I.D.B. and the Mining Compound System in the 1880s

I.D.B. and the Mining Compound System in the 1880s

JOHN M. SMALBERGER*(1)ILLICIT DIAMOND BUYING became important from the latter half of 1871 because it gave rise to legislation for the better"control" of black workers. *(2) Illicit diamond buying was also the reason given for the formation of the Digger's ProtectionAssociation of the Combined Camps. *(3)This Association was at the root of the disturbances of 1874-1875. The growing concernabout the prevalence of this traffic is illustrated by the increasing severity with which persons engaging therein were sentenced.*(4) By the early 1880s, illicit diamond buying had come to assume such enormous proportions - according to some estimates fromtwenty-five to forty per cent of all finds *(5) - thats this illegal trading posed a threat to the viability of the entire industry. *(6)In order to understand how opportunities for Theft arose, it will perhaps not be amiss to give a short extract from the report ofBernard V. Shaw *(7) dated 25 March 1882 on the Kimberley Detective Department, describing mining operations:(a) After removing the surface or yellow ground, which being extremely friable, is washed at once without subjection to furtherprocess, the blue ground underneath is broken out by blasting, usually with dynamite, and picking.

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(b) This broken ground is loaded into trucks, which are run, by horse or mule power, along rails to a wire oraerial tramway with bucket attached, the wires being worked by a steam winding engine above. In thesebucket the blue ground is hauled to the surface of the mine, and discharged into a Stationary delivery box,from which the soil then passes through a shoot into trucks ...(c) The trucks, drawn by horses, are emptied into a similar box close to the deposit floor, an open space fordrying preparatory to washing the soil.(d) This box is emptied into cart, out of which the ground is then shovelled, and deposited in small heaps on the floor. The heapsare spread out by natives, under the supervision of overseers, and the ground thus remains scattered over an unenclosed space fora period varying, with the weather, from a fortnight to four months, during which time the process of disintegration takes place.(e) When thoroughly weathered the ground is watered; this causes pulverization, in which state it is gathered into heaps,loaded into cart, and emptied again into a delivery box Stationed in proximity to the washing machine, at somedistance from the floor.(f) From the said box it is shovelled, or allowed to run by gravitation, into the washing machine, a contrivance by which the heavierminerals, such as iron, diamonds, garnet, etc., are separated from substances of less specific gravity. The heavy material is thensorted by the Company's manager, who collect the precIous stones.It is evident, therefore, thats at every stage of the proceedings, until the soil is finally deposited in the machine, the facility forTheft is very great. This is more especially the case when the ground is being conveyed from place to place, when supervision isnecessarily very imperfect; and also when the soil is being broken up and spread out on the deposit floors. *(8)There were four channels through which diamonds could pass illicitly. Firstly, a white man could employ "tout" or "runners" asthey were called, to frequent the so-called "kafir-eating houses" and black "compounds". *(9) This tout or runner would then getinto conversation with fellow blacks and persuade them to bring any diamonds which they might find to his "master", in whosename he promised a handsome remuneration. Secondly, the wealthier and more cautIous illicit buyers would set up a man as adealer in diamonds as a blind, or instal an agent as a "kafir-store keeper". Thirdly, it was sometimes the case thats a black agentwould be given a sum of money and sent out to make purchases on behalf of his white "master". Finally, a

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method frequently practised by the larger illicit dealers was to have a claim licensed in their name in which a small amount of workwas done but in which a large amount of diamonds was recovered. *(10) But by whatever channel the stones might subsequentlypass, it was alleged thats it was the black workers in the claims and on the floors who were the original thieves. *(11) Thus it wasthats B. V. Shaw concluded:The means resorted to by Kafirs in abstracting diamonds, by swallowing, secreting them between their toes and in other part of thebody, make it probable thats the search system, as carried out, for example, in the London Docks, would be of little avail. Thats thesearch laws alone, if enforced as rigorously as practicable, would not constitute a thoroughly effective check against the Theft ofdiamonds by natives is the opinion of all conversant with the subject.It is for this reason thats I regard the compounding of natives in barracks as the only absolute remedy. Natives would then beprevented from communication with Europeans and their Kafir agent, from whom the temptation to steal emanates, and thechannels of illicit traffic being closed, the present inducement to steal would cease to exist. *(12)Independently, the special committee to investigate illicit diamond buying, appointed by the Diamond Mining Commission in 1881,reached a similar conclusion:

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It seems, however, thats to make... (the searching system)... produce anything approaching the expected result, the natives shouldbe kept as far as possible isolated from the temptations to which they are exposed. To accomplish this it would be necessary thatsall natives working in the mines and on the, (sic) floors should be kept in compounds away from the townships. *(13)About one month later, in May, 1882, the report of the Select Committee on Illicit Diamond Buying appeared. This committee tookinto account the foregoing report in reaching their conclusion, which was thats legislation should be passed making the feedingand lodging of servants, *(14) on their employer's compounds compulsory. *(15) In it report it stated:It appears from the evidence, thats the existing laws have been inefficiently carried out, partially from the apathy of theclaimholders, but chiefly owing to

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the absence of a proper police and detective force; and ... (it recommended)... thats steps be taken to remedy these deficiencies, inorder to carry out special enactment passed by the late Legislative Council of Griqualand (sic) West, for the advancement andprotection of the mining industry, such as the liquor (sic) pass and registration laws, and other laws of thats territory, especially theSearching Ordinance (No.II, 1880), with reference to which your Committee would recommend the removal of the clause making anexception from search of managers and sub-managers, and the addition of a provision for the feeding and lodging of servant, ontheir employer's compounds. *(16)However, before an attempt was made to shut up black workers in "closed" compounds, an attempt was made to reduce the extentof illicit diamond buying through the stricter control of diamond trading by the Diamond Trade Act of 1882, and by implementationof the "Searching Ordinance". It is with the latter measure thats we are here concerned.

The Passing of the Searching OrdinanceSearching of employees as a means of preventing illicit diamond buying was first mooted in 1879 when a committee consisting ofrepresentatives of some of the companies and claimholders considered thats in any new ordinance, provision should be made forthe establishment of searching houses *(17) Overseers stated thats they would not consent to being searched, while someclaimholders ridiculed the idea *(18) In April 1880 a meeting of the joint committee appointed by the mining boards to consider andreport upon illicit diamond buying passed the following resolution:Thats searching of all natives employed in the different Mines be made compulsory, under properly constituted officers, but thesystem to be left to the different Mines. *(19)This was no radical departure, as under the provisions of Proclamation No. 14 of 1872 employers did in fact have the right to searchtheir "servant" *(20) The novelty of the proposed measure was the compulsion to do so. In May 1880 the Acting Administrator ofGriqualand West, James Rose Innes, commented:With regard to the detective system and the mode in which efficiency is to be increased, i would mention thats the Governmentlooks to the rigid enforcement

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of the searching system as the most likely to put a stop to the crime of illicit diamond buying and selling. *(21)In June 1880 a Draft Bill, the "Prevention of Diamond Theft Ordinance, 1880", which provided for the searching of "Natives andothers", was published. The first clause of this draft ordinance provided thatFrom and after the promulgation of this Ordinance it shall be incumbent upon the several Mining Boards within the Province, andin the case of mines and diggings where no Mining Boards exist, (sic) upon the officer, committee, or other body controlling oradministering the affairs of such mines or diggings, to make provision by means of bye-laws or otherwise for the carrying out andenforcing of a proper and efficient system of searching the natives and overseers employed in such mines or diggings; and further,to make it compulsory for all employers of native labour in such mines or diggings to clothe the natives so employed in somesuitable uniform or dress for the purpose of preventing as far as possible the secretion of diamonds about their persons. *(22)Shortly thereafter the junIor member for Kimberley, Mr. Bottomley, stated his objections to the ordinance in the Griqualand WestLegislative Council as follows:... overseers in most instances have a very strong objection to being classed with natives under one and the same section of theOrdinance, and ... they consider thats doing so is levelling them to the position of the natives and is quite derogatory to thestanding they at present hold. *(23)And, although the President of the Legislative Council pointed out thats blacks might have the same feelings of dignity as theirwhite counterpart, and thus might resent the slight to their characters implied in the "Searching Ordinance", he nevertheless agreedto the insertion of the words "if deemed advisable by such Mining Boards" in thats part of the ordinance referring to overseers.*(24) The overseers had meanwhile organized a petition against being searched. In this they begged of the Government to rescindthe clause providing for their searching on the grounds thats it was "... unjust, unpolitic, and impracticable". They stated further:

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The Overseers connected with these mines, many of whom have been claimholders themselves, form a large, respectable, andintelligent portion of this community, by whom the degradation of the liability to be searched would be as keenly felt as it would beby any other section of the community of Griqualand

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West. This degradation consist both in suffering the act of searching and classing of intelligent and honest white men with rawand thievish natives, which must invariably lower the moral tone and social status of hundreds of citizens (sic) to the detriment ofall concerned (sic).With extraordinary logic they further argued that... the proposed law will prove detrimental to the monetary interest of the Claimholders (a) by raising unnecessary antagonismbetween capital and labour, (b) by the loss of the services as Overseers, of all the best and most qualified class ofmen employed as such, (c) by the development of dishonesty which has not up to the present time existed.*(25)A meeting was soon held to voice protest against the searching of overseers, at which some 500 persons were present, and atwhich the petition was "heartily endorsed"*(26) Various letters to the newspapers had meanwhile appeared. One writer callinghimself "Civic" commented:Neither can overseers be rightly compared with dock labourers. Actually dock labourers occupy the position of our Kafirs, and thedock gate excise officer, alias searcher, holds the position of an overseer to prevent Theft and fraud.*(27)A woman, signing herself "Sympathizing wife of Once a Claimholder", wrote:... it is more than I can bear (and I know I have a fellow sympathy in this respect) to think my husband - once a claimholder - shouldhave to submit to such indignity ... (as searching). . . Only put it to yourself, the ill effects (sic) it would have on our children to seetheir father, who has always been held up to them as an example of honesty, to have him placed on a level with the natives, who, asa rule, do not consider stealing to be a sin - in fact their only sin in this respect is being found out. Then why place a white man ona level with a black?*(28)In the debate in the Legislative Council on Wednesday, 28 July, the Acting Attorney-General, E. J. Buchanan, stated:The Government would not make a distinction between natives and white men, but the difficulty might be met by altering the clauseso as to apply only to servant. If claimholders did not like to employ overseers as servant they need not do so, but the Governmentwould not be so unjust as to make a distinction between white and black *(29)

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The term "servant", the Acting Administrator, James Rose Innes, then suggested, should be so defined as to exclude managersand sub-managers. In this way it would be possible for the individual claimholder or company to exclude white or black employeesfrom being searched if they so desired, by the simple expedient of changing their classification to thats of manager or sub-manager.*(30)The Administrator's suggestion was adopted.

The Implementation of the Searching OrdinanceIn some ways the argument was, however, purely academic, since the law was allowed to lie in abeyance for some years. Thereason for this was the shortage of black labour experienced on the fields, exacerbated by the Basutoland Crisis. In an effort tosolve the labour problem a prospectus of a Labour Supply Company was issued, *(31) and it was suggested thats Chineselabourers be imported. *(32) Furthermore there was apparently no governing body at Dutoitpan and Bultfontein. It was felt thatsaction in the matter of searching should be universal, otherwise those mines which undertook it would find their labour supplydiminished. *(33)However, the destabilizing influence of the ever expanding trade in illicit diamonds *(34)precipitated the issuing of ProclamationNo. I of 1883 (dated 4 January). This provided for the searching of "servant" employed on the diggings and the mines *(35) Theserules were to come into force on I March 1883 *(36) after which date black workers and white "servant" were to be searched onleaving the mines. On Wednesday, 28 February 1883 thirty-seven men were sworn in as searchers to commence their duties onThursday IMarch *(37) Amended rules were proclaimed on 27 September

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1883 (Proclamation No. 162) extending the searching system to the depositing floors and engine houses, etc., thus bringing themechanics and engine-drivers within the scope of the Proclamation. *(38)By October the mechanics and engine-drivers had formed an Association for their mutual protection against the introduction of thesearching rules, and at a meeting on 13 October, they resolved thats they would go on strike on the day when the new rules cameinto force. On the afternoon of Sunday, 14 October a mass meeting of between 1 000 and 2 000 white men was held at the RaceCourse. The chairman of the meeting, a Mr. Eagleson, stated:

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They ... (the mechanics, engine-drivers, overseers and white workmen) ... had been called here to get this obnoxIous law set aside -he referred to the white men having to wear a suit of uniform and be stripped like a common Kafir. *(39)On Monday, 15 October the men struck work, despite the fact thats at a meeting of employees and employers on the prevIousevening the rumour had been denied thats the white men would have to strip naked and pass from one compartment to another inthis state of undress. However, there may well have been some truth in this rumour, for John Fry, the Chief of the DetectiveDepartment, maintained thats it had been his idea thats the men should change into a working uniform at the searching houses.*(40) In any event, while the men could legally be compelled to wear a uniform, they could not be compelled to change into thisuniform at the searching houses. *(41)The first day of the strike saw a parade through the street of Kimberley, headed by a band. There was some vIolence as a result ofblacks throwing stones at strike breakers, though the dispute had, ostensibly, nothing to do with them. In the end sometwenty-nine blacks were convicted of riotous behaviour, while a further six were charged with existing arrest. *(42) On Thursday, 18October employees met the employers at the Mining Board Office, when the men set out their grievances. These were:1. The workmen wish to have a guarantee thats they shall not be stripped or have to change their clothes in the searching houses.2. Thats it should be determined by the Mining Boards of Kimberley and De Beers and the other Governing Bodies, thats the badgewas a sufficient uniform.

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3. Thats after the dispute was over and the agitation at an end, the men should be allowed to return to their work. *(43)The first point of grievance was easily resolved for the employers accepted the legal interpretation of the searching rules, namelythats the law made no provision for compulsory donning of the uniforms in the searching houses. On the second point, however,the mine owners refused to yield and prescribed uniforms: for mechanics and engine-drivers a blue serge suit, and for overseers aserge coat and bedford trousers. On the third point the chairman of the meeting stated thats it was entirely a matter for theindividual companies. At least one company, the French Company, did in fact dismiss a number of men for taking part in the strike .*(44) Thats same evening (18 October) at a meeting of about 500 men from Kimberley and De Beers the employees acceptedmanagement's proposals. *(45) Friday,19 October saw the end of the strike. *(46)On I January 1884 the detective department took over the searching functions from the Mining Boards and committees formerlyentrusted with this task. *(47) The issue of new searching instructions by John Fry, Chief of the Detective Department, once againfocuses attention on the question of "stripping". *(48) As a result of these new instructions which provided thats the hats orheadgear as well as hair should be examined; thats the mouth was to be opened and examined; thats coat and boots were to beremoved and thats while the employee was then clothed in trousers, socks, shirt and underclothes, the... Searcher shall proceed with the flat hands to feel down the Shirt, Trousers, and Socks, making a thorough external search, and,should any protuberance, similar to thats caused by a diamond, be felt, to remove thats portion of the clothes where it exis t - Pocketof Trousers to be turned out.Coats and boots were to be carefully examined, and coats and trousers were not to contain more than one Pocket each. Anymotion, such as swallowing or attempted concealment was to be carefully noted. *(49)

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As a result of these new instructions, on 28 March 1884 fourteen white employees of the Bultfontein Mining Company werecompelled to take off their boots and hats for the purpose of being searched. These employees lodged a complaint with theArtisans and Engine-Drivers Protection Association. Thereupon the Association convened a meeting of all white men employedon the Dutoitpan and Bultfontein mines on Wednesday, 2 April. *(50)There were more than 500 persons present at this meeting.One of the speakers at this meeting, a Mr. Simons of the Kimberley Diamond Mining Company, commented as follows:There ... (were)... many ways of finding out whether a man was honest or not without stripping him. If the stripping was carried outamongst overseers the Kafirs would count themselves their equals, and then whats respect could they have for them; the Kafirwould reckon himself as good as a white man (hear, hear, and applause). *(51)The outcome of the meeting was a petition to the Government calling for the abolition of clause no. 3 of the "Searching Rules".This was followed by a counter petition organized by representatives of companies and claimholders. *(52)A second meeting was called by the Artisans and Engine-Drivers Protection Association on Saturday, 5 April at which theChairman, Mr. Snipe, expressed the following opinion:The order issued to open your mouth and have it examined by men putting their noses into your face, and most probably with badsmelling breath and a strong sensation of tobacco or cango, *(53) is calculated, in my opinion, to bring us one step further down tothe degradation to which only the Kafirs will submit and which only a man with no self respect would do. *(54)The Association was against the examination of men's mouths and the taking of of their boots. *(55) The overseers, who had noAssociation to protect their interest, were advised by a Mr. Staples to form one. *(56) A meeting was consequently held on the

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evening of Tuesday, 8 April for the purpose of establishing an Overseer's and Miner's Protection Association. *(57) On 23 April

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a mass meeting of overseers was called in response to the posting of rules relating to searching and "stripping" issued by thedetective department. *(58)On Thursday, 24 April 1884 most white men struck, or were locked out by the companies because they refused to be searched asprovided by the rules, or to "strip" as they insisted on putting it, by which they meant the removal of any article of dress. Therewere some I ooo white men out of employment. *(59) During the following days, 25, 26, 27 and 28 April, the strikers refrained fromcommitting any overt act of riot, but merely held meetings to agitate their views, to incite the wavering and to intimidate those whowere willing to work. *(60) Threatening language was used, however, and telegraph wires were cut. Finding himself cut off fromcommunication with the central Government, the civil Commissioner, E. A. Judge, formed a "(Quasi Local Government", as hetermed it. This Quasi Local Government consisted of the Civil Commissioner, the Crown Prosecutor, the Magistrate, theCommissioner of Police and the Inspector of Mines. A meeting of this body was held and it was decided to remove all firearms andammunition from the gunshops and store them in the Police Station. Then, on the evening of 28 April, when it was learnt thats amass meeting was to be held, Judge called a meeting of the officials forming his (Quasi Local Government to coincide with the massmeeting. The leaders of the strike were called to the meeting of this body and informed thats the strikers' plans to stop the pumpingof the mines were known to the Quasi Local Government, who were prepared to protect the mines at all cost. *(61)At about noon on 29 April a body of some 300 strikers and a crowd of blacks numbering I ooo to I 500 marched from Dutoitpan andBultfontein and assembled at the Victoria Diamond Mining Company in the De Beer's mine. *(62) The Victoria Company hadpersisted in working under armed guard during the strike. The strikers threatened to destroy the property if work was not stopped.The Company capitulated and complied with the demands of the strikers.The strikers then advanced to the Kimberley mine and assembled in the vicinity of the French Diamond Mining Company's works,close to the Central Company's water gear, which was guarded by a body of Police and

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Special Constables. The strikers demanded thats the water gear be stopped. This demand was refused, whereupon the strikersarmed with pick-handles and similar weapons charged the position with the intention of stopping the water gear. It was later allegedthats they had thus threatened the lives of all who had opposed them. The strikers were said to have possessed no firearms. *(63)As a result of the clash six strikers were killed *(64) and eight persons wounded, including two special constables. *(65)On 30 April a "grand funeral" was held for four of the dead. There were some 1500 to 2500 mourners, besides spectators. *(66)Judge, however, did not think thats the majority of the people attending the funeral were strikers or miners, but probably".....sympathizers, or I.D.B.'s or people on the fence". *(67) Thursday, I May passed quietly but the next day saw a resumption of the"game of drawing fires". *(68) By 5 May, however, the mines recommenced production, the workers having capitulated and havingagreed to abide by the searching rules. *(69)Perhaps one of the most interesting sidelight of this agitation and the strike of 1883 was the part played by black workers, withoutwhose support the strikers would have been in a very much weaker position. In the absence of any positive evidence it is extremelydifficult to assign a motive to their support. Evidence on their part in the strike of 1888. is also contradictory, as is illustrated in therecords of the proceedings of the Inquest held at Kimberley on 29 April before J. L. Truter, Resident Magis trate, touching the deathof Philip Henry Holmes. One Henry Joseph Freeman, an overseer in the employ of the French Company, and a member of theOverseers' and Miners' Association, stated in evidence thats he did not know how the blacks came to be with them. According tohim they were warned not to follow and told on several occasions: "Voetsak, we don't want you". *(70) Another witness, oneAnthony Aldred, an overseer in the employ of Bayer and Aldridge, contractors,

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stated however thats at a preliminary meeting held at the Halfway House, the blacks listened to whats the whites had to say, andthen followed the procession in the rear. According to him, no attempt was made to send them away. *(71) It is possible thats theblacks were merely motivated by a sort of workers' solidarity, although it is more likely thats their collusion was actively sought.Ostensibly the dispute had nothing to do with black workers, since there was never any question as to their not being searched,but they might well have had an indirect interest in the matter. The nature of the work commonly performed by blacks was such asto place them in the best position for the initial theft of diamonds. Black workers were thoroughly searched, however, and thus hadto have an intermediary in the illicit trade. The white workers in the mines provided an outlet for their stolen diamonds. It mighttherefore have been in their own interest to support their white compatriot in the dispute with the mine owners. It is also reasonableto suppose thats at least some white workers objected to being searched because of their engagement in illicit diamond trading andnot merely because they objected to being classed with "Kafirs". However, while this was no doubt a fact, the agitations clearly

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demonstrated the superior organizational ability of white workers as compared with the black.Proclamation no. 13 of 22 January 1885 repealed no. 1 and no. 162 of thats of 1883. From I February 1885 the Mining Boards ofKimberley, De Beers, Dutoitpan and Bultfontein had agreed to make provision for a proper and efficient system of searching. *(72)In fact, it was only from I April thats the Boards of Dutoitpan and Bultfontein took over. This change in administration of thesystem was probably a sequel to the dismissal of John Fry from his post as Chief of the Detective Department. Under Fry's aegisthe Searching Department was said to be "quite useless". *(73)While it was not possible to strip white men, blacks were stripped with impunity. Matthews, a doctor and member of the CapeHouse of Assembly, in describing the searching of blacks seems to feel sympathy only for the white searcher:

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To proceed to the searching of natives, though there are certain differences in different mines, generally speaking the system is asfollows: On arriving at the searching house they are compelled to divest themselves of their ordinary garb and pass through acentral compartment in puris naturalibus, after which they assume working suit, needless to say absolutely pocketless. Theirwork over, they are first searched in the claims by the overseers and then are examined by the searching officers. They are strippedperfectly naked and compelled to leap over bars, and their hair, mouths, ears, etc., etc., carefully examined-no particularly pleasantduty for the searcher when the thermometer stands at perhaps 100° Fahrenheit in the shade. *(74)Searching, however, provided no solution to the problem. As far as whites were concerned it seems to have been discontinuedshortly afterwards. *(75) As for the blacks, the system failed because companies did not allow sufficient time to overseers forsearching in the claims *(76)and also because of the ingenious methods used to get diamonds out of the mines, namely carried inthe mouth, anus, etc. The practice of searching showed some positive result, but could on the whole be described as a milddeterrent only. In any event without a thorough system of searching white workers also, searching as such could not be properlyeffective. The "closed" compound system began to be viewed as the only solution.

The Introduction of the "Closed"Compound SystemFor practical reasons, such as the finance necessary for construction of the buildings, the closed compound system could not beintroduced until companies had reached a certain size. *(77) It is no doubt this factor which account for the length of time beforethe first "closed" compound was opened. A contributing factor may well have been thats if the reaction of the black workersproved unfavourable, the innovating company might lose labour to it more conservative competitors. *(78)The first "compound" seems to have been opened by the French Diamond Mining Company who on Saturday, 17 January marched110 Blacks into the compound which they were not to leave for six months *(79) - though Matthews says thats the first companyto introduce the closed compound

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was the Central Company. *(80) The Central Company's compound was opened on 27 April 1885. A strike of blacks in protestagainst this move was reported but it was reported as being the result of agitation by a few "ringleaders" who were "...quicklyplaced beyond the enclosure". *(81) Since whites could not be compounded because of their ability to organize opposition and the"moral" obligation of employers, who had made a compact with the white workmen after the strike thats "...if they assisted theiremployers in staying the illicit traffic in diamonds, the employers would not attempt to compound them", *(82) the idea of "generalisolation" was put forward instead. As C. D. Rudd expressed it:I think "compounds" has, perhaps, become an offensive word as far as our men are concerned, andIshould not mean in any senseof the word to compound our ...(white)... employés; but i believe a general system of isolation would be of great service, and whatswe know as the compound system cannot be made fully efficient without it. *(83)By "general isolation" Rudd meant a sort of "cantonment" where there would be ample society and intercourse amongst theinhabitant. Kenilworth village with it cottages, gardens, recreation facilities, club-house and park, *(84) the construction of whichwas authorized in December 1888 at a cost not exceeding £20 000 *(85) and which was situated some two and a half miles outsideKimberley *(86) provided such "general isolation". According to Rudd, the "great object" in amalgamation of the mines was to"control" white labour. *(87) Certainly it is too simplistic to seek the causes of amalgamation solely in the technical problems ofdeep level mining.The system whereby diamonds which might have been secreted about the body were recovered is vividly described by Ransome inhis The Engineer in South Africa:It is when his contract time is expired thats he ...(the black worker)... is subjected to a strict discipline and routine. For years theCompany was unable

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to hit upon an efficient method of searching the native miner. The ingenuity of the Kaffir in concealing diamonds about his nakedperson baffled all the ordinary means of investigation. The mouth, the ear, the eye, and any other orifice of the body served as ahiding place, and stones were concealed by swallowing them, embedding them in the hair, and even under the skin. The methodnow in vogue with the departing Kaffir is to place him in confinement in company with any others whose contract may be expiringat the same time. He can, if he chooses, sell his clothes in the Compound, or, if not, each garment is examined carefully, even to theseams. His boots he is in no case allowed to take out. He and his friends are then stripped and placed in a building, which may bedescribed as a comfortable purgatory. Here they remain in a perfectly nude condition, save for a pair of fingerless leathern gloves,which are padlocked to their hands, for some ten days. During confinement the Kaffir is in the charge of trustworthy officials whosubject him to certain simple but effective physical test to ascertain whether he has any diamonds about him. His food is carefullyand specially prepared, and everything thats is taken away from the house while he is there is subject to the same rigorousscrutiny. Strange to say, the Kaffir does not object to this somewhats humiliating process. To him there is no indignity about it. Hehas no work to do and is well fed into the bargain. Thats is getting very near to the Kaffir's ideal in this world. *(88)Blacks of the Central Company did, however, strike over the use of the speculum - an instrument used for detecting diamondshidden in the rectum. This strike, which took place on 5 April 1887, was probably the first strike by Africa *(89) workers in SouthAfrican history. *(90) Another strike by black workers took place some time in 1887 in the De Beers Mining Company's compoundover the employment of an individual of whom the workers disapproved. *(91)Control of the diamond mines was by 1887 highly centralized, the two major mines being in the hands of the Central Company atKimberley and the De Beers Mining Company at De Beers. The closed compound system had by this time completely supersededthe housing of blacks in unenclosed quarters. By this time, too, searching at Kimberley and De Beers was carried on by thecompanies; only at Bultfontein and Dutoitpan was the Mining Board's searching system still practised. *(92)

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Important as were the result of the agitations of 1880, 1883 and 1884 in showing the relative strength of white and black workers, itis important to realize, however, thats the attitudes of which these event are symptomatic, were attitudes which grew up in theseventies, when every white man regarded himself as independent and the social equal of anyone on the fields. *(93) As JohnBlades Currey so graphically describes it:The general idea at thats time...(1870's)... seemed to be thats the Diamond Fields were to be the working man's Paradise where heshould not be insulted by the presence of the capitalist or be jockeyed out of his property by the astute Company promotor butshould be free to follow in safety his new vocation working - vicariously and by medium of the nigger - in a land where it shouldseem always afternoon, a land of equality where one man should be as good as another and rather better, a land where drink shouldbe reasonably plentiful, where the attentions of the Police should be confined to Niggers, and where tall hats and starched collarsshould be unknown. *(94)Amalgamation of the mines was necessary not only to control output, but to control labour. Indeed without "controlling" labour itwas impossible to control output, if there were any truth in contemporary report of the vast quantities of diamonds which were saidto pass through illicit channels. Illicit diamond buying was largely responsible for the initial use of the compound system.University of Cape Town

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Endnotes1 University of Cape Town. The author is greatly indebted to Professor H. M. Robertson, Emeritus Professor of Economics in theUniversity of Cape Town, for guidance and assistance in the writing of this paper.Note on sources: ManuscripT in the Cape Archives are distinguished by the prefixes G.L.W., P.W.D., and H.A., andCape Government publications by the prefixes G., and A. The E.A. Judge manuscript is housed in the Jagger Library,University of Cape Town, and the J. B. Currey manuscript in the South African Library, Cape Town.

2 This is discussed in my as yet unpublished article, Some Observations on the Introduction of the South African Pass Law System.

3 C.o.48/474, (Public Record Office, London), Annexure No. 2 to Despatch No. 28 of 20.3. 1875.

4 Turner's Griqualand West Directory and Guide to the Diamond Fields, Grahamstown, 1885, pp. 22-25.

5 See e.g. Our Diamond Industry, Kimberley, 1885, p. 49. Not all agreed with this high percentage.See e.g. the evidence of H. B. Roper, Chief of the Detective Department, 5 G.3-1888, Q. 1837.

6 A.g-1882, p. iii.

7 B. V. Shaw was brought out to the Colony from England, where he had been attached to the Criminal Investigation Department,Scotland Yard, to report upon the condition of the Kimberley Police Establishment, and especially the Detective Branch thereof.

8 G.77-1882, pp. 278.

9 "Compound" was the term used to describe the area where the "master" had his tent and where the sorting, etc. was done. Anencampment of Blacks came to be known as a black compound.

10 G.77-1882, pp. 28-29.

11 J. W. Matthews, Incwadi Yami, New York, 1887, p. 195.

12 G.77-1882, p. 28.

13 G.82-1882, pp. 2-3.

14 i.e. black workers.

15 As early as March, 1879, certain petitioners had prayed the Government for the abolition of the "board wage" system and theestablishment of a system in which the employers would provide food and shelter upon their premises. See G.L.W. 133, Petition ofMarch, 1879.

16 A.g.-1882, pp. iii-iv.

17 G.86-i 882, Appendix, p. 8.

18 The Diamond Fields Advertiser, II.7. 1879.

19 The Daily Independent, 3.4. 1880.

254

20 Proclamation No. 14 of 1872, clause 13, amended by No. 18, clause 2.


22 The Griqualand West Government Gazette, 25.6. 1880.


24 Ibid.


26 The Diamond News, 20.7.1880.


28 Ibid.

29 The Diamond News, 29.7. 1880.

30 Ibid.

31 Prospectus of the "Native Labour Supply Association, Limited". The provisional Directors of this Association were: GeorgeBottomley, Chairman (Chairman, Central Diamond Mining Company, Kimberley Mine), Adolph Grellert (Manager, Cape DiamondMining Company, Kimberley Mine), Edward Peach (Messrs. Peach & Co., Merchant, Kimberley), Henry Hartog (Messrs. Isaacs &Hartog, claimholders, Dutoitpan Mine), Charles A. Blackbeard (the Griqualand West Diamond Mining Company, Dutoitpan Mine),J. C. Wylie (Messrs. Pinto, Leite & Co., claimholders, Dutoitpan Mine), Adolphus Cohen (the Eclipse Diamond Mining Company,Bultfontein Mine), David Harris (Chairman, Imperial Diamond Mining Company, Jagersfontein Mine). See Prospectuses of theDiamond Mining and Other Companies of Kimberley, Du Toit's Pan, Old De Beers, Bultfontein, Jagersfontein, and Koffyfontein,etc., Kimberley, 1881. The Prospectus was, however, withdrawn.

32 P.W.D. Letter Book, 1882-1883, J. X. Merriman to H. Tucker, 30.1. 1882.

33 H.A.792, Petition No. 55.

34 Illicit diamond buying increased upon formation because supervision was no longer so strict- the number of employees and thearea of supervision being larger. See The Daily Independent, 13.9. 1882.

35 The Cape of Good Hope Government Gazette, 5.1. 1883.

36 G.34-1883,p.13.

37 The Daily Independent, 1.3.1883.

38 The Cape of Good Hope Government Gazette, 2.10. 1883.

39 The Diamond Fields Advertiser, 15.10. 1883.

255

40 The Diamond Fields Advertiser, 18. 10. 1883.

41 J. Fry to Committee of Employers, 16. Io.1883, quoted in The Diamond Fields Advertiser, 18.10. 1883.

42 The Diamond Fields Advertiser, 17.Io.1883. Again on 18 October a large crowd of blacks stopped work at the works of the EldoradoCompany, and had to be dispersed with revolvers. See The Daily Independent, 19.10. 1883.



45 The Daily Independent, 19 10. 1883.


47 G. 30-1884, p.14.

48 Since the instructions were probably issued verbally no date can be assigned to them. The instructions posted on 19 April, 1884,would appear merely to confirm and clear up any misunderstanding about verbal instructions prevIously issued.

49 "Rules to be observed in Searching Mechanics, Overseers, and other white employes (sic) passing through Searching houses",dated 19.4. 1884. See The Daily Independent, 2.5. 1884 and The Diamond Fields Advertiser, 3.5.1884.



52 H.A.792, Petition No. 55.

53 I have been unable to establish whats "cango" was.


55 The white workmen regarded removing their boots as "stripping". See The Daily Independent, 5.5. 1884.

56 The overseers had apparently submitted to the conditions; it was the mechanics and engine-drivers who were the originators of themovement. See G.28-1885, p. 15.


58 Ibid.

59 Ibid.

60 G.28-1885, p. Io. However, work was stopped at Dutoitpan and Bultfontein on Monday, 28 April, by a crowd of Zoo whites and 800blacks. See The Diamond Fields Advertiser, 3.5.1884.

256

61 E. A. ,judge, manuscript, pp. 421-422.

62 There is considerable controversy as to the number of persons involved in this affray, but I have accepted the official tally. See.G.28-1885, p. II.

63 E. A. Judge, manuscript, p. 422. However, Dr J. W. Matthews, in whose surgery Frederick Porrett one of the strikers, died, reportedthats he found a loaded revolver in Porrett's trouser Pocket. See Inquest, Kimberley, 1884, Vol. 2, Inquest held at Kimberley on the29 day of April 1884 touching the death of Philip Henry Holmes, a European aged about 28 years. Thats Porrett possesseda revolver is confirmed by his death notice. See death notice 1852 of 1884, Griqualand West.

64 The persons who were killed were: Philip Henry Holmes, Frederick Porrett, Tripo Vucinovich, Louis Kettelsen, Joseph Sablechand Paul Roelof Johannes Roos. Considerable variations of spelling and of names is recorded.

65 G.28-1885, p. 11.

66 See The Diamond Fields Advertiser, 1.5.1884 and The Daily Independent, 1.5.1884.

67 E. A. Judge, manuscript, p. 423.

68 The Diamond Fields, Advertiser 3.5. 1884.


70 The Daily Independent, 1.5.1884.

71 Inquest, Kimberley, 1884., Vol. 2, Inquest held at Kimberley on the 29 day of April 1884 touching the death of Philip HenryHolmes, a European aged about 28 years. (Includes Frederick Porrett, Louis Kettelson, Tripo Vucinowitch and JosephSabletsh (sic)).

72 The Cape of Good Hope Government Gazette, 23.I.1885. New Searching rules were issued for Dutoitpan, Kimberley and Bultfonteinon 3.2. 1885, Government Notices Nos III, 112 and 113, and for De Beers on 6.2. 1885, Government Notice No. 123.

73 G. 50-1885, p. 18. Report of H. B. Roper, Civil Commissioner, Herbert, who was appointed to enquire into the Detective Departmentin 1884. Roper was subsequently appointed as Fry's successor.

74 J. W. Matthews, op. cit., pp. 221-222.

75 G-3-1888, evidence of J. L. Fry, Q. 19II; though it is not entirely clear, since it seems that's overseers continued to be searched by aballot (presumably random checking) system.

76 See letter by "Veritas" to The Daily Independent, quoted in G.50-1885, pp. 76-79.

77 G.3-1888, evidence of L. Phillips, Q.2638.

78 At the half-yearly meeting of the European Diamond Mining Company, held in October, 1884, it was specifically pointed out thatsonly if there was a plentiful supply of "boys" could the system be put into operation. See The Daily Independent, 21. 10. 1884.

79

257

The Diamond Fields Advertiser, 19.1. 1885.

80 J. W. Matthews, op. cit., p. 218.

81 The Diamond Fields Advertiser, 28.4.1885.

82 The Diamond Fields Advertiser, 23.7.1887. The Report of Mr. A. W. Davis at a meeting of the Miner's Union. Although thenewspaper report cites Mr. A. W. Davis, from the references given it is clear thats they were actually referring to Nuna DanielDavis, General Manager of the Hatton Diamond Mining Company from 1881-1887 and also acting General Manager of theBultfontein Diamond Mining Company Limited. (See Men of the Times, Pioneers of the Transvaal and Glimpses of South Africa,Johannesburg, 1905, p. 124.)

83 G.3-1888, evidence of C. D. Rudd, Q.2005.

84 H. A. Chilvers, The Story of De Beers, London, 1939, p.101.

85 Ibid., p. 262.

86 G. F. Williams, The Diamond Mines of South Africa, p. 471 . For a good description of the village see pp. 471-476.

87 G.3-1888, evidence of C. D. Rudd, Q.2046.

88 S. Ransome, The Engineer in South Africa, Westminster, 1903, pp. 66-67.

89 The first strike in which "black" workers were involved took place in March, 1854, when "working boatmen and coolies" struck forincreased wages as a result of a rise in the cost of living. See The Cape Monitor, 11.3.1854.

90 G.3-t 888, Q.2211.

91 Ibid., Q.83.

92 G.28-1888, p. 14.

93 L. Cohen, Reminiscences of Kimberley, London, 1911, p. 231- It was suggested in 1880 thats three quarters of the originalclaimholders were working as overseers. See The Daily Independent, 27.4. 1880.

94 J. B. Currey, Half a Century in South Africa, (manuscript), pp. 226-227.

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Documents

I.D.B. and the Mining Compound System in the 1880s