ICY SCIENCE MAGAZINE QTR 1 2014

8/13/2019 ICY SCIENCE MAGAZINE QTR 1 2014

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EXTANT LIFE ON MARS?THE MARS SOCIETY

CY SCIENCE PUBLICATION: WWW.ICYSCIENCE.COM: WINTER 2013/14


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CONTENTSY SCIENCE: DIGITAL MAGAZINE QTR 1 2014One Year Mission to the ISS

ITS FIBONACCIS BIT SEEDING THE UNIVERSE

WITH 0 AND 1

2 F = MA

8 KNOWLEDGE OBSERVATORY STARGAZING LIVE

EVENT

3 Comet Isons Demise

4 Origin of Life On Earth

62 Climate Change - A GlobalCatastrophe or a Figment ofour Imagination?

6 Antarcca73 My FavoriteMoons


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83 Mars Exploraon RoverOpportunity Celebrates 10 Years Wing on Mars

90 Our Return to the Moon

98 Mauna Kea Observatories, Ha

102 In the News

top image provided by Caroline Scott


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Special ThanksCian ORegan

T: @irishspaceblogW: irishspaceblog.blogspot.ie

Anthony Ryan

T: @AntRyanET

W: AntRya.nET

Julian OnionsT: @julianonions

W: http://ou-know.blogspot.co.uk/

Knowledge Observatory

T: @KnowledgeObsAst

W: http://www.theknowledgeobservatory.co.uk/

Henna Khan

T: @henna_khan

W: https://www.facebook.com/UniverseSimplified

Dan Lucus

T: @dan__lucas

John Garrett

W:www.temeculavalleyastronom

Denise Hemphill aka Zan

Skiphop

T: @ZantippySkiphop

Caroline Scott

T: Astro_Caz
https://twitter.com/irishspacebloghttps://twitter.com/irishspacebloghttp://antrya.net/https://twitter.com/julianonionshttp://ou-know.blogspot.co.uk/https://twitter.com/KnowledgeObsAsthttp://www.theknowledgeobservatory.co.uk/https://twitter.com/henna_khanhttps://www.facebook.com/UniverseSimplifiedhttp://www.temeculavalleyastronomers.com/https://twitter.com/ZantippySkiphophttps://twitter.com/Astro_Cazhttps://twitter.com/Astro_Cazhttps://twitter.com/ZantippySkiphophttp://www.temeculavalleyastronomers.com/https://www.facebook.com/UniverseSimplifiedhttps://twitter.com/henna_khanhttp://www.theknowledgeobservatory.co.uk/https://twitter.com/KnowledgeObsAsthttp://ou-know.blogspot.co.uk/https://twitter.com/julianonionshttp://antrya.net/https://twitter.com/irishspacebloghttps://twitter.com/irishspaceblog


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Contact:

E: [email protected]

TWITTER: @DavesAstronomy

W: www.icyscience.com

WELCOME to another Icy Science magaizine.

This quarter we are packed with Astronomy, Space and

plenty of Science. Form a look at our origins to climate

change. We have another look at numbers and a look

at the last year on he ISS. From the cold of space to the

freezing cold of Antarcca. We visit a Stargazing Live

event with the Knowledge Observatory and a look at

humankinds retun to the moon.

NEXT EDITION MAY

2014
http://www.icyscience.com/http://http//www.faulkes-telescope.com/http://http//www.awesomeastronomy.com/http://www.icyscience.com/


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ONE YEAR MISSION TO THE ISS

In March 2015, one astronaut and one cosmonaut will launch from Ka-

zakhstan to spend one year living and working in space aboard the Inter-

naonal Space Staon.

NASA astronaut Sco Kelly and Russian Federal Space Agencycosmonaut Mikhail Kornienko, will launch atop a Soyuz rocket from the

Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan along with fellow cosmonaut Gen-

nady Padalka, scheduled for March 2015. Kelly and Kornienko will live

aboard the orbing complex for one year, before returning to Earth in2016.

Kornienko and Kelly will spend one year living on

the International Space Station in 2015

The one year mission will allow sciensts to see how the human body willadapt to the microgravity living and working condions found aboard theISS, as well as examining the psychological eects of living o the planetfor one year. The scienc community will also be carefully watching howKelly and Kornienko re-adapt to life back on Earth aer spending a yearin low-Earth orbit. Changes in vision are just one of the many side eectsthat have been observed in some astronauts returning from long-duraon


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spaceights, and researchers want to learn more about its root causes andevelop countermeasures to minimize this risk.

The duo will also have to combat bone and muscle loss (which happens t

every astronaut when they y in space for several months) by exercising 2.5 hours each day, using the staons treadmills, bike machine known asCEVIS(stands for Cycle Ergometer with Vibraon Isolaon and StabilizaoSystem) and a weights machine called ARED(stands for Advanced Resisvercise Device). For a six month mission, astronauts can lose up to 15% mvolume.

Just in case you were wondering, this will not be the rst me humanbeings will be sent into orbit for a year-long mission. In 1994, cosmonaut

Valeri Polyakovspent over 437 days living aboard the Russian space staMir, before returning to Earth in 1995. Despite suering from a clear decmorale for the rst two months of his mission, Polyakov was able to regapre-ight mood for the rest of the mission.

Sco Kelly with Robonaut 2 during Expedion 26

Upon returning to Earth in his Soyuz capsule aer a successful mission,Polyakov decided he would rather walk the small distance from his space

to a nearby reclining chair, demonstrang that humans would be able toon the surface of Mars aer several weightless months in transit from EaThis extra-long duraon mission showed that the human body could deathe strains and stresses of living in space for such an extended period of However, Kelly and Kornienko will be the rst space farers to spend a yeaing on the Internaonal Space Staon.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valeri_Polyakovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valeri_Polyakov


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I feel we needto know moreabout what

happens to the body

and what happens to thmind when you stay inspace for a long time, sothink that now is a goodtime and I thinkwe should do it.

DOUG WHEELOCK SAYS

I think thegreatest chal-lenge will bemanaging thephysiology &

psychology of isolation,emotion, & senses... it iscritical to stay in the moment

Recently I began asking astronauts who have spent me liv-ing and working aboard the ISS about the one year mission,

and what they thought the biggest challenges will be for

Kelly and Kornienko.

ESA astronaut and Expedion 26/27 Flight Engineer PaoloNespoli, who spent six months living on the ISS in 2010 &

2011, told methat now is a good me to an aempt amission of this nature:

also asked Doug Wheelock, who, like Nespoli, lived aboard

the ISS alongside Sco Kelly, about his thoughts on the up-coming mission, and what challenges would be faced by the

one year crew. He went on to say that the biggest obstacles

would be dealing with the mental stresses of living o the

planet for such a long me:Finally, I recently spoke with Expedion 35/36 Flight Engi-neer Chris Cassidy, who returned from the InternaonalSpace Staon back in September 2013, about his thoughtson the one year mission:

In my experience on coming home

day, as we were closing the hatch I

thought to myself What would I thinkif I was halfway done right now? How

would I feel? What would I need? To

be honest I felt a little accumulative

fatigue- when youre living at your

workplace, and you cant shut the door

to work and go home in the evening

and kick back and watch Monday NightFootball- youre there all the time and it

eventually catches up to you.
https://twitter.com/astro_paolohttps://twitter.com/astro_paolohttp://www.irishspaceblog.blogspot.ie/2012/11/science-week-interview-with-astronaut.htmlhttp://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/cassidy-cj.htmlhttp://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/cassidy-cj.htmlhttp://www.irishspaceblog.blogspot.ie/2012/11/science-week-interview-with-astronaut.htmlhttps://twitter.com/astro_paolohttps://twitter.com/astro_paolo


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Cassidy, who completed a total of three spacewalks, or EVAs, during his most recent ight, also had a

ideas regarding how the crew doesnt become fagued with the heavy workload that comes with li

aboard the orbing outpost, suggesng a longer weekend from me to me in the second half of the miss

I think my recommendation would be in months 7 through 12, the seco

half of the year is to have a three day weekend every month becau

you really need a good recharge. Sunday is a really good day to hav

recharge, and to have an extra Sunday thrown in the mix every now a

then would go a long way.

All in all, it appears that everyone in science and space exploraon elds are condent about the one

mission. Both Kelly and Kornienko have lived aboard the ISS before, so its fair to say that we have a v

experienced crew on our hands, logging a total of 356 days in space between them.

It is hoped that data recorded from this 2015 mission will assist teams on the ground in their underst

ing of the eects of long terms weightlessness on the body, and what it may be like for humans if they w

sent on a mission to Mars in the future. Aer Kelly and Kornienko return to Earth in 2016, we will no do

be one small step closer to the human exploraon of the Red Planet.

GODSPEED........

Words: Cian ORegan

Images: Wikipedia & NASA


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Binocular Astronomy, 2nd Edition

Binocular Astronomy, 2nd Edion goes far deeper than similar books into the varying opcal charact

cs of binoculars, giving newcomers and advanced astronomers the informaon needed to make infor

choices on purchasing a pair. It also covers relevant aspects of the physiology of binocular (as in both ey

observaon. The rst edion of this book was praised for its suggested objects for observaon and e

cially for the nder charts for each object. In this second edion, this secon is expanded in three w

There are new objects, more informaon on each object, and a re-organizaon of the objects for bin

lars for easier selecon.

Binocular Astronomy, 2nd Edion puts an emphasis on understanding binoculars and their use. The a

onal content reects the latest developments in technology, new tesng techniques, and praccal id

for binocular use. It also responds to the substanally posive reviews of the rst edion, and is now e

beer suited to its target readership.

It is available in print and Kindle edions.

Springer: hp://www.springer.com/astronomy/popular+astronomy/book/978-1-4614-7466-1

Amazon UK Print:hp://www.amazon.co.uk/exec/obidos/ASIN/1846283086/1944

Amazon UK Kindle: hp://www.amazon.co.uk/exec/obidos/ASIN/B00EITWQE2/1944

Amazon USA Print:hp://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/B00EITWQE2/tonkinsastronomy

Amazon USA Kindle: hp://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/B00EITWQE2/tonkinsastronomy
http://www.springer.com/astronomy/popular%2Bastronomy/book/978-1-4614-7466-1http://%20http//www.amazon.co.uk/exec/obidos/ASIN/1846283086/1944http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/B00EITWQE2/tonkinsastronomyhttp://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/B00EITWQE2/tonkinsastronomyhttp://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/B00EITWQE2/tonkinsastronomyhttp://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/B00EITWQE2/tonkinsastronomyhttp://%20http//www.amazon.co.uk/exec/obidos/ASIN/1846283086/1944http://www.springer.com/astronomy/popular%2Bastronomy/book/978-1-4614-7466-1


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ImageCredit: Ant

Ryan


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Abstract. John Wheeler suggested that informaon is fundamental to

physics, resulng in the very nature of what we observe. However, any

informaon that passes beyond an event horizon becomes empirically

lost. What happens to it? Here, I explore the fundamentals of how info

maon is exchanged in reality, how it changes, and any potenal for it

be destroyed. Remarkably the Fibonacci sequence, appearing so oen

nature, is revealed from this voyage, bringing with it possible answers

Wheelers queson.

Wheelers 0s and 1s

John Wheeler suggested that everything we observe in the known Uni

(the it) is less fundamental than the informaon that produces it (the bi

short for Binary Digit, in turn owing to the Binary code used to store info

on in compung. I ask could the Universe have a base 2 system with

1 at its foundaon.

Wheeler was also known for popularising the term Black Hole, whic

great place for Quantum Gravity to emerge and informaon to hide. I su

in this essay that the foundaons for reality begin with emergence of

1 dimensionality at a singularity resulng in the Universe we live in a

which informaon is processed.

ITS FIBONACCIS BIT SEEDING THEUNIVERSE WITH 0 AND 1


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The link between Fibonacci and Wheeler may seem speculave however I will show a logical relaons

which the Fibonacci sequence has with both informaon and reality.

A thought experiment: Descent into a Black Hole (and back out)

Interacon, observaon and being observed, is key to all of physics, and informaon is at the heart of

Normal 4-dimensional space-me comprises 3 spaal dimensions which allow the passage of informa

on, as me passes, between separate points in space-me. That is, a parcle, for instance, can obser

inwardly receiving informaon 3-dimensionally, while outwardly revealing informaon 3-dimensionall

Using this train of thought, at a Black Holes event horizon, informaon is not so free in all spaal direc

ons no pathways lead outwards. Informaon can be received 3-dimensionally from outside, but no

informaon from inside the black hole can be received. Likewise at the event horizon informaon can

be revealed 3-dimensionally towards the singularity, but nothing can be revealed outwards away from

the black hole, because no pathways point outwards. The only direcon where informaon can be bot

received and revealed is 2-dimensionally across this 2-dimensional horizon.

Once inside the Black Hole, pathways tend towards greater and greater spaghecaon, before the

0-dimensional space is reached at the singularity, at some crical point, informaon can only be revea

1-dimensionally. Finally at the singularity itself, informaon can only be received from that point

1-dimensionally.

At the singularity informaon cannot be received nor revealed because there are, by denion, 0-dim

sions of space at that unique point. Hence, we can envisage informaon having discrete and limited en

ronments for its passage. 0 and 1 emerge as dimensionalies concerned with the singularity itself qubinary, and, as we know, the seed values for Fibonacci.


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Figure 1 shows that as we descend into a Black

Hole, dierent altudes present informa-

on with unique processing limitaons, to the

order, 3, 2, 1, 1, 0 dimensions respecvely; thismatches the Fibonacci sequence.

Figure 1. How informaon is exchanged follow-

ing the Fibonacci sequence when moving into

and out of a Black Hole.

We know that the Fibonacci sequence connues

past 0:

-3, 2, -1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 2, 3 [5]

At the singularity, knowing that no pathways

move outwards from anywhere beyond the

event horizon, we imagine what becomes of

any aempt for informaon to escape. This is

where Fibonacci really assists in explanaon.

The sequence itself allows -1 + 1 = 0, a simple

quantum uctuaon akin to a vacuum. I would

suggest that this is what naked singularies do.

In larger supermassive black holes with the

presence of an event horizon, this takes the


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sequence nearly full circle to have 2, -1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 2, 3 dimensional arenas for informaon to exchange

They are all unique, for example the posive sequence 2 represents the event horizon when heading

into the black hole, the negave sequence 2, is the result of building new event horizon conserving

dimensionality when the sequence follows through to this point. The nal part -3-dimensions, again co

serves dimensionality by giving the Universe outside the Black Hole informaon, conrming that a bit

3-dimensional space has fallen in, so the Universe gets -3 back out.

Entropy

The Universe seems to want informaon to fall into a Black Hole; entropy is perhaps the driving force

this.

A simplex is the smallest convex set containing n+ 1 vertex for n-dimensions, such as a 2-dimensional t

angle containing 3 verces. I posit ulising n+1 to explore entropy, as a representave of the respecv

dimensionalitys order.

If we assign the n-dimensional n-simplex, then the number of verces n+1 increases with decay from

VFn VFn-1 + VFn-2 working backwards through Fibonaccis sequence. In other words, as informaon

falls into a Black Hole, its entropy increases more than the decrease in entropy for the outside Univers

Table 1 shows an increase in disorder moving from VFn VFn-1 + VFn-2 This is always an increase of 1

the posive Fibonacci sequence. However once Fn = -1 becomes part of the vertex result the simple re

onship is lost.

To connue to achieve the +1 decay results, we must reach a strange conclusion that dimensions withnegave Fibonacci numbers give a simplex vertex number of 0, i.e. the mean of the posive and nega

vertex numbers. If we consider just the negave dimensions with negave vertex simplex numbers,


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we get a reducon in entropy, which wed expect mathemacally. This would result in a -1 change, or f

in entropy.

Assuming posive simplex numbers based on an axiom that dimensions cant be negave, then entrop

increase would be large. However, if we take the mean of both these results, we increase entropy by +

before.

I would suggest that in real terms, considering negave dimensions to exist only as quantum uctuao

of a singularity (0-dimension), which would then naturally favour posive dimensionality asymmetrica

producing a natural arrow of me. However, all these outcomes, once 0-dimensionality is reached (an

exceeded) give three strangely diverse quantum like results, such as:

i) The singularity does not release informaon at all, because connuing on Fibonaccis sequence

results in an entropy decrease.

ii) The singularity can release the same amount of informaon that it receives, as entropy connu

to increase as previously.

iii) The singularity is capable of releasing vast amounts of informaon. This would occur if the Blac

Hole was losing a lot of mass, which brings us to Hawking Radiaon.


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Hawking Radiaon

The presence of -1 dimensionality evokes the possibility of Hawking Radiaon, where the Black Hole

lose mass and according to this approach, informaon. For the negave dimensionality, it is only w

we consider both the posive and negave simplex vertex numbers that we achieve increase in ent

consistent with that of the posive part of the sequence. Decay from Fn = 0 +1 -1 would seemi

result in annihilaon back to 0, but +1 also has the capability to decay to 0 +1.

Noce the repeang nature of the -1, 1, 0, 1, 1 part of the sequence, which allows Black Holes with

the 2-dimensional event horizon (naked singularies) to very quickly lose mass. The other route invo


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2-dimensionality retains the self-replicang +1. Larger Black Holes should lose less mass, as there is

chance to lose 1 and maintain -1 (Hawking Radiaon) the more 2-dimensionality it has.

However, when informaon escapes in this manner, it should mean that it is conserved, albeit unreco

sable from before it was massively altered inside the Black Hole.

Fn = 2 dimensionality in the negave sequence decays to Fn = -3 and 5, but the simplex vertex pro

VFn increases from 3 to 6 (an atypical increase of +3), not following the simple +1 paern for the mean.

lower result is an entropy decrease of 1, while the upper result would increase entropy by VFn = 7, res

ing in loss of mass from the Black Hole. Hence, it seems decay onward to 5-dimensions isnt favoured ei

symmetrically or asymmetrically, giving 3-dimensionality a limit in our reality and in informaon excha

Conclusion

Fibonacci, It and Bit appear equally fundamental, as the sequence gives informaon to reality on how in

maon can be exchanged - a sort of chicken and egg relaonship.

Dimensionality number is conserved during decay, adhering to the reversal of the Fibonacci seque

while showing an increase in entropy via n-simplex vertex number. This means that informaon is also

served, but le much less ordered, when entering a Black Hole. At 0-dimensions informaon cant be

cessed. But the sequence 1 0, 1 reproduces 1, so that informaon is never destroyed.

Ulising this approach to understand informaons relaonship with reality has shown potenal to he

our further understanding of the asymmetry of me.

Any informaon remaining inside the Black hole is not destroyed and the original dimensionality is alwconserved by following the Fibonacci sequence; it may just be in some instances that it may take an in

amount of me for informaon to escape.

This system also lends itself to a spaally 3-dimensional Universe emerging from 0-dimensionailty, beca


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informaon exchange is limited to 0, 1, 1, and 2-dimensionailty within a Black Hole, which is hidden from

3-dimensionality outside. In this respect Black Holes are analogies to the holographic principle in reve

References

[1] Douady, S; Couder, Y (1996), Phyllotaxis as a Dynamical Self Organizing Process (PDF), Journa

Theorecal Biology 178 (178): 25574,doi:10.1006/jtbi.1996.0026

[2] Jones, Judy; Wilson, William (2006), Science, An Incomplete Educaon, Ballanne Books, p. 544, IS

978-0-7394-7582-9

[3] Brousseau, A (1969), Fibonacci Stascs in Conifers, Fibonacci Quarterly (7): 52532

[4] The Fibonacci Numbers and the Ancestry of Bees

[5] Knuth, Donald (2008-12-11), Negabonacci Numbers and the Hyperbolic Plane

WORDS: ANTHONY RYAN

Science Fiction & Fact Writer. Atheist. Wou

Physicist; did wrong degree. Quantum G

Animal Loving. Vegetarian. Fan of #DrWho

et al.

UK AntRya.nET

FOLLOW ANTHONY ONTWITTER
http://antrya.net/https://twitter.com/AntRyanEThttps://twitter.com/AntRyanEThttp://antrya.net/


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F = ma

This is perhaps the second most iconic equaon in physics, aer E=mc2 which prey much everyone

heard of, this is the next most likely one youll have heard of.

Its famously embodied as Newtons second law. However its really not an obvious law at all.

So lets start by dening terms - we have:

F - the force, basically you can think of this as how hard you have to push something. The stan

unit of force is the newton - appropriately enough.

m - the mass - mass is a tricky thing, as it can sort of mean two things. You can get away with thin

of it as the weight of something and whilst not precise, it will do for most everyday cases.

a - acceleraon - and this tells you how quickly you get quicker (or slower),


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So - this is saying that force, mass and acceleraon are all inmately related. An equaon is a balanc

so if you add something to one side you have to balance it on the other side, or if there is more than on

thing on a side you can trade one o at the expense of the other.

So lets say we have a mass of 1kg, around about a bag of sugar. What does this formula tell you abou

things? It says if you give it a push, it will accelerate. If its standing sll it will start to move. Now this is a

well and good, but it doesnt meet with our everyday experience.


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Place a bag of sugar on the table, and gently push it. The sugar starts to move, BUT crucially when you

pushing it, it generally stops moving. Now if F=ma is true, this shouldnt happen. We should give it a p

and it will start to accelerate, say from 0 m/s to 1 m/s to 2 m/s. If we push it harder, we might get it to 3

but it will sll stop in short order.

So this looks much more like F=mv - (v is velocity - or speed in everyday language) the harder you push so

thing the faster it goes, and it you keep pushing with the same force, it will keep going at the same spe

That isnt what Newton said though, according to him a quick push will set something in moon, and it

move along happily for ever aer. In fact this is his rst law, which roughly translates (parally) as somet

at rest will stay at rest unless you give it a push.

Our everyday experience is clouded by a hidden force, the force of fricon. This is a force that resists mo

It can be fricon between a bag of sugar and a table, a wheel and the road, or an aircra and the air

these act to resist the moon. In a perfect vacuum, say out in space, this is all so much easier to see.

an astronaut a push, and he will keep moving, which is both wonderfully liberang (I imagine) and a

in the neck aer a while.

So anyway, it took insight to see that real equaon is F=ma and not F=mv, and to then do experiments w

fricon is factored out to prove it.


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Given weve got the equaon, we can see lots of things. In a car, if you want to play rst away from the tr

lights (which is geng beer acceleraon) you can do two things. You can give it a bigger push, with a la

engine. Otherwise you can reduce the mass, make it out of lightweight materials. Of course, a bigger en

is oen heavier, so you get more force, but more mass. This is even more crucial in things like aircra, wyoure wanng to counteract the force of gravity too.

Now this REALLY comes into its own when you consider a rocket. Its true for most powered things, but e

more so for rockets. Most of a rockets weight is its fuel. However as the rocket launches it burns up its f

So assuming the engines generate a constant thrust (force) things are going to change.

Lets assume the rocket is generang 1 newton of thrust,

weighs one kg. We can work out how fast it will accelerate

F = m * a

1 = 1 * a

solve for a - well it has to be 1. So this rocket will accelerate

m/s/s. However, a short me later, it may have burnt a kilog

of fuel. So now the rocket weight a kg. So now its

1 = * a

solve for a - its now 2 m/s/s. When its burned of a kilogra

fuel, its now

1 = * a


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solve for a, and now its accelerang at 4 m/s/s. So this is why its called rocket science! Its a connuing

able equaon, which needs calculus to solve it fully.

However whats true of a rocket is also true of anything that moves. So your car takes more force to m

when its full of petrol, or when it is full of passengers, or full of luggage, or even just yourself if youve

on some pounds over Christmas.

Words: Julian Onions


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http://www.irishblog.blogspot.com/


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BBC Stargazing LIVE event

Our 2014 Stargazing LIVE event, which took place on January 11th 2014 at The Heath Business and Tech

Park, was a 12 hour day and evening extravaganza of stargazing!

TKO Ambassadors Jacqueline Lightfo

and Emma Doward, the welcoming fac

of our events, work relessly at the fro

of house.


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The tremendous interest and excitement shown by the children and adults alike made it a very reward

ing weekend. We lost count of the number of people who exclaimed that they had bought a telescope

recently or had one in the lo but had no idea how to use it or I have always wanted to know what t

look for, I would love to learn more. All those that we spoke to expressed delight in having the oppor

tunity to learn and to experience observing the sky with help from astronomers.

Andrew was able to promote the day on his monthly Astronomy show on Halton Community Radio,

show with worldwide listeners! We hand delivered 500 yers to local schools, groups, libraries, shop

and businesses and again worked Twier and Facebook hard, to spread the word.


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We had also invited Brownie packs from Runcorn to aend, providing a chance to gain their Stargazing bad

enthusiascally took up the opportunity and a well organised crowd of 30 in the morning and 25 in the a

livened up our day immensely!

Dear Sue

Can you give our thanks to all thoswere involved in organising and pring the event today. We took a gro8 Brownies this morning and had atime. It was both educational anEveryone was so helpful and en

with the Brownies really well. Therplenty of activities to do. We loveplanetarium particularly and covemuch of the stargazers badge woat that one experience

Thank you again

Barn Owl with 7th Runcorn Brown

On the day

Our programme for the day included short presentaons of 20 25 minutes on subjects chosen for their ap

wide audience of adults and children. We wanted to encourage as many people as possible to enjoy the presen


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not to be inmidated and feel that they were high brow and too academic.

Just to say that I thought it was great to see so many families and individuals at the stargazing even

on Saturday. Considering that this was the rst such event in Runcorn, I thought the turnout wa

prey good.

I was very happy to be able to support the event, and it goes without saying Im more than happy

to support any future such events. Anything that helps to inspire & enthuse kids, and raise their life

opportunies & expectaons is a good thing! Email - Dr Paul Sapple


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The presentaons, given by our own Andrew Davies, Adele Horton and Neil Phillipson fro

Astronomia, Dr Paul Sapple from the University of Liverpool and Gerard Gilligan from t

Liverpool Astronomical Society, were an overwhelming success. With a full house and grou

of children sing on the oor, the only mistake we made was underesmang the minof each session. We had deliberately kept sessions short to maintain interest but neither pr

senters nor audience wanted to stop and by the aernoon sessions we were over running

an hour. Mind you no-one was complaining!


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celebrity match-up quiz, Liverpool Telescope, other wavelengths, spectroscopes and lamps, plasma ba

the scale of the solar system acvity. Adults and children were fascinated by the displays and experim

and all delighted by the chance to have a go.


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Miss Molyneux and the Balshaw Science Ambassadors and Emperors capvated children and adults

with ying teabags, edible constellaons, straw rockets and balloon kebabs, their skill and passion alw

huge hit with the audience!

The planetarium was so incredibly popular that Paul and Alan from STFC ran 11 full capacity sess

from 10.00 am unl 8.30 pm! Such stamina and paence and so many delighted visitors!


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Our own amazing TKO ambassadors Jonathen and John were the perfect double act in our beginners co

Oering help, advice and an opportunity to have a go with a wide variety of telescopes and providing us

ps and hints and lessons on using a planisphere, they had a permanent crowd of aenve learners.


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Adele and Neil from Astronomia had a varied selec-

on of beginner telescopes and binoculars and a

superb range of books and astronomy resources.

There was plenty of sound advice for those seeking

to buy their rst telescope and help for those who

were just starng their journey into the fascinang

world of astronomy.


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We were so incredibly lucky that by lunchme

skies cleared and the sun shone so that Neils s

observing presentaon was delivered outside

the solar scope. So popular was the session

Neil was press ganged into doing it all again l

in the aernoon!

paula tancock @paulatan1972 Jan 11

@KnowledgeObs Had a great day today,

out lots of interesng facts ! Many thank


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Our own Knowledge Observatory stand had

informaon about our astronomy course and

the family club we hoped to start. We spoke to

many people who were so keen to get going that

we may not be able to delay the start unl aer

Easter. We have more than enough applicaons

to start at least one local course aer Easter and

a hugely enthusiasc group of people to begin a

family astronomy club. We are thrilled with such

interest and will invesgate potenal venues for

both the course and the club in a central Runcorn

locaon.

In addion, we had provided some of our astron-

omy teaching resources and material, quizzes,

word search, puzzles, games and acvies. The

1000 piece jigsaw proved too dicult for even

the most accomplished puzzlers so we shall

invest in a few less complex opons for the next

event!


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In the evening

We had kept the evening session exible with presentaons and acvies on hand should the weather

be kind enough to allow night sky observing. Incredibly, the sky stayed clear through the whole eve

and the quadrangle provided an excellent place to set up all the telescopes and we were delighted

the minimal light polluon despite being in town.

We had asked visitors to bring their own telescopes and our team helped to set them up and prov

advice and assistance in geng the best out of them. I was exhilarang to hear the Oohs and Aah

many visitors were able to see Jupiter through their own telescopes for the very rst me.


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Live observing with a group of fascinated beginners is fantascally rewarding. The quesons come thick

fast and despite having adversed nishing at 10.00pm the scopes were sll up long aer 11.00pm! We w

joined by two local Police ocers, now converts to astronomy and who have signed up for a new local c

We had over 350 local people through the door

and the feedback has been staggering. We

have, without doubt, had a signicant impact

on the uptake of astronomy in our community.

And the good news?

We are doing it all again on Saturday the 8th

March for Naonal Astronomy Week

Just wanted to say a huge thank you for to

event, it was absolutely brilliant from st

finish. My family and I learned a lot (the

sentations were fantastic - please pass o

thanks to the other speakers), and seein

bands on Jupiter through one of the

scopes was just wonderful! We got hom

have spent the last hour or so wrapped

the garden checking out Jupiters moonOrion nebula, the Seven Sisters cluster, an

Moon with our 15x70 binoculars... I thin

may be adding a telescope fairly soon! T

again for an inspiring day. (email Michae


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Comet Isons Demise.

The Comet Ison fever reined right up to its torn demise on the morning of November 28th 2

imaged the Suns Orb breaking the horizon over the sea surf at the volcanic Island of Fuerteve

North coast of Corralejo. My eorts to capture an image or a glimpse of comet Ison surviva

path around the Sun was not to be. The Suns gravitaonal forces and pull proved too mu

Ison to defy and hold together to give us the comet of the century.

We can only wait for another comet to en

ter our domain and give us a chance of vie

an awesome spectacle in the future.

Sherwood Observatory Nonghamshire.

Images taken in prder from the top

07:29:52

07:30:00

07:30:28

Words & Images:

Michael Knowles.


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Origin of Life on EarthLife is: A self-sustained chemical system capable of undergoing Darwinian evolution

Gerald Joyce, NASA scientist, 1994

There are three possibilies with regards to the origin of life:

1. Life arose from non-life through natural processes on Earth

2. Life arose elsewhere in the Universe and was transported to earth

3. Life arose on Earth through supernatural intervenon

This arcle explores the possibility and evidence for the tantalizing idea that life arose and evolved from

life and through natural processes.


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Building blocks of life:

The most basic building block of life is a chemical element. There

are 6 elements which play a central role in the fundamental struc-

ture of all life on Earth. These are Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen,

Oxygen, Phosphorus and Sulphur.

Elements come together to form molecules wherein the atoms are

held together by chemical bonds. Carbon element is considered

as the back bone of all life on earth as it can easily bind with other

atoms to form molecules. This is why we are called carbon based

life. Some examples of molecules are amino acids and sugars.

When simpler molecules aach to each other to form long chains,

more complex molecules are formed. Amino acids form proteins

while nucleic acids form DNA.

All life on earth is made up of cells. These are microscopic struc-

tures which allow for chemical reacons between molecules to

occur for the funconing of life.

Image Source: hp://edtech2.boisestate.edu/jamieprouty/502/

webquest/intro.html
http://edtech2.boisestate.edu/jamieprouty/502/webquest/intro.htmlhttp://edtech2.boisestate.edu/jamieprouty/502/webquest/intro.htmlhttp://edtech2.boisestate.edu/jamieprouty/502/webquest/intro.htmlhttp://edtech2.boisestate.edu/jamieprouty/502/webquest/intro.html


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There are three major funconal parts in a cell:

1. Energy system - This consists of proteins which provide energy

through molecular chemical reacons to perform funcons of life.

2. Informaon System (DNA) - This is the genec code which

allows cells to grow and to reproduce. This informaon is transferred

from one generaon to the next.

3. Membrane - A membrane encloses all the chemical reacons

of molecules within a cell. It is made from structures called lipids.

Requirement for life to arise:

1. Raw material for life Elements

The elements hydrogen and helium were formed at the me of the

Big Bang, when the universe was created. All heavier elements are

created inside the core of massive stars through the process of nuclear

fusion. When these stars die in a supernova, they seed clouds of gas

and dust with these heavier elements, which in turn collapse to form

new stars and planets.

2. Water

For simple molecules to come together to form more complex mol-

ecules, we need a liquid to help them move around, such as water.


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3. Energy source

Life needs an energy source for metabolism.

The story of Origin of life

Study of zircon grains in Western Australia sugge

that water was present as early as 4.4 billion yea

back on Earth.

The story of Originof life

Study of zircon grains in Western Australia sugge

that water was present as early as 4.4 billion yea

back on Earth.

Amino Acids to form Proteins:

There are three possible sources for organic molecu

such as amino acids:

1. Urey-Miller Experiment This has been one

the earliest experiments conducted to test the id

that sun-light driven chemical reacons on primve Earth might have produced the building bloc

of life. In the experiment a ask of water was heat

to produce water vapour. The water vapour was th

passed through another ask which contained gas

Urey-Miller Experiment

Image Source

http://digitaljournal.com/image/43968
http://digitaljournal.com/image/43968http://digitaljournal.com/image/43968


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to simulate the primive atmosphere of Earth. Electric

sparks were provided across the chamber to provide

energy for the chemical reacons. Aer about a week

of this experiment, it was found that amino acids and

organic molecules had formed in the container.

2. Polycyclic Aromac Hydrocarbons (PAHs) These

molecules are found in interstellar medium, in comets

and in meteorites and could be the basis of the earliest

form of life on Earth.

3. Comets/ Meteorites Murchison meteorite

which fell in Australia in 1969 has been found to be rich

in organic molecules. Over 14,000 molecular compounds

and 70 amino acids have been found in the meteorite.

It is possible that these building blocks of life arose on

some other parent body and were transported to Earth

from elsewhere

Murchison meteorite

Image Source:

http://en.wikipediao r g / w i k iMurchison_meteorite

Nucleic Acids to form DNA/ RNA:A more primive form of DNA (Dioxyribonucleic acid) is the RNA (Ribonucleic acid). RNA can self asse

into ribozymes which can carry out chemical reacons including self replicaon.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murchison_meteoritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murchison_meteoritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murchison_meteoritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murchison_meteoritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murchison_meteoritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murchison_meteorite


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A more primive form of DNA (Dioxyribonucleic acid) is the RNA (Ribonucleic acid). RNA can self assem

into ribozymes which can carry out chemical reacons including self replicaon.

RNA as a predecessor to DNA.

Image source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Difference_DNA_RNA-EN.svg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Difference_DNA_RNA-EN.svghttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Difference_DNA_RNA-EN.svg


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RNA is much simpler to manufacture than DNA as it only

a single strand. It is possible that the rst life on earth w

RNA based which later evolved into DNA based life. What

would like to know is how the rst self-replicang strand

RNA came about.

Experiments show that several silicate minerals can act as

alysts to enable complex, organic material to self assem

These inorganic molecules have a parcular mineral struct

and the oldest zircon grains conrm that these were ab

dantly available on Earth about 4.4 bn years back. Moreov

these silicate minerals contain layers of molecules to wh

organic molecules can easily aach to. When organic mo

cules aach to the mineral surface in this way, they can

forced into such close proximity that they react with e

other to form long chains of molecules.

Laboratory experiments have conrmed that natural p

cesses such as this can easily manufacture strands of RNA

to a few dozen bases in length. Sciensts have discovered

RNA strand only 5 bases long which can act as a ribozym

In this way it is possible that simple ribozymes could h

been formed, which then acted as a catalyst for forming m

complex self replicang RNA molecules.


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Membranes

For molecules such as amino acids and nucleic acids to form proteins and DNA respecvely, it was require

the molecules to be concentrated together for extended periods of me and also to be protected by har

ultra violet radiaon from the Sun.

Some of the possible locaons where molecules could have been concentrated for chemical reacons to

place are deep sea vents, impact craters, beaches, and volcanic hot springs.

But even if we have the simple molecules coming together to form proteins and DNA/ RNA, we sll nee

structure to hold these molecules together to enable chemical reacons. Else the molecules will just dissi

The third important structure of a cell is a membrane.

This is formed by lipids. Lipids have a head and a tail

structure. The head is aracted to water whereas the

tail is repulsed by water. When lipids are put in water,

they spontaneously form an enclosed membrane, trap-

ping organic molecules within it to facilitate chemical

reacons

Image: Lipids forming Cell Membranes

Source: http://www.autismcoach.com/product_p/

ar-001.htm
http://%20http//www.autismcoach.com/product_p/ar-001.htmhttp://%20http//www.autismcoach.com/product_p/ar-001.htmhttp://%20http//www.autismcoach.com/product_p/ar-001.htmhttp://%20http//www.autismcoach.com/product_p/ar-001.htm


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Lipids have amazing properes. They can selecvely allow certain molecules to pass through them. Th

also store energy in the form of electrical voltages across their surfaces which can be discharged to fa

reacons inside them. In some cases they can grow so big in size that they become unstable and sp

smaller spheres.

This is how the rst crude proto-cells could have been formed on Earth with simple strands of RNA

trapped within a lipid pre-cell.


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Protocell with small RNA strands trapped inside a membrane.

Image Source: hp://universe-review.ca/F11-monocell.htm

Several proto-cells of various molecular chemical combinaons could have been

formed. Evoluon ensured that the ones which adapted best to their environ-

ment replicated faster while others perished. The ones which survived eventu-

ally evolved into DNA based life.
http://universe-review.ca/F11-monocell.htmhttp://universe-review.ca/F11-monocell.htm


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2. Microfossils

Microfossils from the Apex Chert, a rock formaon in Australia having an age of 3.5 bn yrs

Source: hp://www.astronomy.com/magazine/2005/02/seeking-lifes-earthly-cradle

More rigorous tests need to be performed on microfossils before any denive conclusion is made tow

evidence of early life on earth as menoned in arcle below.

Arcle link: hp://phys.org/news/2011-03-overturns-oldest-evidence-life-earth.html
http://%20http//www.astronomy.com/magazine/2005/02/seeking-lifes-earthly-cradlehttp://phys.org/news/2011-03-overturns-oldest-evidence-life-earth.html%20http://phys.org/news/2011-03-overturns-oldest-evidence-life-earth.html%20http://%20http//www.astronomy.com/magazine/2005/02/seeking-lifes-earthly-cradle


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Chemical Signature/ Isotopesre are two commonly occurring carbon isotopes carbon-12 and carbon-13. Life prefers to use the lighter

on which is carbon-12. Inorganic carbon sample always contains a small proporon of carbon-13.

n island o the coast of Greenland, rocks about 3.8 bn years old with lower carbon-13 isotope have been

ng a biological origin. However these rocks have been subjected to high pressure and heat. So this line o

e is not conclusive.

e each line of evidence individually is subject to controversy, all three put together give us important clues

n of life on earth.

rences:

Astrobiology course on Coursea.org (hps://www.coursera.org/course/astrobio )

Book: Life in the Universe by J. Benne, S. Shostak (hp://www.amazon.com/Life-Universe-Edion-Jerey

0321687671)

RDS: HENNA KHAN

mbai, India

er at Universe Simplified - [email protected] -http://www.universesimplified.com/

onomy/ Science Educator, Skeptic, Travel Freak, Proponent of Disrupt Education
https://www.coursera.org/course/astrobiohttps://www.coursera.org/course/astrobio


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CLIMATE

CHANGE?

Image: NASA


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of which skepcs deny as concrete and argue inconclusive results which can be interpreted in any num

of ways. Unfortunately for them however, this just isnt the case. In 1988 an Intergovernmental Panel

Climate Change (IPCC) was established with the aim of independently reviewing all evidence pertaining

climate change in order to advise on what acon, if any, was needed. So where do they stand? Well, t

have concluded with greater than 90% probability that most of the observed warming since the mid-2

Century is due to human acvity. Their projecons suggest that warming over the 21st Century was a

more rapid rate than at any point over at least the last 10,000 years.

So if it is obvious to Sciensts that something is happening as a result of human acvity, why is there ev

need for a debate? If the evidence is so clear, how can there be skepcs? The answer to that of cours

simple enough... Money!

It would be very cynical of me to point out that the majority of the argument against climate change com

from mul-billion dollar global corporaons hell bent on proteering at any cost, but could that be rig

Could these skepcs be ghng a propaganda war to keep their bank accounts healthy at the cost of

natural world?

In its simplest form, the debate on climate change can be summarised as follows:-

There are two possible scenarios, either our acons are increasing global warming and wreak

havoc on our climate, or we are having no addional impact. This means that global warming is either tr

or it is false.

For each scenario there are two out outcomes. Either we act, or we dont act on climate chang

The table below outlines the consequences of each outcome in each scenario in order to highlight wh

believe to be the fundamental reasoning behind the need for a debate on climate change.


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TRUE FALSE

ACT Cost outweighed by benefit

Life carries on

Cost - global depressiosocial/economic/pol iticsystems all fail

DONT ACT Global Catastrophe - sealevel rises, temperature rises,atmospheric changes, pollu-tion, breakdown of economyetc.

Life carries on

As you can see, the consequences of making the wrong decision could be catastrophic. If we dont act

our theories are correct, it could be the end of life as we know it. However, if we act when there wa

need we could trigger recession on an unprecedented scale with global ramicaons.

Obviously theres every chance we could make the correct decision, but clearly for some, the nancial

of geng it wrong is just too high a price to pay for the connued future of humanity.

WORDS: DAN LUCUS

Dan is a regular writer on ICy Science, you can nd Dan on Twier @dan__lucas
https://twitter.com/dan__lucashttps://twitter.com/dan__lucas


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nternaonal Space Staon astronaut Andre Kuipers captured spectacular aurora blazing over An


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AntarccaAntarcca is the earths most southerly connent. It is a col

windy and a dry wilderness. Despite its remote and challengin

condions life has evolved here. The region is a fundamental pa

of our planets climate and eco system.

Antarcca has some of the biggest seasonal changes on the plane

The coastal regions in summer can hover around freezing whi

the interior can drop to -20 C. Limited plant life will grow durin

the summer months; however winter brings harsh bier col

The coldest surface temperatures have been recorded here wi

a staggering -89.2 C.

So how does Antarctica differ from th

Arcc?

The arcc is mostly frozen sea surrounded by land it is a sem

enclosed sea. Antarcca is land surrounded by sea.

Arcc Antarcca


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Wildlife

There is quite a diverse selecon of wild-

life. Limited but sll able to grow are a fewplanets, which some ower. The most well

known wildlife is of course the Penguin. The

penguin is one of the few creatures that can

live, breed and survive the cold harsh condi-

ons. There are three species of birds that

breed in the Antarcc. Other wildlife that

make their home here or at least for some

part of the year include, whales, Colossal

Squids, fur seals,

Other organisms that live in the Antarcc

region are fungi, mosses, liverworts, algae,

bacteria and phytoplankton.

Climate& Temperature

Summer: The summer months are December

to Feb/March, there are temperature vari-

ations across the continent, generally on

coastal areas the temperatures are around

freezing and can somemes be posive. The

interior however is much colder; this is due

Above: Image from http://www.asoc.org/issues-and

advocacy/antarctic-wildlife-conservation

Below: Orca (Killer Whales)
http://www.asoc.org/issues-and-advocacy/antarctic-wildlife-conservationhttp://www.asoc.org/issues-and-advocacy/antarctic-wildlife-conservationhttp://www.asoc.org/issues-and-advocacy/antarctic-wildlife-conservationhttp://www.asoc.org/issues-and-advocacy/antarctic-wildlife-conservation


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to its elevaon, higher latude and distance from

the sea. Temperatures in the interior never really get

above -20 C.

Winter: Coastal regions can range between -10 and

-30 C, the sea around the connent freezes adding

and increased land mass. The interior can fall below

-60 C, with the coldest temperature recorded at the

Russian staon Vostok in 1983 at -89.2 C.

Antarcca has just two seasons. Because the Earth

in space is lted which never changes, during the

summer the Antarcc is bathed in sunlight, however

in winter the reverse happens and it is in constant

darkness.

Did you know Antarcca is a desert?

Despite its bright white appearance there is very lile

snowfall in Antarcca. What snow has fallen becomes

layered and forms ice sheets.

Snow mainly falls in the coastal regions with limited

snow in the interior However in recent years snow fall

has increased and this can be down to global warming

of the planet.

Aurora australis lights up the winter

at the South Pole Station, Antarctica

Image Source: http://icestories.expl

atorium.edu/dispatches/

Below: http://antarcticsun.usap.gov

tures/contenthandler.cfm?id=2504
http://icestories.exploratorium.edu/dispatches/http://icestories.exploratorium.edu/dispatches/http://antarcticsun.usap.gov/features/contenthandler.cfm%3Fid%3D2504http://antarcticsun.usap.gov/features/contenthandler.cfm%3Fid%3D2504http://antarcticsun.usap.gov/features/contenthandler.cfm%3Fid%3D2504http://antarcticsun.usap.gov/features/contenthandler.cfm%3Fid%3D2504http://icestories.exploratorium.edu/dispatches/http://icestories.exploratorium.edu/dispatches/


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Winds

Antarcca winds can be moderate however gales

and hurricane winds do happen, the winds distrib-

ute any snow fall which over a period of me adds

to the ice sheets.

Sea Ice

The sea ice plays an important role in the global

climate system and eco system. Sea ice is seasonal

and occurs mostly during the cold dark winter

season, the ice signicantly expands the areas land

mass. Both the arcc and Antarcc sea ice drives

the vercal ocean circulaon system, which redis-

tributes heat between the equator and the poles.

This movement carries nutrients around the seas

and oceans.

Sea ice modulates exchanges of heat, moisture and

gases between the atmosphere and the ocean.

The ice itself is less salty than the sea water, salt

or brine creates tubes in the underside of the ice,

the brine lters down in to the sea, the salt water

sinks creang a circulaon. Algae grow in the brine


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tubes. Krill feed

Climate Change

Recently a research ship got stuck in t

Antarcc sea ice, despite reports that th

ice formed around the ship this is actua

untrue. The ship got stuck in area wh

the oang sea ice was more densely p

ulated; this made it more dicult for

ship to navigate through.

Climate and climate change, are comple

Antarcca, geologically the region has t

disncve regions, East Antarcca and w

Antarcca. Separated by the Trans Antar

Mountains but connected by the vast

sheet. The vast expanse makes clim

change less uniform than that of the Arc

where climate change eects can be se

more dramacally. The interior ice she

and glaciers over the past decades ha

shown signicant ice loss, this is mainly

west Antarcc. However in the Ross Sea a

there has been increased sea ice. The R

see is situated in West Antarcca bord

ing the Trans Antarcc Mountains. Possi


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causes could be the melng ice sheets; fresh water owing into the sea area is dilung the salty sea

when sea ice freezes the salt is rejected in the form of brine. By dilung the sea water it raises the freezi

perature. As we now water non salty water freezes at 0 while salty water starts to freeze at -1.9 C. (N

Increased snow fall has been recorded in Antarcca especially in East Antarcca. Snowfall is contribu

warmer temperatures, increased air humidity causes precipitaon and if condions and temperatures ar

we have snowfall.

Below Image of a formed Brine Tube, formed in the sea ice.


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My Favorite MoonsIm an observer of Earths orbit, my favorite moon. I do this by observing where the sun and moon and set throughout the year, whether the horns of a crescent moon lt high or low, or how high the e

c is. Tracking these moons has paid o at least twice: Once it made me realize that a paral lunar ec

would peak while the moon sets behind a high ridgeline I live under, and at 4:40 am the following morn

I took this picture from my yard:

Perhaps I guessed and got l

Regardless, understanding Earths

oers useful tools of predicon

more important (the second payo

pulled me into studying climate sci

Understanding Earths orbit is as

a subject for climatologists as it

astronomers. In astronomy, detec

of exoplanets, for example, must b

rected for Earths moon. In climat

past climate change must be interpreted with regard to Earths changing orbit. The orbit parameters of in

are lt, eccentricity, and precession. Due to tugs from the sun, moon, and other planets, these parameters con scales of thousands of years, comparable in scale to major shis in Earths climate.


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Figure 1: Orbital pareccentricity, and p

(Not to scale).

Changes to Earths

the distribuon of sunlight between the northern and southern hemispheres. Understanding the e

subtle shis in this energy distribuon gives clues to how sensive Earths climate is to small, gradual c

Tilt is easy for anyone to observe, as it is primary driver of seasons and of the changes of the sun and

For climate, the degree of lt determines how extreme the dierence between seasons can be. For ex

in Figure 2, the two worlds may have the same sun and the same orbit, but would have drascally d

seasons because of the dierences in lt:

Figure: Right- Earth today with a hypothecal Earth having a 90 degree lt (not to scale)


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observaons. Astronomers know precession as the

change in orientaon of the Earths rotaonal axis. It

makes our star charts go out of date every 25 years

and has moved boundaries of the constellaons so thatthey no longer follow the current lines of declinaon

and right ascension.

Ive observed discrepancies in the cycle aributed to

precession, and so I speculate their is common confu-

sion over the concept. This is not surprising, for pre-

cession has dierent meanings depending on whether

one is an astronomer or a climatologist. When people

say precession occurs on a cycle of 26,000 years, they

probably mean astronomical procession; if they say a

cycle of 19,000 to 23,000, then theyre probably refer-

ing to climac precession.

So what is precession? It is the counter-moon you get

when you try to change the rotaonal axis of a gyro-

scope. Earth is the gyroscope whose axis currently

points toward Polaris. Earths equator is the wheel of

the gyroscope. The gravitaonal tugs of the sun and

moon are trying to pull the equator into line with their

orbits. As a result, Earths pole follows a circular path

that repeats roughly every 26,000 years (see Figure 4).

Whereas astronomical precession is Earths moving axis

of rotaon, climac precession combines the moving

Figure 4: Precession of Earths rotatio

axis (not to scale)


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axis with the changing eccentricity of Earths orbit.

As shown in Figure 5, Earths orbit is an ellipse, not a true circle, and so the amount of solar energy

receives varies throughout the year.


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Currently, Earths perihelion occurs near the northern hemispheres winter and the southern hemisphe

summer. Thus, the southern hemisphere in summer gets a lile more solar energy than the northern h

sphere gets in its summer and the reverse happens in Winter. Northern hemisphere winters get a lile m

solar energy than southern hemisphere winters. Note that the points of solsce are determined bydirecon of the lt, and perihelion and aphelion are determined by eccentricity. The solsces do not h

to occur near perihelion and aphelion.

Now, consider precession. Precession determines the placement of seasons in relaon to Earths orbit. Fi

6 shows the seasons as quarter secons of Earths orbit:

Figure 6: Earths seasons shown as a 4-color ring (not to scale)


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The solsce is the point were Earths axis points

toward or away from the sun (toward or away

depending on which hemisphere youre in). Now if

this direcon of lt changes (precesses), the points

of solsce and equinox move as shown in Firgure 7:

Figure 7 Right: Precession moves solsces and equi-

noxes clockwise.

As the solsces and equinoxes mark the seasons, the

seasons move, rotang clockwise. Figure 8 shows

the seasons, equinoxes, and solsces rotated clock-

wise. Imagine precession as all of these orbit ele-

ments rotang clockwise, for a complete loop every

26,000 years.

Figure 8: Seasons shown as a

4-color ring moving clockwise

with precession


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Now if climac precession considered the movement of the axis only, earths solsces would realign w

Earths semimajor axis every 26,000 years. However, this doesnt happen because the orientaon of

semimajor axis is also moving, but in counterclockwise direcon. Gravitaonal tugs from other planets

marily Jupiter, change the degree of eccentricity and rotate the semimajor axis. Given me, these oppomoons move aphelion from the southern hemispheres summer to the northern hemispheres sum

and back again at cycles that vary from 19,000 to 23,000 years.

Figure 9: Seasons moving clockwise with semimajor axis moving counter-clockwise induce a climac

cession cylee that varies between 19,000 and 23,000 years.


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This is is climac precession, and it is linked to major shis in Earths climate from glacial to warm inter

states. An area of intense study is understanding how this happened to the Eemian period 125,000 year

and how it triggered the most recent deglaciaon starng about 21,000 years ago.

And this only scratches a surface of this topic. The forces changing the orbit do vary, and thats why p

sion varies from 19-23,000 years. It would take sophiscated calculaons beyond my abilies to descri

exact moons, but it is not dicult to appreciate the eect and understand how the data can be used i

lished climate science.

Eorts to link orbit and climate have a long history. In the 1840s, Joseph Adhemar proposed that the ice

in Antarcca could be linked to the southern hemisphere winter occurring at aphelion: a smaller sun

ing in less sunlight which could sustain colder temperatures.

In the 1870s, James Croll oered an alternave hypothesis: Because Earth travels more slowly as it appro

aphelion, the southern winter was longer by 8 days than the northern winter, thus the southern hemis

spends more me farther from the sun.

In the 1930s, Milun Milankovitch turned the idea around by suggesng that orbital parameters crean

summers and warm winters at high northern latudes may explain the rise and fall of ice sheets. This th

currently held by climatologists. But the solar energy changes and the ming of these changes is a small

the climate picture. These energy changes alone are not enough to explain the shis in climate over th

million years. Calculang orbital changes gives climatologists an esmate of how much energy was in th

inal push, but the rest of the momentum came from Earth itself. Changing the distribuon of sunlight ch

the distribuon of icesheets, which can disturb the moon of ocean currents, which can alter the amo

CO2 the oceans absorb, which can lead to increases in atmospheric CO2, which in turn magnify the inia

The Earths responses to the inial push is greatly simplied here. Full coverage is an on-going topic in s

professional journals, where climatologists address numerous quesons yet to be answered, such a


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Mars Exploration Rover

Opportunity Celebrates 10

Years Working on Mars

By: Nicole Wille, Educaon Director,

The Mars Society

With all of the hype surrounding the Mars

Science Laboratory (MSL) Curiosity, it is easy

for the public to forget the Mars Exploraon

Rovers (MER) Spirit and Opportunity. The

twin rovers were each launched by a Delta

II Heavy Lifter rocket in the summer of

2003. The Opportunity Rover landed using

the airbag method in Meridiani Planum

on January 25, 2004 three weeks aer the

Spirit Rover landed. This very industrious

rover was planned for only a 90 day surface

mission and has now gone 39 mes past its

planned mission. On January 25, 2014 the

Opportunity rover completed 10 full Earth

years on Mars. The two rovers have made

many wonderful discoveries and they paved

the way for Curiosity. Each rover has a dis-

nct personality and each have encountered

their own challenges. Sadly for the MER team, altho

also far exceeded its mission, the last contact with

in 2010. In honor of Opportunity and her twin, Spi

museum exhibit has opened at the Smithsonian In

Huge wall size panoramas of Mars give visitors a sense

are on the surface of the planet. The exhibit also has

model of the rover as its centerpiece. The name of t

is Spirit and Opportunity: 10 Years Roving Across Mmuseum ocials stated that the purpose of the ex

combine art and science in a mulmedia experience

tors will be immersed in. (Space.com)


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n years ago Opportunity bounced to a stop and landed in Eagle Crater. The landing site was named Challenge

dium in honor of the astronauts who perished in the Space Shule Challenger disaster in 1986. Eagle Crat

ter with a layered outcropping of geological features. This was a serendipitous place for a landing, some

astronomical hole-in-one.

keeping with NASAs follow the water goal on Mars, the JPL website states the following:

nderstanding the history of water on Mars is important to meeng the four science goals of NASAs long-

ploraon Program:

Determine whether Life ever arose on Mars

Characterize the Climate of Mars

Characterize the Geology of Mars


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Prepare for Human Exploraon

To accomplish these goals, Opportunity carries a plethora of

scienc instruments and cameras. The rover carries a pan-

oramic camera, a hazard camera, and a microscopic imager.

t also hosts a suite of spectrometers (an instrument that u-

izes the electromagnec spectrum to analyze data), and a

rock abrasion tool (RAT). Many of these instruments are at

the end of a roboc arm that extends to sample and analyze

the rocks, soils, and minerals.

mages: Top Opportunity Image-NASA.gov

Le: Jelly Donut Image-NASA.gov


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As the rover traverses the many craters on Mars and stops a

analyzes each area, she has made many discoveries. A major

covery at the landing site, as stated by NASA sciensts, is that

area was at one me soaked with water. This was determin

by the vast number of spherules found at the site that were la

determined to be hemate. The spherules were nicknam

blueberries due to their shape and distribuon. Also, in

false color images they appeared to be a bluish hue. Hema

is found on Earth and is known to be formed in the presen

of water over a long period of me. It is a mineral form of i

oxide. This was a major discovery for the MER team.

An unexpected discovery was Heat Shield Rock. This is a Mar

meteorite discovered near the heat shield that had fallen to t

ground aer the rover landed. This will always be known as

rst discovery of a meteorite on another planet. The mete

ite was prey easy to spot against the background of Mar

soil and rocks. The weathering on a meteorite is quite dis

compared to any indigenous maer.

Ironically the mission has been extended so long, in part due

the weather on Mars. The rovers power source is in the fo

of solar panels. The surface of Mars is covered in ne dust ais very windy. Several mes over the course of the missi

the solar panels have been covered in dust. The weather

Mars oen includes dust devils. These dust devils have be

responsible for clearing the dust covered solar panels, there

Squyres speaking at the Mars

Society 16th Annual Conven-

tion-The Mars Society


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rejuvenang the power to the rover. This was an unexpected and happy event for the team.

Opportunity has also made astronomical observaons. These include the transits of both natural satellit

Phobos and Deimos, across the face of the Sun. The rovers cameras have also photographed the Ear

which appears as an indisnct bright object in the Maran sky. This reminds us of how small we really a

Some of the major craters that Opportunity has visited include, Endurance Crater, Erebus Crater, Victo

Crater, and Endeavour Crater. More recently at Endeavour Crater, Opportunity discovered a bright vein

gypsum. This has been nicknamed Homestake Vein. The idencaon of this substance is more stro

evidence of water on Mars in the past. Another recent discovery, in September 2012, at Endeavour Cra

is a very dense accumulaon of spherules that are dierent than the hemate spherules previously d

covered. It is stated that the spherules in queson have a so middle and crunchy outer layer. They a

sll being invesgated as to what their composion is. Opportunity has endured a harsh climate and s

vived, perhaps thrived. When I asked Dr. Steve Squyres, NASAs Principal Invesgator of the MER missi

about the health of Opportunity at the 16th Annual Mars Society Convenon in August 2013, he stated t

with the excepon of a few minor issues, the overall health is good and that each day with Opportun

is a gi. (hps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KKbr9CEjI6c)The credit for this must be given to the hu

dreds or thousands of passionate sciensts who designed, developed, and implemented this mission. T

Opportunity Rover is managed by a team at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Ca. On January

2014, NASA held a special event to celebrate the 10 year anniversary of the Mars Exploraon Rovers (M

Spirit and Opportunity. Though we had our last communicaon with Spirit in March 2010, Opportunit

sll roving and discovering. Squyres, spoke at the event held at CalTech and revealed the latest big ne

was that a jelly-donut-like rock seemed to have appeared out of nowhere near the rover. Squyres describ

the rock as white around the edges with a dark red-center which has the size and appearance of a je

donut. He stated that his team was very surprised and when they did the preliminary analysis they d

covered it was composed of sulfur, magnesium, and manganese. They are discussing the possibilies

how the rock arrived next to the rover, two leading theories are that it was ung from under the whee
https://www.youtube.com/watch%3Fv%3DKKbr9CEjI6c%29https://www.youtube.com/watch%3Fv%3DKKbr9CEjI6c%29


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the rover or that it is a piece of impact ejecta from a nearby meteorite impact. A third possibility may

that a dust devil carried it across the landscape and it landed by the rover. More detailed analysis of t

rock is ahead for the MER team. There is more to behold from Opportunity in the future, stay tuned

Blueberries on Mars-Astrobio.net


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Brian B Ritchie

This is my first RGB Jupiter, done with the C8 and ZWO ASI120MM and the Baader filter wheel at

Seeing was a bit mushy. Also the colours seem a bit off. Otherwise Im quite happy for a first attem


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Our Return to the MoonThe lander of Change 3 took a panoramic shot of Mare Imbrium, the Sea of Rains, with the lile rover, Y

o on an early jaunt. Photo credit: CNSA and Ken Kremer.

Chinas Change 3 lunar mission landed on the moon this past December, 2013. This is very likely the

step in humankinds connual acve presence on the surface of the moon. Mare Imbrium, the landing spo

the largest basin on near side of the moon, just to the south and west of the north pole at 44 degrees No

Chinas rst two moon missions, Change 1 and Change 2, orbited the moon to determine the best ter

and elements of interest for a landing area. Based on that data, and the data collected by the orbiter

other countries, Mare Imbrium was chosen over the original target area of Sinus Iridum (Bay of Rainbo

The landing spot is an area of lava ows that are darker than some ows nearby, and this may be one of

prime reasons this area was chosen. The darker lava rock on the moon is rich in tanium, which is ass

ated with helium-3, a potenal fusion energy source.


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Photo credit: Lick Observatory


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Lunar map showing relative amounts of titanium dioxide. Photo credit: CNSA/CLEP

Its estimated that the moon is so rich in helium-3, it could potentially be the Earths mining site for o

energy needs. The distribution of titanium dioxide (highest in the red areas on the map) is considered a go

for the distribution of helium-3, since titanium dioxide traps helium-3 blown in with solar winds. This heli

been blown onto the moon and captured by the titanium dioxide for billions of years, so there is likely

helium-3 to fuel the Earth for a very long time, if the fusion technology becomes practical. Research in

has advanced recently, with successful fusions of deuterium--helium-3, and of helium-3 with itself. Ther

some problems in building practical fusion reactors, but countries like China, and private enterprises, are

considering how to mine the moons helium-3 and bring it to Earth, to be ready to profit once the pract

nology is in place.

There may also be a lot of water ice between rock and dust particles away from the poles, due to the

of helium-3. Its been recently shown by astromaterials scientist Hope Ishii and her colleagues that pa

Earths plasmasphere capture helium-3 from the solar wind, and this helium joins with oxygen in the pa

form miniscule water amounts between the particles. If this is happening on the moon, the particles wo

dry to our eye but the water could possibly be extracted for use.


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Water forming in particles of interplanetary

dust. Photo credit: Lawrence Livermore National

Laboratory. (Right)

The poles are the most interesting spot for future

prospectors, because of the huge amounts of

water ice there. A lot of the technology being

developed right now by space entrepreneurs is

focused on the kind of support needed to build

infrastructure which will be needed for mining

water ice and for habitation on the moon. This

is going to happen, and soon - while the main

mission of Change 3 is for doing scientific

research, the landing marks the beginning of

what will probably become a continual human

and machine presence on the moon. The experi-

ence of Change 3s soft landing and of the proven

ability for the robots to mostly survive the lunar

night are two of the biggest feats sought by com-

mercial companies. Its possible that the color

camera on the lander did not survive the lunar

night, but lessons from failures are also valuable

to engineers. The data from the mission will be

used by private enterprises to help them decide

the best places and methods for mining, and

many have already booked support services with

The lander of mission Change 3. Photo credit:

CASC/China Ministry of Defense (Below)


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commercial spaceflight companies. Within the next few decades, humans, their robots, and their nee

infrastructure will begin to have a steady presence on the lunar surface.

Chinas Change 3 mission arrived on the moon on December 14, 2013. Change 3 is the landing stag

Chinas multi-stage moon mission, and includes an instrumented lander and rover. Both the lander

rover have tested and used some of the equipment, and then hibernated for their first two-week long lu

night. Once the sun returned they got back to work, and according to the Chinese press things seem

to be working fine. On January 24, 2014 the lander powered down to hibernate for the second lu

night phase, but before the rover could do the same, something went wrong in communication with

Chinese scientists, and so its instruments and solar panels couldnt be protected before the night c

with its -180 C temperature. It had been hoped that the Yutu rover would provide ground-truth for

collected by the orbiters of China and other countries, but if Yutu doesnt survive the night, this will n

to wait for Yutus backup rover in the Change 4 mission, which will be launched in 2015.

The Yutu rover has these mineral and rock analyzing instruments: Ground Penetrating Radar, Panora

Camera, Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer, and Visible/near-Infrared Imager. These are some of the s

kind of instruments aboard the Curiosity rover, which is studying the geology in its own area on M

Hopefull

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ICY SCIENCE MAGAZINE QTR 1 2014