[IEEE IPCC 2005. Proceedings. International Professional Communication Conference, 2005. - Limerick, Ireland (July 7, 2005)] IPCC 2005. Proceedings. International Professional Communication

2005 IEEE International Professional Communication Conference Proceedings

0-7803-9028-8/05/$20.00 © 2005 IEEE.

Learning Localization through Trans-Atlantic Collaboration

John Humbley Université Paris 7 [email protected]

Bruce Maylath University of Wisconsin-Stout [email protected]

Birthe Mousten Handelshøjskolen i Århus [email protected]

Sonia Vandepitte Hogeschool Gent [email protected]

Lucy Veisblat Université Paris 7 [email protected]

Abstract

Instructors of technical writing in the USA and of translation/localization in Europe describe what has taken place over a period of six years when they have matched technical writing students in the USA with translation students in Europe in a collaborative assignment.

Keywords: collaboration, culture, exchange, instructions, lingua franca, locale, localization, localizer, mediation, negotiation, power, translation

Introduction and background

How can instructors of technical writing give their students experience in preparing texts for translation and localization and working with translators? Similarly, how can instructors of translation give their students experience at working with source texts and their authors, most of whom are subject matter experts but not experts in writing? This panel presentation/paper focuses on establishing links between students in different countries so that each learns from the other. In so doing, students become aware of the diversity of the world community in which their technical documents travel.

Even a brief glance through both the articles and advertisements for publications aimed at technical communicators, such as Intercom, or translators, such as ATA Bulletin, quickly reveals that each group can expect to work with the other. Trade agreements and organizations, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), European Union (EU),

and North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) have catalyzed a global economy in which technical products and the documents that accompany them enter the spaces of many assorted languages.

Despite the increase in global trade and the consequent increase in translated technical communication, the attempts to put students learning technical communication and students learning translation in touch with each other have been surprisingly few. The assumption seems to have been that writers will write whatever they will write, and translators will translate whatever has been written. In workplace practice, however, writers, translators, and their project managers often are in close collaborative contact as they attempt to create accurate meaning for particular users of specific languages and cultures.

Tippens has recorded one of the earliest attempts and methods to have student technical writers prepare documents for translation from a country where translation within national borders is common: Canada.[1] Maylath and Thrush later described subsequent methods in the USA.[2] [3] More recently, Koltay described teaching translation students in Hungary how to write technical documents.[4]

St. Amant suggested that the quality of technical documentation rises when it is coupled with translation.[5] Nevertheless, despite the apparent benefits, to our knowledge no one outside our own circle has described coupling classes studying technical writing with classes studying translation. Our project, which had its beginnings in 1999, has grown to involve hundreds of students in six

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nations working across seven time zones and one ocean.

The writers' perspective: Preparing texts for translation

Having a class of technical writing students prepare texts for translation began several years before any trans-Atlantic collaboration assignments started or were even contemplated. The translation preparation tasks not only made students aware of their part in the translation process, but also served as a vehicle for the instructor to bring general attention to international issues in technical communication.

Those lessons and tasks in which the US students have been engaged are described fully in Maylath.[2] In brief, the students in a technical writing course compose a set of instructions for a North American audience, then rework the text so that it is easier for a translator to interpret accurately. This entails taking certain steps in the source language, in this case English. Examples include eliminating idioms and adding the often missing but understood relative conjunction "that."

Before the collaborations began, the US students often wondered if they indeed were providing translators what they need. "Are we getting it right?" they would ask. "Is this what translators really want?" The opportunity to find out came in 1999, when Dr. Bruce Maylath and Dr. Sonia Vandepitte were able to pair his Technical Writing class at the University of Wisconsin-Stout with her Essentials of Translation class at what was then called the Mercator College of Translation and Interpretation in Ghent, Belgium.

At its most basic, the collaboration worked like this: The US students e-mailed their instructions prepared for translation to the Belgian students. The Belgian students tried their hand at translating them, noted where they were confused about the meaning or accuracy, and then sent their questions to the US students. With the US students' clarifications, the Belgian students completed the translations and e-mailed them back to the USA for the students to see what their instructions looked like in Dutch (which, since it is the language closest to English, is somewhat decipherable through words that are cognates; their instructor, who has a knowledge of basic Dutch, was able to help them with passages that they were unable to

decode). The process is essentially the same with the classes added since then. These include Dr. Birthe Mousten's at the Århus School of Business beginning in 2000, Dr. John Humbley's and Ms. Claudie Julliard's (with assistance from Ms. Lucy Veisblat) at the University of Paris 7 beginning in 2003, and Dr. Julie Zeleznik's at the University of Wisconsin-Stout beginning in 2004. The project expanded still further in the spring of 2005 when translation classes taught by Dr. Susanne Göpferich at the University of Graz, Austria, and Dr. Federica Scarpa at the University of Trieste, Italy, were paired with technical writing sections taught by UW-Stout professors Dr. Mark Decker, Mr. Michael Martin, and Dr. Daniel Riordan.

Benefits of the collaboration for technical writing students

For students learning technical writing in an international context, the benefits from such collaboration can be summed up as follows:

1. They learn where their texts are opaque or ambiguous.

2. They become aware of cultural differences.

3. In some cases, they form international acquaintances and friendships.

Textual opacity and ambiguity: Perhaps the best example comes from an American student's instructions for how to clean a video cassette recorder (VCR). Although he had taken many of the steps that he had been taught to prepare the text for translation, he did not foresee the confusion that would result when he wrote the term "wall outlet." The confusion stemmed from as many as three causes:

1. Literally the term "wall outlet" would seem to denote a place to be let out of a wall, e.g., a door or window.

2. An electrical "outlet" is an American term. As a rule, Belgians are taught British English. The British term is "socket." While "socket" is a term used also in the USA, the writer was not aware that he could have avoided confusion if he had opted for "socket" instead of the term more common in North America, "outlet." Indeed, if the writer had added "electricalwall outlet," the confusion would likely have been allayed.

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3. The translator was influenced by her own language, Flemish (the Belgian version of Dutch), which includes an idiom that can be translated literally as "to go to the wall," meaning to get money from an automatic teller machine (ATM). Thus, her first inclination was to suspect that "wall outlet" referred to an ATM.

Cultural differences: Upending cultural assumptions has proven far more disconcerting yet more educational to the American students than have the revelations regarding language differences. Examples are numerous, but some of the most memorable include the student who wrote instructions for how to carve a Halloween jack-o- lantern from a pumpkin, only to discover that Halloween has only recently become known and practiced in France. Likewise, the many students who have written instructions for how to learn to shift gears in a manual-drive automobile, only to discover that manual drive is taken for granted in Europe. In a December 2004 video conference linking writers at Stout with translators in Århus, the Danish students expressed their surprise that so many American students had written instructions for how to clean various models of guns. The Danes were astonished when a show of hands revealed that more than half of the males in the classes at Stout had been deer hunting during the preceding month.

Acquaintances and friendships: Anunintentional but pleasant outgrowth of the project has been the occasional international friendship taking the form of e-mail pen pals, sometimes resulting in the invitation to visit each other's homes. The students frequently tell each other something about their lives. In the spring, the subject matter often involves their travels during spring vacations. One of the most interesting exchanges took place between an American foster mother and a blind Belgian student. Intrigued by how each other lived, they produced many pages of messages depicting their lifestyles and values. This facet of the collaboration has been the most unpredictable but at times the most rewarding.

The translators' perspective: Creating a persuasive text in a target language

At Hogeschool Gent, School of Translation Studies, the international exercise described above is integrated in the course "Engels Stroomkeuze

Gespecialiseerde vaardigheden: Media en cultuur (MC)," abbreviated as "Persuasive Texts," which is part of the English curriculum in the fourth year of students’ translation training. After this fourth year, a number of these students get jobs as translators or set up a translation agency, so that their level of English is that of proficiency. Below, the reader will find an exercise description starting with the aims situated within the translation situation and the stages, after which the results and further goals are discussed.

Exercise descriptionThe aims of the exercise, set out at the beginning, are as follows. First, students translate a type of persuasive text from English into their mother tongue, Dutch (the main aim of the course being the other translation direction, i.e., from Dutch into English). Second, students analyze instructions as one type of written persuasive text and compare its persuasive features with those of other written persuasive texts, such as advertisements, brochures, leaflets, flyers, sales letters, book reviews, etc. Third, in contrast with most other exercises in their student career, students are put into a semi-lifelike situation (Figure 1): people other than their own teacher will read the results of their work, and students may have contact with the source text writers, the so-called "clients" of their work, for which they will use e-mail and other software programs. A fourth aim is for students to realize that many instructions contain technical vocabulary, which pose quite a challenge for them. (They do not take any other technical translation courses.) Finally, students need to be aware of the different cultural concepts used in both the source and the target texts.

To reach these targets, the project schedule runs as part of the regular course "Persuasive Texts" and includes an introductory stage, a stage for interpretation and translation, and a feedback stage.

As a way of introduction to instructions and their persuasive devices, the students spend a class of two hours studying copies of about eight examples of instructions from real life and discuss their characteristics. Special attention is meanwhile drawn to instructions as persuasive texts, i.e., as texts that have a perlocutionary function in the sense that instructions aim at readers performing activities in a certain way, or a certain order, or with the right equipment, etc. This also means that the translation strategy to be employed is not just

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one of aiming at equivalence of contents but one of aiming at equivalence of function. The exercise with UW-Stout starts with Ghent students' choosing their own texts. In practice, the Ghent teacher receives a list of UW-Stout students with their texts’ subjects and the numbers of words from the UW-Stout teacher and passes it on to the Ghent students. The Ghent students select their subjects by writing their names and e-mail addresses next to the topics of their choice.

Figure 1. The translation situation

Sometimes students will work together on one text: each chooses an extract of 300 words only, but sometimes UW-Stout texts contain 1,000 words or

more. The Ghent teacher then sends the list, which pairs UW-Stout students with Ghent students, back to the UW-Stout teacher. The latter then explains the exercise to the Ghent students in an e-mail message. He also forwards all Ghent e-mail addresses to the UW-Stout students, who send their electronic texts via e-mail to the Ghent students. The latter acknowledge receipt of the text and are now ready to start the interpretation and translation stage.

In this second stage, Ghent students read their texts, use their translation tools (dictionaries, reference works, comparable texts, etc.), and, if need be, ask UW-Stout students questions. They also pay attention to persuasive devices in instructions. They finish their task by proofreading and editing their translations and send them not only to both the Ghent and the UW-Stout teachers but to the relevant UW-Stout student as well. (The primary UW-Stout professor participating in the project can read Dutch.) Any correspondence between students during this stage is forwarded to both the Ghent and UW-Stout teachers.

During the final stage of feedback, the Ghent teacher adds comments to the paper versions of students’ translations. Students have access to these comments and can get additional feedback in person on the day especially reserved for feedback.

The amount of teacher time spent on the project is limited to writing e-mail, giving instructions, checking students’ work, commenting on translations, and giving feedback (about 15 hours, depending on the number of students and their readiness in sending their assignments). The amount of student time spent on the exercise is also limited. At the end of the third year the speed for translating into the mother tongue is set at 120 words per half an hour. A text of 300 words should definitely not take them more than two hours. Corresponding and writing a report will require more time from them (one hour).

Exercise results The exercise has reached the aims above and has thus led to a positive outcome. Of the aims described above, the second (persuasive elements) and fifth (cultural awareness) have proven especially successful.

Persuasive devices: At the outset, students know that persuasive devices in texts [6] aim at attention,

- Ordered by X1 =UW-Stout teacher - Written by X2 = UW-Stout student

Written for X3

= UW-Stoutteacher

Target text initiator X4 =Ghent teacher

People INITIATE

a translation process

Intended for audience X6 = Ghent teacher

UW-Stout teacher UW-Stout student

The translation (process) has its CONSEQUENCES

SSOOUURRCCEETTEEXXTT

undergoes a

PPRROOCCEESSSSwhose end product is a

TTAARRGGEETT

TTEEXXTT

Carried out by translator X5 = Ghentstudent

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comprehension, and yielding from their readers or listeners.[7] [8] [9] [10] Drawing and retaining attention is usually seen as a matter of ease: people will look at things if they are easy to understand. Reading ease is produced by text clarity, which in its turn is produced by various text characteristics as described in Maylath [2]: step-by-step explanations of procedures; glossaries: as a first step towards terminology management; drawings: visualization items with which readers may be unfamiliar (e.g., a foam swab); and layout techniques to mark special pieces of information as signposts.

This exercise has, however, taught students that there is more to attention-drawing than clarity. Even the clearest text was not always able to engage of some of our less technically minded students. What was lacking is the second element involved in communication, as clearly described by Sperber and Wilson[11]: indeed, processing messages requires effort, but in addition, it also produces results or effect. While understanding is one of the results obtained by processing a message, other types of results are possible, one being pleasure. Reading pleasure, a factor determining how well a reader will continue reading—and persuasive texts aim at maintaining attention—is produced by special language or content markers. However, globalized texts—devoid of any idioms or any imagery, devoid of any striking or special cultural element—are boring to read, especially for translators who derive their pride from their ability to deal with different cultural situations. If the translation is only a matter of precise and clear expression of content (which to some extent can be carried out by sophisticated translation software tools), it does not look very persuasive.

Cultural differences In the course of their four-year training, the class had already learned that there are cultural differences as far as concepts and as far as language use are concerned. They have, for instance, been encouraged to look into various comparable texts to find current collocations or to inquire with companies about certain products about which they have their doubts (e.g., a student having to choose among different possibilities—"chocoladebolletjes," "chocoladeschilfers," and "chocoladestukjes"—to find the Flemish equivalent for chocolate chips). However, measuring instruments still proved to be quite a problem. Although one in principle may know that

measuring instruments in the USA and Flanders differ from one another, it is not until one needs to translate a recipe, for instance, that one becomes fully aware of the intricacies involved.

Theoretically speaking, translators can take one of the following actions:

1. translate "teaspoon" and "cup" literally as "theelepel" and "kopje" respectively;

2. use the accurate measurements in the metric system; or1

3. use measurements that are the normal measurements for Flemish recipes.

None of these options, however, is ideal. Each time, there is a considerable disadvantage. In the case of the literal translation, one knows that measurements are not equal and that the recipe may fail due to wrong proportions. When the translators opt for the accurate measurements, and thus obtain equivalence of contents, readers may raise their eyebrows: it is unrealistic to expect recipe readers to weigh 367 grams of sugar, for instance. Finally, when translators adapt the measurements to their own reading audience, again, there is the possibility that the recipe is not completely right, since the volumes taken of an ingredient may be precisely the ones that were used in the American recipe.

In addition, this exercise also showed them that cultural differences may also be found at the level of attitude, a matter that was completely new to them. The American statements in the instructions, for instance, were often considered too explicit, and, therefore, childish. One Flemish student, for instance, dropped, "pull back the shower curtain" and "close the curtain" in his translation as the first and final steps of the instructions for cleaning a shower. Such superfluous sentences make Flemish people feel as if they are being treated like children, and texts containing such statements are sometimes called "verkleuterde" (produced-for-children-at-kindergarten) texts. Similarly, the presence of many bold letters, capital letters, warning signs, and text-box frames are not always appreciated by the Ghent students: they are often means to address people with a low elaboration likelihood.[12] Instead, modesty and a classy, rather than a bawdy style, are preferred.

1 This action is very often performed by the UW-Stout student writing the text globally.

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Further goals Although students were able to contact the source text writers, they very often did not, probably for lack of time because the exercise is given when the students are in the final stages of their master’s degree theses. In succeeding years, this contact will be made obligatory: if no questions have arisen, they will be asked to write a report mentioning the two most difficult items of their translations and the solutions they provided.

Another common problem is the translators’ hesitation to improve the source text, where the latter is clearly failing (e.g., a text on studding an automobile tire that fails to mention whether it is the inner or the outer tire that needs to be studded). Perhaps in contrast with the Århus students (see below), the Ghent students have the habit of avoiding criticism directed toward their colleagues: hardly ever will they express any criticism against each other. Although this lack of criticism will be remedied as soon as students take a real life job and become more confident and assertive, it would contribute to their education if ways could be found to have students take a more critical attitude while at college.

Finally, to guide students better in their translation tasks, more tips based on the students’ tasks and feedback will be presented to future students in the form of a more extensive syllabus chapter. These will focus on correct visualization of elements, layout matters, etc. However excellent an idea, the video conference, like the one between Stout and Århus mentioned earlier, is too demanding for the Ghent students. (They already have oral persuasive tasks such as a product presentation, job interview, meeting, and negotiations.)

The Danish translators’ experience: mediation as a means to create consensus

At the Aarhus School of Business, the international program was used in connection with Methodologies in Technical Writing at Master’s level. The aspect of mediation in connection with localization is commented on in the examples from the student exchange. The intricacies of mediation in a wider context are evident from the following real-life examples. Why was it, for instance, that the lenses of the Hubble telescope mirror were improperly shaped? Why did the Mars Climate Orbiter crash into Mars and why did the Genesis solar wind space probe

not open its parachute on returning to the earth after collecting solar dust?[13] Was it the fault of the producer, the scientist, the fitter, the manual writer, or badly translated manuals that came from a sub-manufacturer? The "investigative team is still tracing the branches of the ‘fault-tree’."[13]

The above examples clearly point toward lack of communication at some stage in the production process, be it the actual data and process recording or its interpretation. One weak spot is traditionally the documentation accompanying the product or component, e.g., the instructions.

Instructions: Negotiation and mediation How people actually communicate instructions is still a process that has not been investigated very much. Work processes, genre discussions, layouts, etc. have been investigated in numerous books and have been the theme of many conferences, but the actual negotiation and mediation involved in solving interpretation problems in instructions still remain unresolved.

In this article, negotiation is defined as discussions of translation issues taking place between the author of a text and the translator/localizer, whereas mediation is defined as the processes involved in shaping a text for a target audience.

In the Hubble telescope, the Mars Climate Orbiter and the Genesis solar wind space probe, start-to-finish production process, negotiation, and mediation processes are probably both monolingual and multilingual. The process of communicating an action, a process, a procedure and the problems pertaining to it is hard enough in a monolingual setting, but becomes no less strenuous when the process involves translation. When companies become global marketers, the use of English as a lingua franca is in most cases necessary, and translation processes become essential.

McLanguage or localization? One solution that seems to be used is English as a global "free-floating lingua franca (‘InternationalEnglish’) that has largely lost track of its original cultural identity—its idioms, its hidden connotations, its grammatical subtleties—and that has become a reduced, standardized form of language for supra-cultural communication—the McLanguage."[14] Snell-Hornby’s critical attitude reveals that this kind of language poses problems

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in form and structure as well as in content. Add to that the major problem of quality assurance, which is a challenge, even in a monolinguistic world.

The scope and challenge of English as a lingua franca become obvious for other reasons, too, when "only one in four of the world's population speaks English to some level of competence. That leaves nearly five billion people who are unreach-able without translation."[15]

Another solution to communicating is localization, explained by the industry as follows: "Language translation is a key element of the localization process. Web sites, product promotion and training material, software, and legal agreements may all need translation. But localization also includes careful consideration of subject matter, graphics, and colors, to appeal to and avoid offending people in the target country market."[15]

In the quotation above, two utterances traditionally contrast with each other, namely the fidelity of the translator towards the source text and the requested adaptation to avoid offending people in the target country. It is obvious that this gap has to be filled by someone—but by whom?

Translator or transcreator or localizer? Numerous linguists and translation scholars have made suggestions. Reiss and Vermeer’s skopostheory [16] has gained ground: the idea that the purpose of the translation and the functionalist nature of the text are decisive, and consequently that the translator has a major responsibility in the translation process, a role that has gained momentum in translation theory and practice over the past 10-20 years. Along with a more tightly webbed world, the attitude has emerged that "in most cases…recipients of translations are not at all interested in the ‘full meaning’ of the source language text. They want the translator to present them with a text which seems so natural that it makes them believe they were addressed directly by the author of the source language text."[17]

The role of the translator thus changes from being a loyally serving translator to being a critical filterer and more independent agent in the process from source text to target text. This fact is acknowledged in the stance that "translators are first and foremost mediators. They are the medium by which texts from one culture and language are transmitted to another. Translation is a subset of

the larger sets of transmission and mediation. In this respect trans-lation has similarities to other forms of mediation and transmission in our society."[18] To perform this act of mediation in relation to a new locale, negotiation between the author and the translator is a focal point. This new role of the translator is more and more often referred to as the localizer.

Localization — localizer — locale "With its emphasis on target-oriented translation, wholly consonant with the more popular versions of functional and polysystemic theories of translations, 'localization' appears to be the corporate linguistic response to the ecological injunction to think global and act local."[19] The above quotation is an explanation of localization in relation to linguistics, but also in relation to how a text moves from a global distributor to a local consumer without losing its naturalness and relevance. The mediator who performs this process is called the localizer or the translator, and the audience is called the locale, defined "in terms of coinciding linguistic and cultural options: not just a language, but usually a particular variety of a language."[20]

Localization and mediation for a Danish locale

When the Danish students of translation at Århus have worked with the American students of technical writing at UW-Stout, abundant material has become available that sheds light on the mediation process from global origin to local result. The US students create a text version, which to the best of their ability is made void of local US references. The Danish students translate and aim at an apt version of a localized text for a Danish locale. In the following, special emphasis will be put on some of the mediation procedures and problems.

Transatlantic localization process The actual translation/localization project was initiated in 2000 and has run consecutively with small variations. In relation to the Danish students, the following definition of localization was used: "localization is the process of evaluating, translating, adapting as well as creating and deleting text and graphics in the transfer of an instruction from one culture to another and from one language into another to make it appear genuine in the new locale."[21] As part of a translation course in a subject called

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Methodologies in Technical Writing, this in practice meant a translation where the translator/localizer had far-reaching authority to adapt the text to a Danish locale.

Figure 2: The Wisconsin-Århus process

The overall process, from creation of the original US source text to a globalized version and then to a mediated and localized Danish version, should be evident from the model above. For a more detailed reference, please see Appendix 1, which lists the documents used in the process.

Communication between the students: Theactual cooperation between the American and the Danish students has gone smoothly and been fruitful, with a few exceptions. Some students have actually gained some kind of "close distance relationship," at least for a while. The students had to start a more or less formal relationship, and it has been interesting to experience how most of them instinctively built up this relationship gradually, how they have understood the importance of finding the right way to approach the other person, and also at some point, how they have instinctively known when they could not gain more intimacy.

For the Danish students, the e-mail communication was not an aim as such; it served the purpose of being a means towards an end. The primary purpose for the Danish students was to work on localization. The students were thus instructed to communicate with their partner keeping in mind their main purpose of negotiating translation and localization issues in order to translate and localize the text. A genuine account was thus given of what

happens in the negotiation phase to create a mediated, localized text.

What was expected, of course, in relation to this "real-life" project was the occurrence of simple behavioral and cultural misunderstandings, but these misunderstandings were surprisingly few, given the diversity of personal and cultural differences. Some of the problems that did occur, however, almost always related to the task at hand. The communication situation was real to the students because the subject matter was real. There were no fictitious roles, which can make the whole communication vague and undefined, with ensuing obvious odd misunderstandings of the situation and with dehumanized communication practices.

Successful and genuine correspondence: Anexample of successful correspondence is shown in Appendix 2. The references to the original texts should give a picture of the exchange without reading the full original text. The topic of the communication was a text titled "How to properly iron a shirt,"2 a process which could be described in some material for a hotel personnel course and in certain training sessions for practical work spheres.

First, the two students involved get acquainted. In the example in Appendix 2, this act was spurred by the American student’s openness and straight-forward manner of writing and willingness to unveil part of his private life to his correspondence partner. The Danish student immediately picked up on the tone and level of formality. However, the Danish student had a problem. She wished to point out a couple of features in the text. Her problem was multifaceted. She was a non-native speaker who wanted to criticize the language of a native speaker. She was younger than he was. Luckily for her, a general process was described because often the subject-matter is not the sphere of competence of the translator/localizer, which might also suggest an inferior role.

Moreover, she wanted to draw attention to lack of precision and consistency in the writing of another person, which, even if all of the above-mentioned aspects had not been there, is one of the most difficult things to do. The way people write is very

2 All students have given their permission to use their correspondence, but with changed names.

Source text made by US technicalwriting students at UW-Stout

Globalized version prepared for localization by UW-Stout students

Correspondence between UW-Stout students and Århus students

LocalizedDanish version is made by Århus students

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personal, and often the worst thing one person can do to another is to criticize the writing style.

Initially, she gave him credit for his writing, but in the translation she proposed changes, and she wished to gain his "permission" to make the changes. He, on the other hand, realized that she was right. He also understood that she was criticizing him, but the criticism was never directly uttered. He, therefore, took up her suggestions for the translations and commented on them, and probably incorporated some of the suggestions in a new version of his own text. Consensus was being reached. Nobody lost face.

Problematic but genuine correspondence: Therelationship between author and translator may not always develop so graciously. Appendix 3 shows that in the course of negotiating the changes that had to be made in a Danish version, subtle controversies arose, and the ensuing result was without consensus. Because of that, the learning process was troublesome.

The topic of the text was the measurement of an ideal body weight and how one can achieve that ideal body weight by means of energy intake. The text was used by dieticians, but was in this case rewritten for a layperson. The problem in the translation of this text was as simple as one would ever find: the transformation from the US measurements of feet and pounds to the metric measurement system (SI). In the original text, the US system was kept, but a conversion table was added to the text for the help of the translator in the translation process.

The communication in Appendix 3 started out successfully, but it soon turned out that opinions differed when it came to the use of SI. The US writer insisted on using the foot-pound system, but did admit that other systems might exist in Europe. However, the suspicion lurked that with a blatant error in the foot-pound to metric conversion table, which had been given to the translator in earlier correspondence, the US writer could not be well acquainted with the metric system.

From this moment on, the communication was only successful at the surface level, to the extent that it was possible to go on communicating at all. When the Danish translator wrote, "You are the Master, and I shall humbly obey you," there was a marked change in the balance in the

communication. The Danish writer was ironical and eventually disclaimed responsibility. As a last resort and attempt to make the writer understand, the translator wanted to force the US student to confirm that this text really was for a layperson, thus again subtly telling her that what she was venturing into was beyond reason.

A subsequent short confirmation on the target group was given, and no more correspondence between the two took place until the final result was handed in. Freud would have enjoyed the last correspondence from the Danish translator in her use of the word "gobbledygook." Definitely what the translator referred to is really the slight variations in the alphabets, but unconsciously (if not consciously?) the translator seemed to refer to the result of the translation.

The medium for the mediators An interesting question can be formulated now. It is a commonly acknowledged fact that face-to-face situations even out many differences between people. Differences can otherwise grow to immense proportions. What would the outcome have been if the two persons in Appendix 3 had met face to face? Can a mediation of that kind be done via e-mail at all or should email only be used as a neutral message machine?

Mediation and power Another interesting question has been raised by this project: How is power distributed and handled in the process of translation? Mediation in translation involves the key to power in relation to the translation. The two examples in this paper demonstrate that the mediation skills needed in a translation process are no less today than previously. From subtle suggestions for changing the process for ironing a shirt to totally disclaiming responsibility in the example with the Hamwi method (a weight to height formula commonly used by nutritionists), mediation and mastering the power balance in mediation turn out to be some of the major skills needed by a translator/localizer.

Linguistics has dealt with this question too, and "the cultural turn in translation has become the power turn, with questions of power brought to the fore in discussions of both translation history and strategies for translation."[22]

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Defining common ground The question is whether universities in their curricula for translation studies prepare the students of translation and localization for this challenge. Although, as university teachers in this project, we thought we had prepared our students for the task (e.g., via the translation brief that we introduced in the fall of the 2004 exchange), questions still remained regarding the purpose and target group of the localized text. The translation brief forced the parties to define roles, means, and ends more specifically, but the brief showed that the reader profile for the actual text in the new locale was very unclear. In the translation brief, some of the US students misinterpreted the question about who is the receiver of the text to mean their Danish translator, rather than the intended audience or readers (these latter terms being the ones with which they had become familiar in their technical writing class). In turn, the purpose of the text beyond the scope of the translator was not always defined.

How can the role of the mediator be filled in when there is no clear consensus on the use of the final result? That is a potential explanation why the Hubble telescope, the Mars Climate Orbiter, and the Genesis solar wind space probe all failed. The trans-Atlantic localization project is, among other things, an attempt at clarifying the role of the translator as the mediator.

Managing Language Issues

When students of translation at the University of Paris 7 were asked to translate the instructions written by the students at the UW-Stout, the instructors in Paris added a component not yet used at the other universities; namely, they compiled a class list in which they identified and classified the problems encountered during translation.

When all comments for the list were gathered, two different categories of language issues were recorded: the first set of issues involved the authors’ inexperience in writing international documentation; the second set were issues we believe to be inherent to the translator’s job. We will discuss these two categories and suggest some ways authors can help translators.

What is due to inexperience in writing international documentation?

Many of the problems encountered by the French students have already been identified by work groups studying translation and writing for an international audience and were identified as well by the Belgian and Danish students, who pioneered the project. In the present case the problems can probably be put down to inexperience in writing for an international audience—and even lack of experience in technical writing, since the US students are new to the subject.

1. Terminology issues: Although terminology poses an inherent problem in technical translation, there are some cases in which this is aggravated in the writing process. This is especially the case for what is often called "in-house terminology," words used by one manufacturer or service but not generally known in the industry at large. Thus “multijog” as part of a timer is bound to present problems for the translator, and the writer would be well advised to make sure that the translator knows what is involved, by means of illustration or explanation.

The most common cases of difficulties caused by terminology relate to its inconsistent use. Different words used for the same meaning will baffle the translator: if the writer is using different words, the implication is that two different meanings are involved. This is not always the case, however, as when “press button” seems to refer to the same operation as “depress button.” The apprentice translator was obliged to ask for a confirmation. Similarly, the same term may refer to different objects: “caps” in technical texts can refer to a bewildering range of items. It is of help to the translator for the author to indicate which type of cap is being referred to. In another text translated, “pan” referred to carter and also to the bac de récupération. Often the "full" term will be more enlightening than a shortened version.

Terminology may also be ambiguous in more subtle ways: when the writer mentions the “run button,” the translator is not sure whether “run” is the label of the button or its function. If the button has “run” printed on it in English, the user will need to know this, even if the appliance is sold in France and the documentation is entirely in French.

Certain writers were thoughtful enough to include glossaries. These were always appreciated, as they

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serve to disambiguate the text itself and can be kept for further use, for example, in appropriate software, such as Trados' Multiterm, where they can be copied almost directly.

Use of acronyms: Acronyms in one language do not always have an equivalent in the other. One student translated instructions for setting up an "EMS Tristar backpacking tent" without ever inquiring as to whether EMS referred to the manufacturer or to a type of tent. In the first case, no translation is necessary, whereas the second does require one. Today, a quick Google search will generally solve the problem, but the thoughtful writer includes it in the text.

Imprecision in the text Student writers are sometimes not aware of the very basics of writing for an audience, starting from accuracy in typing and grammar. The French students were often perplexed by what often turned out to be simple typographical errors, as for example when “ties” was used for “tied,” “consumes” for “consumed,” errors not picked up by the spell check.

In many cases, confused word order in the original gives rise to extra translating problems, e.g., "These instructions are arranged, for the inexperienced printer, to efficiently ink-up the ink rollers (an important step in make-ready process) of a Heidelberg Quickmaster (Printmaster)." This sentence had to be pried apart and the inserted information put into more linear form. Inconsistencies in style in the original may not only cause problems for the translator but also point the text in the wrong direction. The first phrase of the following instruction illustrates this:"If you don't already know, (an oil change for your vehicle can be the best preventative maintenance done to an engine)"; it corresponds idiomatically to the French phrase il faut savoir…, although it was not in fact used by the student translator, who must have realized that it was not good style in French either.

Sometimes only a minor slip can give the translator problems. For example the translator did not understand the final clause of the following sentence: "After inspecting your car your vehicle is ready for another 3000 miles or three months whatever comes first." The student translator was flummoxed and thought this may mean withoutany problems. Perhaps if the clause had been

formulated whichever comes first, the sentence would have been correctly interpreted.

Repetition in sentences also gives the translator more work, though it was never commented on by the student translator:

"Basic prior knowledge in mechanical applications should be known to complete the task in hand." In this case, "knowledge" and "know" are redundant, but the student translated as pour réaliser cette opération sans aucune difficulté, une connaissance fondamentale en matière de mécanique est primordiale. While this translation could be improved upon, the redundancy mentioned has been discreetly eliminated.

The inexperienced writer makes little use of layout to make the message clearer, for example by using bullet points or numbering steps in a process. Improved layout was sometimes rendered by the translator.

On many occasions, poor writing in the original was quietly corrected in the translation, without any exchange between students on this point. For example, one American student entitled his text "How to properly change [..] an automobile’s motor oil."

•First, no one remarked on the split infinitive – it poses no translation problem.

•Second, no one needed to point out that one would hardly write a text to explain how to change one badly.

Other examples of poor writing in original texts were passed over almost automatically in translation: the American student—apparently immune to his UW-Stout professor's lessons on grammatical parallelism—who mixed infinitives, imperatives and conjugated verbs in the same list ("wheel licks [to block tires]" "filter wrench [loosen filter]"… "filter [cleans oil]") did not faze the translator, who put the infinitive each time in French. Another example: "If a leak is found a simple extra tightening is needed and should fix the problem." The last clause is unnecessary and the translator quite correctly omitted it: S'il y a présence d'une fuite, cela peut signifier qu'il faut revisser davantage le filtre.

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Similarly, mistakes in punctuation were generally corrected in the translation process, which in general requires a general revision of prosody notation in any case.

Use of graphics and of text in graphics: Translations tend to be longer than the original, a point writers should be aware of. Thus, some of the French students were unable to replace the source text with the translated text, as the French was rather longer than the English, and not enough space had been allowed for text expansion.

Cultural issues: Terminology can often turn out to be more culturally motivated than most people think. "Hydrogen peroxide," as a chemical substance, presents no problem at all to the translator of a chemical text. To translate a text on hair coloring, however, the problem is quite different. Hydrogen peroxide immediately evokes in the American mind the peroxide blonde. In French, there is no similar connotation, and the translator is left wondering how to make up for this deficit.

Tone of writing and detail of instructions can vary from one linguistic community to another. If all the details are translated, the French users will feel they are being "talked down to." We need to find a compromise between what is acceptable to an American audience and what is acceptable to a French (or European?) audience. Examples of these were explanations given for very obvious activities of everyday life (e.g., how to open a can with a can opener), use of popular sayings ("time is money"), warnings that a cake coming out of an oven will be hot, or that socks are made for feet. In recipes, the French students usually felt that certain indications were superfluous, because their use is obvious, (e.g., "potato peeler," "knife," or "cutting board"). In France, recipes do not usually specify the utensils needed, so this may be a cultural difference.

In English, it is more usual to address the reader directly, using you. This can lead the translator to use a similar construction in French where it is not warranted, e.g., "Next take your filter plug wrench and loosen the drain plug." Ensuite, avec votre clé de vidage, desserrez le bouchon de vidange.Normally, this translator did not personalize in this way, and the result can only be considered as poor translating technique.

What is inherent to the translator's job? Some of the translation problems encountered by the French students are independent of the quality of the original writing, and translators will come up against these problems and need to find solutions to them throughout their careers.

Terminology will always pose problems, no matter how well the source text is written, and finding ways around them is part of the translator's training. Thus, it is not for the American author to worry about the lack of a direct equivalent of "tread" (of an automobile tire); it was a problem for the French translator, but one that is part of her work. However, it may be expected that some terms will cause trouble, and if the writer is aware of these, much time can be saved in the translation process.

A different problem of acronymy occurred when it turned out that the equivalent French form was already taken: "All terrain vehicle" was used in the text proposed by the American student as "ATV," whereas the equivalent in French of the full term poses no problem (véhicule tout terrain), the corresponding acronym (VTT) is already taken by vélo tout terrain, the French equivalent of the mountain bike.

During the Stout/Paris 7 phases of the project, we identified four main types of such problems.

1. Products contain different parts—and operate differently—in the source country and the target country: This problem is recurrent in recipes. Some ingredients (butter or cooking spray) used in the US simply do not exist in France. The recipe is perfectly well written for the American audience, but could not be followed by a French cook. The translator cannot simply find an equivalent term but needs to find a substitute product and rewrite the instructions accordingly. In one set of instructions, the American recipe would instruct the user to "spray the pan with butter spray," whereas the French recipe would need to instruct the user to weigh the butter and to melt it in the pan. Similarly, A1 Steak Sauce or Clairol hair products leave both the French translator and the readers perplexed, and the cheerful reminder that these "can be found at one's local Wal-Mart" are of little help in a country yet to benefit from this temple of consumerism. (Granted, France has its equivalents in its big-box chains, such as Intermarché.) It is unavoidable that the source text

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and the translated text contain different information.

2. Technical infrastructures differ from country to country: Voltages are different in the USA and in France, standard plugs (wall outlets/sockets) and jacks are different, mobile telephone networks use different standards. Translators need to change technical references, descriptions, and illustrations to adapt the source text to the target country.

3. Weights and measures differ between the US system and SI: Converting from ounces to grams or inches to centimeters is part and parcel of the translator's work, even though, as mentioned in the case of the Danish students, translators are sometimes perplexed by the task. Some conversions are harder than others, especially if a ratio is involved (e.g., "pounds per square inch" versus "bar"). One difficulty in this is knowing where it is applicable to round off: a nice round figure in the source text being expressed to the second or third decimal is obviously un-aesthetic, but the translator has to have some idea of the tolerance possible, so that the instructions actually produce the intended result. The translator needs to translate the terms, convert the numbers, and check the figures!

4. Processes differ from the source to the target country: In this case, all the parts (or ingredients) of a product are the same, but the process of using it is different. One set of instructions dealt with "How to clean a gun." The instructions were correct for the USA, but incorrect for France, where there is a specific process for cleaning a gun. Potential situations where this could happen would be in instructional material for connecting a mobile network to an operator network.

How can authors help translators?Some of the translation problems encountered are inherent to the translator's job, as outlined above. However, some of the problems could be alleviated by a closer collaboration between writers and translators—or by a greater awareness on the writers' part of internationalization issues. Based on the Stout/Paris 7 experience, our top five recommendations would be as follows:

1. Ensure that your terminology is consistent: Always use the same term for the same object or process, and a different term for each different object or process. If you think that a term is

specific to a certain product or to a maker, be sure that the reader knows what it corresponds to, by means of illustration or explanation.

2. When using acronyms, always spell out the full meaning, at least the first time you use the acronym.

3. Remove unnecessarily detailed information.Clearly define your audience, and pitch your writing for that audience. Do not write down to your audience or be too conceptual.

4. When using graphics, make sure that you leave enough space around the labels for text expansion.

5. If the terminology that you use is specific to a company rather than to the industry as a whole, provide a glossary.

Final Reflections

This project has now run for six years with a multitude of people and texts involved and with a trans-Atlantic, international scope. The project’s results offer ample evidence that Rothkegel’s question remains perhaps the most relevant and pressing question in global technical discourse: “How does one get across in the translated message something which is different in L1 and L2, not simply because the languages are different, but because in the two languages’ cultures, the conventions on how something is communicated are not the same?”[23]

From the literature on technical discourse it appears widely accepted that adaptation and selection, in addition to translation, are important tools in connection with text processing for a locale. As Gengshen remarks, “Since adaptations, selections, and decision-making permeate translational activity, an approach comprising them all may also lead to better and more conscious translation practice.”[24] We observe that, although localization advocates and technical writers in general seem to agree on the importance of including adaptations and selection, and in turn, creation of text, the literature does not so far address the agents’ role in that process to a very high extent.

Moreover, translation studies in general discuss the source text and the target text but not as much the

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agents behind the source and target texts. In conventional translation studies, the translator is always blamed for changes or lack of the same between source and target texts. If the focus is moved from the source text to the writer of the source text, from target text to text process, to the negotiation and mediation between writer and translator, many questions may be answered.

A modest suggestion based on our study shows that negotiation and mediation between the writer and the translator are sometimes challenging in ways that surprise both parties, but at the same time they remain the only way to make the appropriate choices that can bridge the source text and the target text.

In their technical writing course, the US students are introduced to most of the problems that we authors describe above. Indeed, in more recent years, the very examples described here are ones used for illustration in class. The five recommendations listed in the section immediately above are in fact identical to points covered in the lessons outlined in Maylath.[2]

The interesting and challenging point is that many students do not recognize the same sorts of problems in their own texts until they are pointed out specifically. When the translators do so, they provide a memorable learning experience. The US student writers remember far better the problems that they caused a reader trying to make sense of their text than they do an error circled on their paper by their teacher.

Likewise, the student translators encounter realistic cases unlike any that could be produced from an artificial exercise. In the processing of the texts, they sense the delicate and difficult balance between transferring the meaning of the source text and yet producing a target text that seems natural and relevant in the new locale. They also learn the overall importance of negotiation and mediating to reach that result. In these respects, the trans-Atlantic localization project is unparalleled as a means of learning. We recommend similar projects and partnerships for institutions willing to attempt them.

References

[1] D. Tippens, "Interculturalizing the technical or business communications course," Journal of

Technical Writing and Communication, vol. 23,pp. 389-412, 1993.

[2] Bruce Maylath, "Writing globally: Teaching the technical writing student to prepare documents for translation," Journal of Business and Technical Communication, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 339-52, 1997.

[3] Bruce Maylath and Emily Thrush, "Café , théou lait? Training technical communicators to manage translation and localization," in Managing Global Communication in Science and Technology. Peter Hager and H. J. Scheiber, Eds. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2000, pp. 233-254.

[4] T. Koltay, "Writing globally: Teaching technical writing to Hungarian students of translation," Journal of Business and Technical Communication, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 86-93, 1999.

[5] Kirk St. Amant, "Expanding translation use to improve the quality of technical communication," IEEE Transactions in Professional Communication, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 323-326, 2000.

[6] Sonia Vandepitte, "Persuasive communication," in Artikels. TT-M Cahier 8,Hogeschool Gent, Departement Vertaalkunde, 1999, pp. 63-77.

[7] E. Strong, The Psychology of Selling and Advertising. New York: McGraw Hill, 1925.

[8] G. Leech, English in Advertising, Harlow: Longman, 1966.

[9] E. P. Bettinghaus, Persuasive Communication.New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968.

[10] H. Hoeken, The Design of Persuasive Texts: Effects of Content, Structure, and Style on Attitude Formation. Katholieke Universiteit Brabant, Tilburg: Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van Doctor, 1995.

[11] D. Sperber and D. Wilson, Relevance:Communication and Cognition. Oxford: Blackwell, 1986.

[12] B. Verplanken, Persuasive Communication of Technological Risks: A Test of the Elaboration Likelihood Model. Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden:Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van Doctor, 1989.

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[13] "Following directions – D"oh!" The Economist, 23 October 2004, p. 78.

[14] M. Snell-Hornby, Communicating in the Global Village: On Language, Translation and Cultural Identity. [Online], January 2005. Available:http://literatureark.nease.net/eclass/complit/globlecom.htm.

[15] M. Anobile, from LISA (Localization Industry Standards Association), quoted in [Online] L. Downey, Thinking Locally, January 2005. Available: http://www.lisa.org/press/lisanews.html.

[16] K. Reiss and H. J. Vermeer, Grundlegungeiner allgemeinen Translationstheorie. Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1984.

[17] H. G. Hönig, "Positions, power and practice: Functionalist approaches and translation quality assessment" in C. Schäffner, Translation and Quality. Clevedon, Philadelphia, Toronto, Sydney, Johannesburg: Multilingual Matters Ltd., 1998.

[18] M. Cronin, Translation and Globalization.London and New York: Routledge, 2003, p. 124.

[19] M. Cronin, Translation and Globalization.London and New York: Routledge, 2003, p. 23.

[20] A. Pym, The Moving Text – Localization, Translation, and Distribution, Benjamins Translation Library, 2004, p. 2.

[21] Birthe Mousten, Instructions for Localization in the Classroom, used 2001-2004 at the Århus School of Business.

[22] M. Tymoczko, and E. Gentzler, Translationand Power. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2002, p. xvi.

[23] Annely Rothkegel, “Transfer of knowledge in cross-cultural discourse,” in Language, Text and Knowledge: Mental Models of Expert Communication. Lita Lundquist and Robert J. Jarvells, Eds. Berlin: 2000. [24] Hu Gengshen, “Translation as adaptation and selection,” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, vol. 11, No. 4, 2003.

About the Authors

John Humbley is a professor in applied linguistics and terminology at Université Paris 7–Denis-Diderot, France, where he directs the Department for Intercultural Studies and Applied Languages (EILA). Active in the fields of technical translation, lexicography and terminology, he was director of the Centre for Terminology and Neology, a research team responsible for promoting French-language terminology, particularly in the European context, and participated in several European projects in this field. He has published in the field of terminology, has participated in several dictionaries (Dictionary of European Anglicisms, Translation Terminology...), and is on the editorial board of translation and terminology journals.

Bruce Maylath is an associate professor of English at the University of Wisconsin–Stout, USA, where he directs the program in technical communication. As president of the Council for Programs in Technical and Scientific Communication (CPTSC), he helped launch the CPTSC/ATTW London2000 Roundtable held in conjunction with FORUM 2000. More recently he chaired the Milano2003 Roundtable in Italy. His current research takes up translation issues in technical communication. His best-known book chapters appear in Carolyn Rude’s Technical Editing, 3rd

ed., and Deborah S. Bosley’s Global Contexts: Case Studies in International Technical Communication.

Birthe Mousten is an assistant professor of English at the Aarhus Business School (Handelshøjskolen i Århus), Denmark, where she teaches courses in English for Science and Technology and Methodologies in ESP Writing. Her research focuses on localization and the development and use of localization procedures and methods. She also places localization in a linguistic perspective, where it is compared with the existing theories and practice. She has contributed to Kezunovich’s Business Leksikon; Clausen’s Engelsk-DanskTeknisk Ordbog and Dansk-Engelsk Teknisk Ordbog Moreover, among others she has publishedCommunicating in English for Science and Technology (2005); English for Science and Technology - Stylistics and Methods (2001); English for Science and Technology - Theoretical Part (1999).

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Sonia Vandepitte is a lecturer of English at the School for Translation Studies, Hogeschool Gent (Ghent), Belgium. She teaches English persuasive texts, and translation and interpreting from and into English. She also co-ordinates research activities in the school and participates in research projects on knowledge retrieval from texts, funded by the Institution for the Promotion of Innovation through Science and Technology in Flanders. She haspublished on causality and its expression in language in Handelingen L, Koninklijke Zuid-Nederlandse Maatschappij voor Taal- en Letterkunde en Geschiedenis, 1998, and in Handbook of Pragmatics 2000, and on translation and interpreting in Polyfonie.

Lucy Veisblat has been a teacher in technical communications at Université Paris 7–Denis-Diderot, France, since 1992. In 1999, she contributed to setting up the RTMI (Rédaction Technique Multilingue Informatisée) post-graduate course in technical communications, and is now responsible for coordinating the program. With close to 20 years experience in technical documentation, first within an international organization (OECD), then with a multinational corporation (Digital Equipment Corp.) and finally as an independent consultant, Lucy runs a Paris-based technical writing agency, eCreation, which provides services to companies in the hi-tech industries such as telecommunications, microelectronics or software development. She is a dual French and British national, born in England, brought up bilingual in France. She lives and works in Paris, France, and holds a degree in political science.

Appendix 1

The asterisks in connection with some of the points mean that this part of the process was only tried in the autumn semester of 2004.

Introductory phase

The Danish and US students fill in two documents, a pre-learning report and a translation brief. These documents are sent to the translator/text writer in question*.

Contact phase

• The Danish teacher receives a list of persons and subjects from US teacher

• The Danish students select subjects and the teacher makes a list of matches and sends it to the US teacher

• The Danish student contacts the UW-Stout student via email and receives a digitized text

• Receipt of text is acknowledged Workingphase

Α revised translation brief is made.* • Questions are asked/comments to the text

are given • The translated/localized text is proofread

and sent to the Danish and the US teachers and to the US students (the US teacher reads Danish)

• The Danish teacher receives a copy of the correspondence between the parties

Danish students fill in a logbook with all questions and answers, ideas, problems, annoyances etc. and include the email correspondence, etc.*

End of project in Denmark

• In Denmark, a final "translation seminar" is held for the Danish students, which includes the following aspects for each text: students present the text on class translation/localization problems between source and target texts are discussed cooperation with the US students is

discussed relevant language theory for solving translation/localization problems are discussed teacher and the students discuss the localized result

In autumn 2004, this was replaced by a video-session/net-meeting where the students discussed their texts and the problems in this connection.* • The US and Danish teachers exchange

experience Students fill in a learning report* • Teachers receive all the documentation in

connection with the exchange, i.e.: pre-learning reports* translation brief* revised translation brief* original text translated/localized text email correspondance learning report from the Danish student* logbook*

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Appendix 2

Text titled "How to properly iron a shirt"

Excerpts of the email negotiation between the students on the text:

Danish translator/localizer – first letter:Hi, my name is Anne Larsen. I am a student at the Aarhus School of Business and I have chosen to translate your text "How to Properly Iron a Shirt". Would you please send me your instructions? Looking forward to hearing from you. Sincerely, Anne

Technical writer in the US – first letter:Good morning Anne! My name is Peter Smith. I thought I’d tell a little about myself first – I’ve been married for 12 years to Linda + am the father of a boy and a girl. I’ve worked in the entrepre-neurial industry for the past fifteen years and will graduate UW-Stout with a bachelor’s degree in Industrial Management in May 2003. If you have any problems with my Word Document for your translation, please let me know…

Danish translator/localizer – second letter:Hi Peter I am sorry that it has taken me so long to get back to you. I have been working with your text now and I would like to say that it has been very easy to work with! It is written in a clear and easily understandable language, so I only have two questions that are important for the translation. I do, however, have a few comments on your text – these comments are really minor details!

Nevertheless, I would like you to look at them and see whether you agree with me or not. I enclose a copy of your original text and I have marked and numbered the passages or words that I am going to comment on now.

1) Finished product: Can you call an ironed shirt a "finished product"? The product in this case is the ironing more than the shirt – is it possibile to find a better word/phrase? (Maybe "the result" or a similar expression). 2) Improper: This word is fairly vague. It could also be a temperature setting which is too low, but that wouldn’t damage the shirt. 3) Constructed of: Do you construct a shirt? I would prefer "made of".

4) This will often help determine: I would suggest "this can/will help determine (it will always help you if you look at it). 6) Surface: Is there a more precise term in English? I have found a technical term in Danish which is still easy to understand for non-experts. I prefer this term to the Danish equivalent to "surface". 7) Affected areas: If I translate "affected" directly to Danish it sounds like a disease/an infection or at least something dangerous. 8) This was the sentence that I did not completely understand the first time I read it. I do understand what you are saying, but maybe it is possible to make it a bit clearer? 9) (I am being pedantic now) "the shirt" is mentioned three times in a short sentence. I suggest that it is replaced by "it" the last time. 10) What exactly do you mean by "secure"? Sincerely, Anne

Appendix 3

Text titled: Calculating Energy Needs for Ideal Body Weight, Actual Body Weight, and Grams of Protein, Carbohydrate, and Fat for Energy Needs.

Excerpts of the email negotiation between the students on the text:

Response from US Eve to Danish MetteHi! I am glad that you had a couple of questions. I will try to answer them as well as I can.

MEASUREMENTS Yes! There is a reason that I incorporate the metric system. In my profession we DO use the metric system. Whenever I calculate someone’s BEE it is always done this way. All other calculations that I do on a patient including Body Mass Index, etc. are done using kilograms. The instructions are written as such because unless you are in a professional setting, scales do not show weight in kilograms, only in pounds, and the people completing the instructions would have to convert. You are right about the 2.2 pounds = 1 kilogram, words in the wrong spot, my mistake.…. Thank you for your questions. Please let me know if you have any further questions. Enjoy your weekend. Eve

Mette to Eve:I take it that your calculations are "do-it-yourself" instructions for a lay audience. Therefore I am more than a little undecided as to how I tackle the

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measurements in connection with the Hamwi method. I believe that most Europeans trying out this formula would give up if instructed as follows:

Use the Hamwi method to determine you IBW. a) Separate your height into the first 152.4

cm and the number of additional 2.54 cm. b) For males, use 48.12 kg for the first 152.4

cm and add 2.72 kg for each additional 2.54 cm.

c) For females, use 45.4 kg for the first 152.4 cm and add 2.27 kg for each additional 2.54 cm.

Perhaps this suggestion – although inaccurate – might go down easier: Use the Hamwi method to determine you IBW.

a) Separate your height into the first 150 cm and the number of additional cm.

b) For males, use 48 kg for the first 150 cm and add 1 kg for each additional cm.

c) For females, use 45.5 kg for the first 150 cm and add 0.9 kg for each additional cm.

I am not too happy about item c – but I think that attempting at even rounder figures would deviate too much from the actual figures. But which of the above solutions would you prefer that I use! Since you obviously are much more used to work in both measuring systems than I am, you might already have the perfect answer to my problem.…Mette

Eve to Mette The first revision that you suggested is correct and I would prefer that you use that one for your translating. My profession uses the metric system a lot, and you are probably right that I am more than used to using the both of them. Oftentimes when I see a patient or a client I am given the height in feet and inches and the weight in pounds and have to convert them to cm and kg to complete any of the equations that I use on every patient. I….Eve

Mette to Eve Thank you for answering me. You are the master, and I shall humbly obey your instructions. I could, of course, keep the feet, inches and pounds and then write the instructions for converting the figures into metres and kilos, but somehow I do not think that would be a good idea either.

Just to make sure: the instructions are intended for lay people aren’t they? (unless I am mistaken in

this assumption you won’t have to reply to this question). ….Mette

Eve to Mette Mette – Yes you are correct, they are for lay people. I do not think that it is necessary to keep the feet, inches, and pounds considering the European audience….…Eve

Mette to Eve Thanks for your help and assistance. It has been great fun working with you. I attach the final result – I guess you would like to see how it has turned out in gobbledygook (you may have problems printing out some Danish letters which are non-consistent in the "normal" alphabet). …Mette

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Documents

[IEEE IPCC 2005. Proceedings. International Professional Communication Conference, 2005. - Limerick, Ireland (July 7, 2005)] IPCC 2005. Proceedings. International Professional Communication