration of flammable/combustible gas inthe confined space indicates the existence of anabnormal condition. The only completely safeconcentration of combustible gas in a confinedspace is 0% LEL. In addition, specific procedures oractivities may require taking action at a lowerconcentration.

How combustible sensors detect gasMost commonly used combustible gas sensorsdetect gas by catalytically oxidizing or “burning”the gas on an active bead or “pellistor” locatedwithin the sensor. While there are numerous varia-tions, the underlying detection principle has not

changed for the better part of a century. Thecatalytic-bead sensor contains two coils of fineplatinum wire which are coated with a ceramic orporous alumina material to form beads. The beadsare wired into opposing arms of a balancedWheatstone Bridge electrical circuit. One bead isadditionally treated with a platinum or palladium-based material that allows catalyzed combustionto occur on the “active” (or detector) bead. Thecatalyst is not consumed during combustion.Combustion occurs at concentrations far belowthe LEL concentration. Even trace amounts of gasor vapor in the air surrounding the sensor can oxi-dize catalytically on the active bead. The “refer-ence” bead in the circuit lacks the catalystmaterial, but in other respects exactly resemblesthe active bead.

A voltage applied across the active andreference beads causes them to heat. Heating isnecessary for catalytic oxidation to occur. The tem-perature required may be as high as 500°C, or insome cases, even higher. In fresh air the Wheat-stone Bridge circuit is balanced; that is, the voltageoutput is zero. If combustible gas is present,oxidation heats the active bead to an even highertemperature. The temperature of the untreatedreference bead is unaffected by the presence ofgas. Because the two beads are strung on oppo-site arms of the Wheatstone Bridge circuit, thedifference in temperature between the beads isregistered by the instrument as a change inelectrical resistance.

Heating the beads to normal operating temper-ature requires power from the instrument battery.The amount of power required is a seriousconstraint on the battery life of the instrument.Recent sensor designs have attempted to reducethe amount of power required by operating thesensor at a lower temperature. While thisapproach may result in longer battery life, it mayalso result in the sensor being easier to poison orinhibit, since contaminants which might have beenvolatilized at a higher temperature can more easilyaccumulate on the bead. It is particularly impor-tant to verify the calibration of low powercombustible sensors by exposure to knownconcentration test gas on a regular basis. Thecombustible sensor elements are usually enclosedin a robust stainless-steel housing. Gas enters thesensor by first passing through a sintered, stainlesssteel flame arrestor. The sintered flame arrestortends to act as a physical barrier that slows or



UNDERSTANDING COMBUSTIBLE SENSOR PERFORMANCECOMBUSTIBLE SENSORS

It is particularly important to

verify the calibration of low

power combustible sensors by

exposure to known

concentration test gas on a

regular basis. The combustible

sensor elements are usually

enclosed in a robust

stainless-steel housing.


inhibits the free diffusion of gas molecules into thesensor. The smaller the molecule, the more readilyit is able to diffuse through the flame arrestor,penetrate the sintered surface of the bead, andinteract with the catalyst in the oxidation reaction.

Catalytic-bead sensors respond to a wide rangeof ignitable gases and vapors. The amount of heatproduced by the combustion of a particulargas/vapor on the active bead reflects the heat ofcombustion for that substance. The heat of com-bustion varies from one substance to another. Forthis reason readings may vary between equivalentconcentrations of different combustible gases. Asan example, a 50% LEL concentration of pentaneprovides only about one-half of the heating effecton the active bead of the sensor as a 50% LELconcentration of methane on the same sensor.Another way of expressing this relationship is as a“relative response” of the sensor to pentane.When the instrument is calibrated to methane, therelative response of the sensor to pentane is only50%. This means that the readings for pentanewill be only 50% of the true concentration.

Hot-bead pellistor combustible gas sensors areunable to differentiate between different com-bustible gases. They provide one signal based onthe total heating effects of all the gases capable ofbeing oxidized that are present in the vicinity ofthe sensor.

Role of flash point in monitoring ofignitable gases and vaporsIn order for combustion to occur, the vapor of thesubstance must be present in the atmosphere. Asa general rule, it’s the vapor, not the liquid thatburns. Vaporization is a function of temperature.Increasing the temperature of the liquid increasesthe rate and amount of vapor that is produced.The flashpoint temperature is the minimumtemperature at which a liquid gives off enoughvapor to form an ignitable concentration.

Catalytic-bead sensors, at least when operatedin the percent LEL range, may not adequatelydetect “heavy” or long-chain hydrocarbons, or thevapors from high flashpoint temperature liquidssuch as turpentines, diesel fuel or jet fuel. Use ofalternative types of gas detectors, such as aphotoionization detector (PID) may be a betterapproach if you need to monitor for the presenceof these types of hydrocarbon vapors. Some man-ufacturers suggest that their percent LEL sensorsshould not be used measure volatile aromaticcompounds (VOCs) or combustible liquids withflashpoint temperatures higher than 100°F (38°C).

Consult the Operator’s Manual, or contact themanufacturer directly to verify the capabilities ofthe instrument design when using a catalytic-beadLEL sensor to monitor for the presence of thesetypes of contaminants.

Catalytic-bead combustible sensorsneed oxygen to detect gasCatalytic-bead sensors require at least eight to tenpercent oxygen by volume to detect accurately. Acombustible sensor in a 100 percent gas or vaporenvironment will produce a reading of zeropercent LEL. This is the reason that testingprotocols for evaluating confined spaces specifymeasuring oxygen first and then combustiblegases and vapors. For this reason confined spaceinstruments that contain catalytic-bead sensorsshould also include a sensor for measuringoxygen. If the instrument being used does notinclude an oxygen sensor, be especially cautious



The amount of heat produced

by the combustion of a

particular gas/vapor on the

active bead reflects the heat of

combustion for that substance.

The heat of combustion

varies from one substance

to another.

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when interpreting results. A rapid up-scale readingfollowed by a declining or erratic reading mayindicate that the environment contains insufficientoxygen for the sensor to read accurately. (It mayalso indicate a gas concentration beyond theupper scale limit for the sensor, the presence of acontaminant which has caused a sudden inhibitionor loss of sensitivity in the sensor, or other con-dition which prevents the sensor or instrumentfrom obtaining proper readings.) The minimumamount of oxygen that must be present for thesensor to detect accurately is a function of design.Capabilities vary from one manufacturer to another.Users who anticipate using their instruments inpotentially oxygen deficient environments shouldcontact the manufacturer for assistance.

Calibration and relative response ofcombustible sensorsA combustible gas sensor may be calibrated to anynumber of different gases or vapors. Wherepossible, the user should calibrate the instrumentto achieve the level of sensitivity required for thesubstances to be measured.

Calibration is a two-step procedure. In the firststep the instrument is exposed to contaminantfree “fresh” air (that is, air which contains 20.9%oxygen and no combustible gas), turned on, andallowed to warm-up fully. The combustible sensorshould read zero. If necessary, the combustiblesensor is adjusted to read zero. Instrument manu-als and other support materials usually refer to thisstep as the “fresh air zero.”

The second step is to expose the sensor toknown concentration calibration gas, and (ifnecessary) adjust the readings to match theconcentration. This is called making a “spanadjustment”. A “span adjustment” sets the sensi-

tivity of the sensor to a specific gas. Always followthe manufacturer’s instructions when calibrating oradjusting the instrument.

Instruments used only for a monitoring a singlegas should be calibrated with that particular gas.Calibration choices are more difficult when theinstrument may be exposed to a variety of differentcombustible gases because, as noted previously,equivalent concentrations of different combustiblegases may produce different readings. Gases thatproduce lower relative readings than the gas usedto calibrate the instrument can create a potentiallydangerous error.

Catalytic-bead poisons and inhibitorsThe atmosphere in which an instrument is usedcan have an effect on catalytic-bead sensors.Poisoning or degraded performance can occurwhen combustible sensors are exposed to certainsubstances. Commonly encountered substancesthat degrade LEL sensor performance include sili-cones, lead containing compounds (especiallytetraethyl lead), sulfur containing compounds,substances containing phosphorus and halogenatedhydrocarbons. Combustible sensors can also beaffected by exposure to high concentrations ofignitable mixtures.

Any conditions, incidents, experiences, or expo-sure to contaminants that might adversely affectthe combustible sensor should trigger immediateverification of the proper performance of thesensor before continued use. This can be done verysimply by flowing known concentration test gasover the sensor, and noting the response. If thereadings are accurate, the sensor is safe to use. Ifthe readings are inaccurate or out of calibration,the sensor must be recalibrated before further use.

Potential for loss of sensitivity tomethaneAge and usage can affect the sensitivity of com-bustible sensors. Chronic exposure to low levels ofpoisons or inhibitors acts cumulatively. This usuallymeans that the sensitivity must be increased whencalibration occurs. In the extreme, the sensor mayrequire replacement. This again demonstrates thatregular calibration is essential to the safe use ofcombustible sensors.

For many combustible sensors, if sensitivity islost due to poisoning, it tends to be lost first withregards to methane. This means that a partiallypoisoned sensor might still respond accurately toother combustible gases while showing a signifi-cantly reduced response to methane. This is aparticularly important concern for instrumentsused to monitor atmospheres associated with con-fined spaces, where methane is by far the mostcommonly encountered combustible gas.

There are several calibration strategies used bymanufacturers to guard against incorrect readingsdue loss of sensitivity to methane. The first is tocalibrate the instrument using the calibration gas




Poisoning or degraded

performance can occur when

combustible sensors are

exposed to certain substances.


which provides the best level of sensitivity (forinstance propane or pentane) and then expose thesensor to a known concentration of methane. Therelative response factor for methane can then beused to verify whether there has been loss of sen-sitivity. This approach increases the time needed tocalibrate the instrument and complicates the logis-tics. Another problem is what to do if there hasbeen a loss of sensitivity to methane.

The second approach is to calibrate the instru-ment directly to methane. An instrument“spanned” to methane will continue to detectmethane accurately even when loss of sensitivitydevelops. Spanning the instrument during calibra-tion simply makes up for any loss in sensitivity.However, when the sensor is calibrated withmethane, readings for most other substances tendto be lower than actual.

The third approach is to calibrate usingmethane at a concentration that produces a levelof sensitivity equivalent to that provided by the gasof greatest interest. Several manufacturers offer“equivalent” or “simulant” calibration mixturesbased on methane, but in concentrations that

provide the same span sensitivity as direct calibra-tion using propane, pentane or hexane calibrationgas. As previously discussed, 50% LEL pentaneproduces one-half the heating effect on the activebead in a normally functioning sensor as a 50%LEL concentration of methane. This also meansthat if you use a 25% LEL concentration ofmethane, but “span” adjust the readings to equal50% LEL while the sensor is exposed to this gas,you wind up with a pentane level of span sensitivity,but since you have used methane to calibrate theinstrument, you know that the sensor is stillresponsive to methane.

The fourth approach now offered by many man-ufacturers is to include a user selectable library ofcorrection factors in the instrument design. In thiscase, the user simply calibrates using methane,then selects “pentane” or any other correction fac-tor in the library, and the instrument automaticallyrecalculates readings according to the selected rela-tive response. The benefit of this method, onceagain, is that since methane is used as the calibra-tion gas, incremental loss of sensitivity to methanesimply results in the instrument being “over-spanned”, or producing higher than actual read-ings for the gas selected from the library ofcorrection factors.

Calibration verifies that sensors remain accurate.If exposure to test gas indicates a loss of sensitivity,the instrument needs adjustment. If the sensorscannot be properly adjusted, they must bereplaced before any further use of the instrument.This is an essential part of ownership. IFP



Robert Henderson is VicePresident, BusinessDevelopment for BWTechnologies. Mr. Hendersonhas been a member of theAmerican Industrial HygieneAssociation since 1992. He isa currently the Vice Chair ofthe AIHA Gas and VaporDetection Systems TechnicalCommittee. He is also acurrent member and pastchair of the AIHA ConfinedSpaces Committee. He is alsoa past chair of the InstrumentProducts Group of theInternational SafetyEquipment Association.

An instrument “spanned” to

methane will continue to detect

methane accurately even when

loss of sensitivity develops.

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STORAGE VESSELS

Design principles

When a vessel has to withstand a highinternal pressure of vapour it must bedesigned accordingly, and correlations for

determining the wall thickness required apply.These incorporate the vessel dimension, the designstress of the material (units Nmm-2 � MPa) andthe pressure to be contained. If there is a weldallowance must be made for it by means of a‘welding factor’ unless the weld has been exam-ined by being radiographed along its length andwhere necessary re-worked so that the weldedseam has the same design stress as the ‘virginmetal’. Such precautions need not be taken in the

storage of a liquid with a low equilibrium vapourpressure, and a welded seam weaker than theother parts of the vessel wall might in fact be apositive advantage in the event of fire. If such avessel filled with liquid receives heat from a nearbyfire it is better for it to open along the seam andrelease the liquid relatively slowly and withoutexcessive pressure of accompanying vapour. Thealternative is release of the contents catastrophi-cally on vessel breakage and explosion. Similarly, aloose-fitting lid to a vertically orientated vesselcontaining flammable liquid is a common feature.If there is ignition of the vapour/air mixture abovethe liquid surface any overpressure due to the

By J.C. Jones

Department ofEngineeringUniversity of Aberdeen [email protected]

Fire protection ofstorage vesselsfor flammableliquidsAn earlier article in the companion periodical1 was concerned with storage ofhydrocarbons which are well above their normal boiling points at roomtemperature and therefore have to be stored under their own very high vapourpressure. This article will be concerned with storage of materials which areliquids at ordinary temperatures and therefore have saturated vapour pressuresbelow 1 bar. The whole range of petroleum distillates – gasoline, naphtha,kerosene and diesel – are such. The coverage by Zalosh2 has been drawn onconsiderably as has that by Crowl.3

Picture courtesy of CafcoInt.

P. 61-63 Fire protection 28/9/06 9:42 am Page 61

confinement will, at worst, blow off the lid but willleave the body of the tank and it contentsunaffected. This design is the ‘vertical atmosphericfixed roof tank’ and can be used for liquids withboiling points up to about 110°C: this boilingrange encompasses methanol, ethanol, MEK andtoluene.

An advance over the ‘vertical atmospheric fixedroof tank’ is the ‘lifter-roof tank’, in which the roofheight is adjustable by sliding the roof up ordown. These are fairly rare and tanks of the ‘float-ing roof tank’ design are more numerous. Thefloating roof tank is in fact the most widely useddesign for crude oil and distillate storage. Thefloating roof, a.k.a. as a deck, is place at the liquidsurface and has a rubber or foam seal around it.The ‘sealing’ which the rubber or foam provides isnot total and vapour does escape through it: this isequivalent to saying that such a tank is vented.Some designs of floating roof tank have a fixedroof above the floating one and this provides the

seal material with some protection in the event ofthere being heat from a nearby fire. In the pres-ence of the fixed roof however the system is nolonger vented and it is possible for a flammablevapour/air mixture to occur in the space betweenthe floating roof and the fixed one. Because of thisthe fixed roof is sometimes avoided and replacedwith a means of applying foam to protect the sealswhen necessary.

Tank designs discussed so far have all been ver-tical. Horizontal tanks, which my be above- orbelowground, are used to store liquids includinggasoline. Underground tanks require corrosionprotection in the same way that buried pipelinesdo and cathodic protection is the usual approachto this. An electrochemical cell is set up in whichthe zinc is the anode and the steel of which thevessel is made the cathode. Electrons transfer fromanode to cathode, maintaining the condition ofthe latter to the eventual total loss of the formerwhich is therefore a ‘sacrificial anode’.


Massive hydrocarbontank fire in Middle East

FIRE PROTECTION OF STORAGE VESSELS FOR FLAMMABLE LIQUIDSSTORAGE VESSELS


InertingThe hazards due to the vapour/air mixture abovethe surface of a stored flammable liquid can beeliminated by substitution of an inert gas for the oxygen in the space sufficiently to make thegas/vapour mixture there too rich to ignite. Oneway of bringing this about is to pressurise thespace with inert gas and then vent back toatmospheric pressure, an operation which willsometimes have to be carried out several timesbefore the target oxygen concentration is reached.An alternative is ‘sweep purging’ in which there iscontinuous flow of inert gas through the spaceoccupied by the vapour at only just above atmos-pheric pressure until the target oxygen concentra-tion is reached. A depleted storage vessel of liquidis likely still to contain vapour, possibly with air inproportions such that ignition is possible. Such avapour/air mixture can be removed admitting tothe vessel as much water as it will take, where-upon the vapour/air will be confined to the smallspace above the surface of the water and can beremoved with a single ‘sweep purge’. As the wateris drained out it can be replaced by inert gas,leaving an inerted empty vessel ready for service.

Sprinkler protection of storedflammable liquidsIn places including aircraft hangars aqueous film-forming foams (AFFF), made from water, a foamingcompound and a surfactant, can be applied bymeans of a sprinkler system in the event of fire.4 Ingeneral sprinkler systems are used to protect smallamounts of flammable liquid, for example paintthinner stored in vessels of volume of the order ofone gallon. The intention is that applied water willkeep containers of such materials cool in the eventof a fire, preventing vapour build-up sufficient forthe lids to blow off and the contents to leak.

A case studyOne of the best known is the Dayton Ohio fire in1987 at an automotive paints warehouse.2

Flammable liquids in a total quantity of 1.5 milliongallons were stored in containers of size up to 5gallons. Smaller containers, some only one pint involume, were held in cardboard cartons ten ofwhich fell on to the floor during a forklift truckoperation. There was container breakage, leakage,ignition and rapid involvement of other containerswhich on heating blew off their lids and addedfuel to the fire. The sprinkler system, the capacityof which was 14 litre per minute per square metreof floor area, hardly had any effect and later rapidrelease of large amounts of liquid led to fireballbehaviour: this was the state of affairs when thefire service arrived.

Concluding remarksThe world produces about 80 million barrels ofcrude oil per day. This means that crude oil andrefined material are constantly being stored. Notall of the crude oil content is used as fuel: some isused in chemical manufacture the preliminary tothis usually being cracking. There are other sourcesof flammable liquid besides crude oil. Theseinclude shale products, produced in large amountsin countries including Germany, Australia andIsrael. In the US at present there is a move towardsethanol as a motor fuel, usually in blends withmineral gasoline as in E85, automotive fuel com-

prising a blend of 85% ethanol, balance gasoline.The ethanol is usually made not from petroleumfeedstock but from substances such as corn andsorghum, by breaking down the starch to sugarsand fermenting. In countries including the US andThailand natural gas is being used to make liquidfeedstock for the chemical industry, and naturalgas itself contains appreciable amounts of liquidsknown as condensate, which can often be blend-ed with gasoline. Quantities of flammable liquidsare enormous and their safe storage and handlingis a major issue in fire protection engineering. Thisbrief article will provide the interested reader witha suitable introduction and direct him or her tomore advanced coverages.

References1. Jones J.C. ‘Hazards with liquefied petroleum gas’International Fire Fighter August 2005 pp. 58-592. Zalosh R.G. ‘Industrial Fire Protection Engineering’Wiley, NY (2003)3. Crowl D.A. ‘Understanding Explosions’ AmericanInstitute of Chemical Engineers, NY (2003)4. Fleming R.P. ‘Foam Agents and AFFF System DesignConsiderations’ Fire Protection Handbook, 3rd EditionSFPE, Bethesda MD (2002)

IFP


Picture courtesy ofResource ProtectionInternational

FIRE PROTECTION OF STORAGE VESSELS FOR FLAMMABLE LIQUIDSSTORAGE VESSELS

Picture courtesy ofResource ProtectionInternational


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ESCAPE CHUTES

Although the idea of using a chute is not appealing to some, they are growing in popularity. Their use as an alternative

means of egress has become even more of anissue after the World Trade Center disaster inwhich the primary means of escape were renderedunusable. Many questions and concerns havebeen raised regarding the safe and effectiveapplication of escape chutes to multistory build-ings. This article summarizes the current uses,limitations and capabilities of escape chutes asemergency egress devices.

Design and ApplicationAlthough specific design and operational featuresof escape chutes vary among manufacturers, theybasically consist of (1) the escape chute (generallyan inner, middle and outer layer), (2) a storage

deployment device and (3) a means to mountthem to the building. There is no limit on theheight of a chute per se. One of the highestemergency escape chutes is 173 m (568 ft) andaccording to one manufacturer a 650 m (2,130 ft)chute is currently on the drawing board. Typicalinstallations are for buildings up to approximately30-stories. To use a chute one sits on the edge ofthe opening and lowers themselves inside, asshown in the following pictures.

The inner lining of the chute “grips” the personand gravity does the rest. Arms and legs areextended outward to lower the speed of descentand brought in towards the body to increase thedescent.

According to one manufacturer the throughputof a chute is around 30 persons per minute andmultiple persons can be in the chute simultaneously.

By Robert J.Wheeler, P.E.

Hughes Associates, Inc.

Chutes andEmergencyEgressEscape chutes are typically used on large mining equipment and machinery,passenger cruise ships, silos, air traffic control towers, offshore oil platforms andcommercial aircraft (escape slides). The concept of escape chutes was developedmore than 100 years ago and since about the early 1980s they have been usedas alternative means of egress from multi-story buildings. Escape chutes arecommonly used in Europe on tall structures and older heritage buildings whereexternally mounting fire escape stairs is not possible.

Escape Chute FloorMount. Picture courtesyof Escape Chute Systems

P. 65-68 Chutes and Emergency 28/9/06 9:47 am Page 65

The manufacturer also estimates that the chutecontainer could be opened in 15 seconds and thetime to traverse the chute for a 10-story building isapproximately 40 seconds. The number of personsin a chute simultaneously is a function of thestructural integrity of the chute, storage deploy-ment device and the connection to the building. Itis recommended that the first person through thechute be a fully trained member of the staff andthat another trained member remain at the chuteentrance to guide users and control the number ofpersons entering the chute. When not in useescape chutes are stored in a storage deploymentdevice.

Both single-entry and multiple-entry chutes are in use. A single-entry chute is installed atwindows, corridors, balconies or rooftops and is

typically used on older buildings where the multi-ple-entry chute cannot be used. Chutes typicallyrange from 2-stories up to about 200 m (656 ft)and must have a clear and uninterrupted fall toground level. Multiple-entry chutes are installedinside protected vertical shafts in the building withone chute segment per floor level. Entries into thechute are available from each floor level.

Issues and Concerns

Human FactorsThere have been many questions and concernsregarding escape chutes. The primary issue ispsychological. How willing (or reluctant) will a per-son be to use an escape chute from a great height?Factors such as claustrophobia and acrophobia areprime concerns. Most people are familiar with emer-gency escape slides from aircraft, but would theyuse them? Most likely, yes. How about an escapechute from a passenger cruise ship? Again, theanswer is most likely yes. However, in both of thesesituations there are few, if any, other alternatives toquickly and safely evacuate the spaces. Also in thesesituations personnel that are trained in emergencyevacuations and the use of these devices areavailable to provide assistance and direction.

Increased attention is focused on the evac-uation of Very Large Transport Aircraft (VLTA);specifically, how willing will a passenger be tojump onto an escape slide from the upper deck ofan aircraft that may be as high as 11.5 m (38 ft)above the ground. Conclusions of one study haveshown an increased exit hesitation time of passen-gers. Although the study did not directly addressthe use of emergency chutes from tall buildingsthe psychological effects are similar. Imagine aperson on the 10th floor of a building being askedto step into an escape chute. Also, evacuees arenot able to see out of an escape chute. While thismay help in alleviating the visual effect of height,will it contribute to a sense of claustrophobia,resulting in a fear of using the chutes underemergency conditions? Studies of human behaviorrelative to using these devices are needed prior towidespread installation.

ErgonomicsWhat is the target population for whom escapechutes are designed? A design to accommodate allranges of possible sizes and physical capabilities ofpotential evacuees may be impossible. One manu-facturer reported that the youngest user would beabout 6 or 7 years old. The entrance to one chute

Rooftop Single Entry inuse. Pictures courtesy ofEscape Chute Systems

CHUTES AND EMERGENCY EGRESSESCAPE CHUTES


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is approximately 600 mm (2 ft) in diameter andhas been successfully used by men weighingapproximately 150 kg (330 lb). However, anindividual of this size has been shown to slowdown the throughput of the chute. At a certainpoint a person’s size can preclude their use of achute, or lead to a blockage or failure as sub-sequent evacuees pile up. There is a danger of skinburns on knees, elbows and heads; the longer thechute the greater the burn. In turn, this may resultin evacuees that are slow to move away from thebase of the chute upon reaching the ground levelso that other evacuees can exit.

RegulationsEscape chutes are not required by any of today’sbuilding or fire codes, making their use voluntaryand at the discretion of building owners. Con-sequently, building owners, manufacturers andAuthorities Having Jurisdiction are making decisionson the design, installation and approval of systemswithout a set of standards or requirements. In spiteof growing interest, should this information beincluded in codes prior to any standards beingdeveloped that govern them? Standards develop-ment may be necessary if for no other reason thanto provide a consistent, uniform set of criteria.

The American Society of Testing and Materials(ASTM), Subcommittee E06.77, High Rise ExternalEvacuation Devices is developing standards forthree types of devices:● Platform Rescue Systems (PRS),● Controlled Descent Devices (CDD), and● Chutes Devices (CD)


Rooftop MoveablePlatform – GPO Building.Picture courtesy ofEscape Mobiltex (S) Pte Ltd

CHUTES AND EMERGENCY EGRESSESCAPE CHUTES

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Standards are required that address suchissues as reliability; operation in adverseweather conditions; structural loading; com-munications during evacuation; size, ageand physical limitations of evacuees; andquality of materials.

The National Fire Protection Associationhas also considered recognizing these types of systems. The NFPA TechnicalCommittee on Means of Egress developedpotential code language defining andrecognizing escape devices and systems assupplemental evacuation devices in NFPA101, Life Safety Code, and NFPA 5000,Building Construction and Safety Code.Language addressing escape devices madeits way through the NFPA committee aftermuch debate and was sent to a vote at thefull members meeting in 2005. At thismeeting the issue was voted down and istherefore not included in the current coderevisions.

TrainingWho should be trained, to what level andhow often should training be held? Onemanufacturer provides a 4-day trainingcourse for new installations. This enables thetraining of eight (8) future trainers and 250-300 end users. However, with potentially

large occupant turnovers and daily visitors to buildings more frequent training may bewarranted for building owners, occupants, and fire department personnel. Should train-ing also be extended to include visitors to buildings with escape chutes and to whatextent?

Maintenance and InspectionThe extent to which escape chutes should be inspected and maintained must beconsidered. Experience with other fire protection and life safety systems indicates thatinspection and maintenance of installed systems is one area that is often overlooked. Onemanufacturer recommends an annual inspection by a local agent and an inspection bythe manufacturer every 5 years.

DeploymentIn emergency situations occupants of a building, when given a choice, tend to utilize thesame route to exit a building as they do to enter the building. For multistory buildings thisgenerally will be the stairs located at the core of the building. How effectively canoccupants be redirected to locations of escape chutes?

In addition, a decision must be made whether to deploy single-entry escape chutesimmediately to supplement existing means of egress or as a last resort when other meansof egress become compromised. Deployment of a single-entry escape chute as asupplementary means of escape some time after the start of a building evacuation mayrequire occupants to reverse their direction of travel in order to use the chute. This posesobvious logistical problems relative to crowd movement. Single-entry escape chutesextending to ground level require a run-out distance at ground level to allow evacueesusing the chute to slow before exiting. The run-out distance may be affected byemergency response apparatus.

Another problem during use of evacuation chutes will be communications betweenthe entrance point and termination of the chute, whether at ground level or another levelof the building. Effective communication will be necessary to properly monitor the flowof personnel through the device.

ConclusionEscape chutes have been shown to be effective and accepted as emergency egressdevices in certain applications including buildings. However, as their application inmultistory buildings, and especially high-rise buildings increases, the study of humanfactors relative to their use should be considered.

Although the use of an escape chute is as an alternative and supplemental means ofegress, a uniform set of standards and criteria is needed by which these devices aremanufactured, tested and approved. Inclusion of escape chutes in building codes andstandards will also provide uniform guidance on the selection, design and installation,training and maintenance of these devices. IFP


CHUTES AND EMERGENCY EGRESS

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Rooftop Single Entry – Roof Entrance.Picture courtesy of Escape ChuteSystems


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PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION FORUM

You might have thought the question easy. Imean, of course, zither music and post warVienna are obviously not Tony Blair as he’s

not old enough, is he? On top of that, Tony Blair isa real person and Harry Lime is a figment of Gra-ham Greene’s imagination that was brought to lifein the cinema by Carol Reed. But what was thename of the movie?

Enough of the confusion. Harry Lime was therecently dead guy in the film-noir classic ‘The ThirdMan’ and Tony Blair is an adherent of ‘The ThirdWay’ in politics.

You may ask why the aforementioned diatribehas been included. Well, it serves to illustrate theextent of the confusion in the construction marketwhen it comes to the remaining ‘third’ item –‘Third Party Accreditation’

The ASFP assumed, perhaps naively, that mostpeople in the construction industry understood theconcept of third party accreditation for installers offire protection systems. However, a survey carriedout by the ASFP contractors’ committee foundthat there was a lot of confusion in the marketand in particular, from the main contractor andproperty developer base. Thus, its time for a basiccourse in the nomenclature!

You may well ask why the market should haveany knowledge of the term? For that answer turnto ‘Approved Document B’ (ADB) of ‘The Building

Regulations 1991 – 2000 Edition’ which says:‘Since the performance of a system, product,

component, structure is dependent upon satisfac-tory site installation, testing and maintenance,independent schemes of certification and registra-tion of installers and maintenance firms of suchwill provide confidence in the appropriate stan-dard of workmanship being provided.’

And….‘Third party accreditation and registration of

installers of systems, materials, products orstructures provide a means of ensuring that instal-lations have been conducted by knowledgeablecontractors to appropriate standards, thereby

Fire protection – the importantthird!!

Third party accreditation, the

third man and the third way.

Do you know the difference?

Which one is associated with

Harry Lime, which with Tony

Blair and last but not least,

which is not associated with

either of the other two?

The ASFP assumed, perhaps

naively, that most people in the

construction industry

understood the concept of

third party accreditation

for installers of fire

protection systems.

By The Associationfor Specialist FireProtection (ASFP)

P. 70-71 Fire Prot. Forum 28/9/06 9:48 am Page 70

increasing the reliability of the anticipated per-formance in fire.’

In addition, the ASFP was especially encouragedto see the following proposed wording in therecent ADB consultation document with regard tothird party accreditation schemes for the installa-tion of fire protection systems:

‘Schemes such as those mentioned above maybe accepted by Building Control Bodies as evi-dence of compliance. The Building Control Bodywill, however, wish to establish, in advance of the work that the scheme is adequate for thepurposes of the Building Regulations.’

The Association for Specialist Fire Protection(ASFP) strongly believes that these statementsfrom ADB are the ‘best practise’ that the con-struction industry should be striving for to ensurethe highest level of fire safety of the UK’sbuildings. Indeed, all ASFP installer members arethird party accredited or working towards thirdparty accreditation.

So where does the market’s confusion comefrom? Well, many respondents to the surveythought that approved or recognised applicators,as appointed by product manufacturers, were infact third party accredited! This is not of course tosay that product manufacturers don’t train theirinstallers properly, but such training does notextend to them randomly inspecting the installedproduct on-site!

Some other companies that replied to thesurvey thought that the carrying of CSCS (Con-struction Skills Certification Scheme) Cards by theoperatives meant that their company was thirdparty accredited. CSCS aims to register every com-petent construction operative within the UK notcurrently on a skills registration scheme. Opera-tives will get an individual registration card (similarto a credit card) which lasts for three or five years.The CSCS card also provides evidence that theholder has undergone health and safety awarenesstraining or testing. The CSCS initiative is supportedstrongly by the ASFP, but the scheme registersoperatives and not companies and does not pro-vide any inspection of work or company systems.

The ASFP has been heavily involved with theConstruction Industry Training Board (CITB) in thedesign of the Level 2 and 3 NVQs in Passive FireProtection. Level 2 is for installation operatives andLevel 3 for supervisors. These NVQs demonstratethe competence of the employee and this isassessed by on-site visits. It is the latter that hasled to the confusion in some quarters that theseconstitute some sort of accreditation/inspection –it does not! This NVQ demonstrates that the

holder has been assessed to have a basic compe-tence level in at least two out of the seven possi-ble fire protection modules. The seven modulescurrently include the application/installation ofstructural cladding, intumescent coatings, firerated ductwork, fire stopping and penetrations/cavity barriers, fire rated walls and linings, firerated ceilings and spray applied materials. TheNVQ is a valuable tool in looking at the compe-tence of a company’s workforce but it does notensure that the work on-site will be of thestandard required by the client.

So, we’ve looked at what third party accredita-tion is not, so what is it?

In the opinion of the ASFP third party accredit-ation schemes mean a combination of siteinspections, quality management system auditsplus the assessment of the competence of theworkforce. Such schemes ensure that passive fireprotection installations have been conducted byknowledgeable contractors to the appropriatestandards. In addition, these schemes offer ameaningful certificate of conformity that is backedby a third party (the scheme organiser) and thiswill add confidence to the client that the passivefire protection in his/her building has beeninstalled properly. Given the increased responsibili-ties of the ‘Responsible Person’ under the up andcoming Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order, itwould seem sensible for them to insist upon theuse of third party accredited installers for thepassive fire protection in their buildings.

So, remember there is no space for naivety orconfusion in the installation of passive fire pro-tection. It’s a life safety item and as such, in theopinion of the ASFP, should be installed by a thirdparty accredited installer.

The Third Man won an Oscar for cinematogra-phy. Tony Blair and the ‘Third Way’ have won threeGeneral Elections. Surely now it’s time for ‘ThirdParty Accreditation’ for installers of fire protectionsystems to win through in the minds of the maincontractor and the property developer? IFP


PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION FORUM

The Association for Specialist

Fire Protection (ASFP) strongly

believes that these statements

from ADB are the ‘best practise’

that the construction industry

should be striving for to ensure

the highest level of fire safety

of the UK’s buildings.

In the opinion of the ASFP third

party accreditation schemes

mean a combination of site

inspections, quality

management system audits

plus the assessment of the

competence of the workforce.

The CSCS initiative is supported

strongly by the ASFP, but the

scheme registers operatives

and not companies and does

not provide any inspection of

work or company systems.

P. 70-71 Fire Prot. Forum 28/9/06 9:48 am Page 71


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Documents

IFP Issue 27