ICE Engineering I

8/2/2019 ICE Engineering I

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Gas Turbine Major components

The major components of a jet engine are similar across the major different types of engines, although

not all engine types have all components. The major parts include:

Cold Section: Air intake (Inlet) The standard reference frame for a jet engine is the aircraft itself. For subsonicaircraft, the air intake to a jet engine presents no special difficulties, and consists essentially of an

opening which is designed to minimise drag, as with any other aircraft component. However, the air

reaching the compressor of a normal jet engine must be travelling below the speed of sound, even for

supersonic aircraft, to sustain the flow mechanics of the compressor and turbine blades. At supersonic

flight speeds, shockwaves form in the intake system and reduce the recovered pressure at inlet to the

compressor. So some supersonic intakes use devices, such as a cone or ramp, to increase pressure

recovery, by making more efficient use of the shock wave system.

Compressor or Fan The compressor is made up of stages. Each stage consists of vanes whichrotate, and stators which remain stationary. As air is drawn deeper through the compressor, its heat and

pressure increases. Energy is derived from the turbine (see below), passed along the shaft.Common:Shaft The shaft connects the turbine to the compressor, and runs most of the length of theengine. There may be as many as three concentric shafts, rotating at independent speeds, with as many

sets of turbines and compressors. Other services, like a bleed of cool air, may also run down the shaft.
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Hot section: Combustoror Can orFlameholdersor Combustion Chamber This is a chamber where fuel iscontinuously burned in the compressed air.

Turbine The turbine acts like a windmill, gaining energy from the hot gases leaving the combustor .This energy is used to drive the compressor (or props, or bypass fans) via the shaft, or even (for a gasturbine-powered helicopter) converted entirely to rotational energy for use elsewhere. Relatively cool air,

bled from the compressor, may be used to cool the turbine blades and vanes, to prevent them from

melting.

Afterburner or reheat (chiefly UK) (mainly military) Produces extra thrust by burning extra fuel,usually inefficiently, to significantly raise Nozzle Entry Temperature at the exhaust. Owing to a largervolume flow (i.e. lower density) at exit from the afterburner, an increased nozzle flow area is required, to

maintain satisfactory engine matching, when the afterburner is alight.

Exhaust orNozzle Hot gases leaving the engine exhaust to atmospheric pressure via a nozzle, theobjective being to produce a high velocity jet. In most cases, the nozzle is convergent and of fixed flow

area.

Supersonic nozzle If the Nozzle Pressure Ratio (Nozzle Entry Pressure/Ambient Pressure) is veryhigh, to maximize thrust it may be worthwhile, despite the additional weight, to fit a convergent-

divergent (de Laval) nozzle. As the name suggests, initially this type of nozzle is convergent, but beyond

the throat (smallest flow area), the flow area starts to increase to form the divergent portion. The

expansion to atmospheric pressure and supersonic gas velocity continues downstream of the throat,

whereas in a convergent nozzle the expansion beyond sonic velocity occurs externally, in the exhaust

plume. The former process is more efficient than the latter.
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Four-StrokeThe cycle starts with the intake stroke, which begins when the piston is at top dead center. The intake

valve is opened, creating a passage from the exterior of the engine (generally through an air filter

assembly), through the intake port in the cylinder head and into the cylinder itself. As the piston moves

toward bottom dead center, a partial vacuum develops, causing air to enter the cylinder. In the case of a

turbocharged engine, the air is rammed into the cylinder at higher than atmospheric pressure. As the

piston passes through bottom dead center, the intake valve closes, sealing the cylinder.

The compression stroke begins as the piston passes through bottom dead center and starts upward.

Compression will continue until the piston approaches top dead center.

The power stroke occurs as the piston reaches top dead center at the end of the compression stroke. At

this time, fuel injection occurs, resulting in combustion and the production of useful work.

The final stroke is the exhaust stroke, which begins as the piston approaches bottom dead center

following ignition. The exhaust valve in the cylinder head is opened and as the piston starts upward, the

spent combustion gases are forced out of the cylinder. Near top dead center the intake valve will start to

open before the exhaust valve is fully closed, a condition referred to as valve overlap. Overlap produces a

flow of cooling intake air over the exhaust valve, prolonging its life. Following the completion of the

exhaust stroke the cycle will begin anew.

Two-StrokeIntake begins when the piston is near bottom dead center. Air is admitted to the cylinder through portsin the cylinder wall (there are no intake valves). Since the piston is moving downward at this time,

aspiration due to atmospheric pressure isn't possible. Therefore a mechanical blower or hybrid

turbocharger (a turbocharger that is mechanically driven from the crankshaft at low engine speeds) is

employed to charge the cylinder with air. In the early phase of intake, the air charge is also used to force

out any remaining combustion gases from the previous power stroke, a process referred to as

scavenging. As the piston passes through bottom dead center, the exhaust valves will be closed and,

owing to the pressure generated by the blower or turbocharger, the cylinder will be filled with air. Once

the piston starts upward, the air intake ports in the cylinder walls will be covered, sealing the cylinder. At

this point, compression will commence. Note that exhaust and intake actually occur in one stroke, the

period during which the piston is near the bottom of the cylinder.

As the piston rises, compression takes place and near top dead center, fuel injection will occur, resulting

in combustion, driving the piston downward. As the piston moves downward in the cylinder it will reach a

point where the exhaust valves will be opened to expell the combustion gases. Continued movement of

the piston will expose the air intake ports in the cylinder wall, and the cycle will start anew. Note that the

cylinder will fire on each revolution, as opposed to the four-stroke engine, in which the cylinder fires on

every other revolution.
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Radial Inflow/Mixed Flow Turbine Impeller Design

Fig.2 Resulting blade shape of Radial inflow turbine

Fig.3 Mixed flow turbines

TURBOdesign-1 can been applied to improve the design of radial and mixed flow turbines. Some examples

of improvements achieved with TURBOdesign-1 include:

Improvement in the total-static efficiency of the impeller

Control of the secondary flows on the suction surface of the impeller

Control of the incidence angles at the leading edge

The loading distribution shown in Fig.1 was used for the design of a radial-inflow turbine for Micro gas-

turbine applications. The resulting blade geometry is shown in Fig.2. Detailed CFD computations showed

that this impeller has less meridional secondary flows on the suction surface and a more uniform exit

flow.

The test results indicated a 5 point improvement in efficiency as compared to the conventional design.

TURBOdesign-1 can be applied with ease to the design of all types of mixed flow turbines impellers as

well. An example of one such impeller is shown in Fig.3.
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Compression ignition internal combustion engine A compression ignition engine has two opposed pistons acting in each cylinder. The pistons areconnected to a crankshaft via a rocker beam, and the fulcrum of the rocker beam is at one of its ends sothat when the piston is at inner dead center, the little end of the crankshaft/rocker beam connecting rodis at its closest position to the crankshaft axis. The position of the fulcrum is also adjustable, while thepistons are in motion, to alter the engine's compression ratio.

Compression Ignition (CI) Engine means an internal combustion engine with operating characteristicssignificantly similar to the theoretical diesel combustion cycle. The regulation of power by controlling fuelsupply in lieu of a throttle is indicative of a compression ignition engine.

An engine test stand is a facility used to develop, characterize and test engines. The facility, oftenoffered as a product to automotive OEMs, allows engine operation in different operating regimes and

offers measurement of several physical variables associated with the engine operation.

A sophisticated engine test stand houses several sensors (or transducers), data acquisition features and

actuators to control the engine state. The sensors would measure several physical variables of interest

which typically include:

1. crankshafttorque

2. angular velocity ofcrankshaft

3. intake air and fuel consumption rates, often detected using volumetric and/or gravimetric

measurement methods

4. air-fuel ratio for the intake mixture, often detected using an exhaust gas oxygen sensor

5. environment pollutant concentrations in the exhaust gas such as carbon monoxide, different

configurations ofhydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, and particulate matter

6. temperatures and gas pressures at several locations on the engine body such as engine oil

temperature, spark plug temperature, exhaust gas temperature, intake manifold pressure

7. atmospheric conditions such as temperature, pressure, humidity

Information gathered through the sensors is often processed and logged through data acquisition

systems. Actuators allow for attaining a desired engine state (often characterized as a unique

combination of engine torque and speed). For gasoline engines, the actuators may include an intake

throttle actuator, a loading device for the engine such as an induction motor. The engine test stands are

often custom-packaged considering requirements of the OEM customer. They often include a

microcontroller based feedback control system with following features:

1. closed-loop desired speed operation (useful towards characterization of steady-state or transient

engine performance)

2. closed-loop desired torque operation (useful towards emulation of in-vehicle, on-road scenarios,

thereby enabling an alternate way of characterization of steady-state or transient engine

performance)
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Engine test stand applications

Research and Development of engines, typically at an OEM laboratory

Tuning of in-use engines, typically at service centers or for racing applications

End of production line at an OEM factory

Engine testing for R&D

HORIBA engine test stand type TITAN

Research and Development activities on engines at automobile OEMs have necessitated sophisticated

engine test stands. Automobile OEMs are usually interested in developing engines that meet the following

three-fold objectives:

1. to provide high fuel efficiency

2. to improve drivability and durability

3. to be in compliance to relevant emission legislation

Consequently, an R&D engine test stands allow for a full-fledged engine development exercise through

measurement, control and record of several relevant engine variables.

Typical tests include ones that:

1. determine fuel efficiency and drivability: torque-speed performance test under steady-state and

transient conditions

2. determine durability: aging tests, oil and lubrication tests

3. determine compliance to relevant emission legislations: volumetric and mass emission tests over

stated emission test cycles
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4. gain further knowledge about the engine itself: engine mapping exercise or development of

multidimensional input-output maps among different engine variables. e.g. a map from intake

manifold pressure and engine speed to intake air flow rate.

Engine tuning

Engine tuning is the adjustment, modification or design ofinternal combustion engines to yield optimalperformance, either in terms of power output or economy. It has a long history, almost as long as the

development of the car in general, originating with the development of early racing cars, and later, with

the post-war hot-rod movement. Tuning can describe a wide variety of adjustments and modifications,

from the routine adjustment of the carburetor and ignition system to significant engine overhauls. At the

other end of the scale, performance tuning of an engine can involve revisiting some of the design

decisions taken at quite an early stage in the development of the engine.

On older engines, setting the idling speed, mixture, carburetor balance, spark plug and distributor point

gaps and ignition timing were both regular tasks on all engines and the final but essential steps in setting

up a racing engine. On modern engines some or all of these tasks are automated, although they still

require periodic calibration.

A tune-up usually refers to the routine servicing of the engine to meet the manufacturer's specifications.

Tune-ups are needed periodically as according to the manufacturer's recommendations to ensure an

automobile runs as expected. Modern vehicles now often run over 160,000 km (or 10 years) without

requiring a tune-up.[citation needed]

Tune-ups may include the following:

1. Re-fastening ofcylinder head bolts

2. Adjustment of the carburetor idle speed and the air-fuel mixture

3. Inspection and possible replacement of ignition system components like contact breaker,

distributor cap and rotor button

4. Replacement of the air filter and other filters

5. Inspection ofemission controls

Performance tuning focuses on tuning an engine for motor sport, although many such cars never

compete but rather are built for show or leisure driving. In this context, the power output, torque, andresponsiveness of the engine are of premium importance, but reliability and fuel economy are also

relevant. In races, the engine must be strong enough to withstand the additional stress placed upon it,

and so is often far stronger than any mass-produced design on which it may be based, and also that the

vehicle must carry sufficient fuel. In particular, transmission, suspension and brakes must also be

modified to match the performance of the engine.

In most cases, people are interested in increasing the power output of an engine. Many well tried and

tested techniques have been devised to achieve this, but all essentially operate to increase the rate (and
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to a lesser extent efficiency) of combustion in a given engine. This is achieved by putting more fuel/air

mixture into the engine, using a fuel with higher energy content, burning it more rapidly, and getting rid

of the waste products more rapidly - this increases volumetric efficiency. In order to check the amount of

the fuel/air mixture, air fuel ratio meters are often used. The weight of this fuel will affect the overall

performance of the car, so fuel economy is a competitive advantage. This also means that the

performance tuning of an engine should take place in the context of the development of the overallvehicle.

The specific ways to increase power include:

1. Increasing the engine displacement by one or both of two methods: "Boring" - increasing the

diameter of the cylinders and pistons, or by "stroking" - using a crankshaft with a longer stroke

and longer connecting rods, in combination with pistons of shorter compression height (to

maintain the original compression ratio).

2. Using larger or multiple carburetors, to create more fuel/air mixture to burn, and to get it into the

engine more quickly. In modern engines, fuel injection is more often used, and may be modified

in a similar manner.

3. Increasing the size of the valves in the engine, thus decreasing the restriction in the path of the

fuel/air mixture entering, and the exhaust gases leaving the cylinder. Using multiple valves per

cylinder results in the same thing - it is often more practical to have several small valves than

have larger single valves.

4. Using larger bored, smoother, less contorted intake and exhaust manifolds. This helps maintain

the velocity of gases. Similarly, the ports in the cylinder can be enlarged and smoothed to match.

This is termed cylinder head porting, usually with the aid of an air flow bench for testing and

verifying the efficiency of the modifications.

5. The larger bore may extend right through the complete exhaust system, using larger diameter

piping and low back pressure mufflers, and through the intake system, with larger diameter

airboxes and high-flow, high-efficiency air filters. Muffler modifications will change the sound of

the car's engine, usually making it louder; for some tuners this is in itself a desirable property.

6. Increasing the valve opening height (lift), by changing the profiles of the camshaft or the lift

(lever), ratio of the valve rockers (OHV engines), or cam followers (OHC engines).

7. Optimising the valve timing to improve burning efficiency - usually this increases power at one

range of operating RPM at the expense of reducing it at others. For many applications this

compromise is acceptable. Again this is usually achieved by a differently profiled camshaft. See

also Four-stroke cycle#Valve Timing, variable valve timing.

8. Raising the compression ratio, which makes more efficient use of the cylinder pressure developed

and leading to more rapid burning of fuel, by using larger compression height pistons or thinner

head gasket, or by milling or "shaving" the cylinder head.
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9. Forced Induction; adding a turbocharger or supercharger. The fuel/air mass entering the

cylinders is increased by compressing the air first, usually mechanically. Further gains may be

realized by cooling compressed (and thus heated) intake air with an air-to-air or air-to-water

intercooler.

10. Using a fuel with higher energy content or by adding an oxidiser such as nitrous oxide.

11. Reducing losses to friction by machining moving parts to better tolerances than would be

acceptable for production, or by replacing parts. A common example of this is, in OHV engines,

replacing the production rocker arms with replacements incorporating roller bearings in the roller

contacting the valve stem.

12. Reducing the mass of the "rotating mass," which comprises the crankshaft, connecting rods, and

pistons. Doing so can improve throttle response due to lower inertia, as well as reduce overall

vehicle weight.

13. Changing the tuning characteristics electronically, by changing the firmware of the engine

management system (EMS). This chip tuningoften works because modern engines are designed

to give a great deal of raw power, which is then reduced by the engine management system to

make the engine operate smoothly over a wider RPM range, with low emissions. By analogy with

an operational amplifier, the EMS acts as a feedback loop around an engine with a great deal of

open loop gain. Many modern engines are now of this type and amenable to this form of tuning.

Naturally many other design parameters are sacrificed in the pursuit of power.
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Fuel gas can refer to any of several gases burned to produce thermal energy.Natural gas (methane) is the most common fuel gas, but others include:

Natural gas is a gaseousfossil fuel consisting primarily ofmethane but including significant quantitiesof ethane, butane, propane, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, helium and hydrogen sulfide.[Hydrogen may be

used in the future as a fuel gas.

The primary component of natural gas is methane (CH4), the shortest and lightest hydrocarbon molecule.

It also contains heavier gaseous hydrocarbons such as ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10),

as well as other sulfur containing gases, in varying amounts, see also natural gas condensate. Natural

gas also contains and is the primary market source ofhelium.

Component wt. %Methane (CH4) 70-90

Ethane (C2H6) 5-15

Propane (C3H8) and Butane (C4H10) < 5

CO2, N2, H2S, etc. balance

Liquid fuels are those combustible or energy-generating molecules that can be harnessed to createmechanical energy, usually producing kinetic energy; they also must take the shape of their container.Most liquid fuels, in widespread use, are or derived from fossil fuels; however, there are several types,

such as hydrogen fuel (for automotive uses), which are also categorized as a liquid fuel.

GasolineGasoline is the most widely used liquid fuel. Gasoline, as it's known in United States and Canada,(known as petrol in Britain, Australia, New Zealand, and many English-speaking countries) is made ofhydrocarbon molecules forming aliphatic compounds, or chains of carbons with hydrogen atoms

attached. However, many aromatic compounds (carbon chains forming rings) such as benzene are found

naturally in gasoline and cause the health risks associated with prolonged exposure to the fuel.

Production of gasoline is achieved by distillation ofcrude oil. The desirable liquid is separated from the

crude oil in refineries. Crude oil is extracted from the ground in several processes, the most commonly

seen may be beam pumps. To create gasoline, petroleum must first be removed from crude oil.

Gasoline itself is actually not burned, but the fumes it creates ignite, causing the remaining liquid to

evaporate. Gasoline is extremely volatile and easily combusts, making any leakage extremely dangerous.

Gasoline for sale in most countries carries an octane rating. Octane is a measure of the resistance of

gasoline to combusting prematurely, known as knocking. The higher the octane rating, the harder it is to

burn the fuel, which allows for a higher compression ratio. Engines with a higher compression ratio
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produce more power (such as in race car engines). However, such engines actually require a higher

octane fuel.

DieselConventional diesel is similar to gasoline in that it is a mixture of aliphatic hydrocarbons extracted frompetroleum. Diesel may cost more or less than gasoline, but generally costs less to produce because the

extraction processes used are simpler. Many countries (particularly in Europe, as well as Canada) also

have lower tax rates on diesel fuels.

After distillation, the diesel fraction is normally processed to reduce the amount of sulfur in the fuel.

Sulphur causes corrosion in vehicles, acid rain and higher emissions of soot from the tail pipe (exhaust

pipe). In Europe, lower sulfur levels than in the United States are legally required. However, recent US

legislation will reduce the maximum sulphur content of diesel from 3,000 ppm to 500 ppm by 2007, and15 ppm by 2010. Similar changes are also underway in Canada, Australia, New Zealand and several Asian

countries.

Adiesel engine is a type ofinternal combustion engine which ignites fuel by compressing it (which in turn

raises the temperature) as opposed to using an outside source, such as a spark plug.

Solid fuel refers to various types ofsolid material that are used as fuel to produce energy and provideheating, usually released through combustion. Common solid fuels include wood (see wood fuel),

charcoal, peat, coal, and pellets made from wood (see wood pellets), corn, wheat, rye and other grains.

Solid-fuel rocket technology also uses solid fuel (see solid propellants).

Solid fuels have long been used by humanity to create fire. Coal was the fuel source which enabled the

industrial revolution, from firing furnaces, to running steam engines. Wood was also extensively used to

run steam locomotives. Both peat and coal are still used in electricity generation today.

The use of some solid fuels (eg. coal) is restricted or prohibited in some urban areas, due to unsafe levels

of toxic emissions. The use of other solid fuels such as wood is increasing as heating technology and the

availability of good quality fuel improves. In some areas, smokeless coal is often the only solid fuel used.

In Ireland, peat briquettes are used as smokeless fuel. They are also used to start a coal fire.

Cetane number or CN is a measure of the combustion quality of diesel fuel during compressionignition. It is a significant expression of diesel fuel quality among a number of other measurements that

determine overall diesel fuel quality. Cetane number of a fuel is defined as the percentage by volume of

normal cetane in a mixture of normal cetane and alpha-methyl napthalene which has the same ignition

characteristics (ignition delay) as the test fuel when combustion is carried out in a standard engine under

specified operating conditions.

Cetane number is actually a measure of a fuel's ignition delay; the time period between the start of

injection and start of combustion (ignition) of the fuel. In a particular diesel engine, higher cetane fuels
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will have shorter ignition delay periods than lower cetane fuels. Cetane numbers are only used for the

relatively light distillate diesel oils. For heavy (residual) fuel oil two other scales are used CCAI and CII.

Generally, diesel engines run well with a CN from 40 to 55. Fuels with higher cetane number which have

shorter ignition delays provide more time for the fuel combustion process to be completed. Hence, higher

speed diesels operate more effectively with higher cetane number fuels. There is no performance or

emission advantage when the CN is raised past approximately 55; after this point, the fuel's performancehits a plateau. In North America, diesel at the pump can be found in two CN ranges: 40-46 for regular

diesel, and 45-50 for premium. Premium diesel may have additives to improve CN and lubricity,

detergents to clean the fuel injectors and minimize carbon deposits, water dispersants, and other

additives depending on geographical and seasonal needs.

Cetane is an un-branched open chain alkane molecule that ignites very easily under compression, so itwas assigned a cetane number of 100, whilst alpha-methyl napthalene was assigned a cetane number of

0. All other hydrocarbons in diesel fuel are indexed to cetane as to how well they ignite under

compression. The cetane number therefore measures how quickly the fuel starts to burn (auto-ignites)

under diesel engine conditions. Since there are hundreds of components in diesel fuel, with each having a

different cetane quality, the overall cetane number of the diesel is the average cetane quality of all the

components. There is very little actual cetane in diesel fuel.

Fuels used in spark ignition engines are typically branched alkanes. These are particularly suited forthese engines for which the desirable property is to resist autoignition and to burn quickly once ignited.

The lack of premature ignition (engine knocking) is characterised by the Octane Number (ON), which is

also measurable in an appropriate test engine. Similar to the cetane test, a two-fuel mixture ( iso-octane

and normal-heptane) shows an inverse relationship with the CN of the same fuel.
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Centrifugal governorA centrifugal governor is a specific type of governor that controls the speed of an engine byregulating the amount of fuel admitted, so as to maintain a near constant speed whatever the load or

fuel supply conditions. It uses the principle ofproportional control.

Drawing of a centrifugal "flyball" governor

It is most obviously seen on steam engines where it regulates the admission of steam into the

cylinder(s). It is also found on internal combustion engines and variously fueled turbines.

The device shown is from a steam engine. It is connected to a throttle valve and to the prime mover (not

shown). The action of the governor is dependent on centrifugal force. As the speed of the prime mover

increases, the central spindle of the governor rotates at a faster rate and the two masses move

outwards, and this motion is translated by the series of rods and arms to the throttle valve, reducing its

aperture. The rate of steam entering the cylinder is thus reduced and the speed of the prime mover falls.

If the speed of the prime mover falls, the reverse effect occurs and the throttle valve opens further.

James Watt designed his first governor in 1788 following a suggestion from his business partner Matthew

Boulton. It was a conical pendulum governor and one of the final series of innovations Watt had

employed for steam engines. James Watt never claimed the centrifugal governor to be an invention of his

own. Centrifugal governors were used to regulate the distance and pressure between millstones in

windmills since the 17th century. It is therefore a misunderstanding that James Watt is the inventor of

this device

Another kind of centrifugal governor consists of a pair of masses on a spindle inside a cylinder, the

masses or the cylinder being coated with pads. This is used in a spring-loaded record player and a

spring-loaded telephone dial to limit the speed.

The action of this principle is exactly like that of the centrifugal governor of the steam engine, whichchecks and corrects any irregularities almost before they become evident; and in like manner no

unbalanced deficiency in the animal kingdom can ever reach any conspicuous magnitude, because it

would make itself felt at the very first step, by rendering existence difficult and extinction almost sure

soon to follow.
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Horsepower is the name of several non-metric units of power. In scientific discourse, the term"horsepower" is seen as inferior and is rarely used because of its various definitions and the already

existent SI unit for power, the watt (W). However, use of the term "horsepower" persists as alegacy in many languages and industries, particularly in theautomotive industry because of theircontinued advertising of maximum power output of internal-combust ion engines in"horsepower" units of measurement.

These factors can be combined in unexpected ways the power output for an engine rated at "100

horsepower" might not be what a reader expects. For this reason, various groups have attempted tostandardize not only the definition of "horsepower" but the measurement of "horsepower". In the interim,

more confusion may surface

The following definitions have been widely used:

Mechanical horsepower 33,000 ftlbf/min

=550 ftlbf/s

= 745.69987158227022 W (exactly)

Metric horsepower 75 kgfm/s

= 735.49875 W (exactly)

Electrical horsepower 746 W

Boiler horsepower 33,475 Btu/h

=9809.5 W

Hydraulic horsepower merely mechanical horsepower; can be calculated by multiplying the specific units

ofUS gal/min times pressure in psi (lbf/in) then dividing by 1714

Mechanical horsepowerThe term "horsepower" was coined by the engineer James Watt (1736 to 1819) in 1782 while working onimproving the performance of steam engines. This occurred while using a mine pony to lift coal out of a

coal mine. He conceived the idea of defining the power exerted by these animals to accomplish this work.

He found that, on the average, a mine horse could pull (lift by means of a pulley) 22,000 foot-pounds per

minute. Rather than call this "pony" power, he increased these test results by 50 percent, and called it

horsepower i.e. 33,000 foot-pounds of work per minute.

Under this system, then, one horsepower is:
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1 hp 33,000 ftlbf/min by definition

= 550 ftlbf/s since 1 min = 60 s

= 550 0.3048 0.45359237 mkgf/s since 1 ft = 0.3048 m and

= 76.0402249068 kgfm/s 1 lb = 0.45359237 kg

= 76.0402249068 9.80665 kgm/s g = 9.80665 m/s

= 745.69987158227022 W since 1 W 1 J/s = 1 Nm/s = 1 (kgm/s)(m/s)

Boiler horsepower is used for boilers in power plants. It is equal to 33,475 Btu/h (9.8095 kW), whichis the energy rate needed to evaporate 34.5 lb (15.65 kg) of water at 212 F (100 C) in one hour.

Electrical horsepower is used by the electrical industry for electrical machines and is defined to beexactly 746 W at 100% efficiency. Electric motors can never run at 100% efficiency. The Nameplates on

electrical motors show motor power output not their power input.

NNominal horsepower (nhp) is an early Nineteenth Century rule of thumb used to estimate the powerof steam engines.

n

hp = 7 x area of piston x equivalent piston speed/33,000

F

or paddle ships the piston speed was estimated as 129.7 x (stroke)1/3.35

F

or the nominal horsepower to equal the actual power it would be necessary for the mean steam pressurein the cylinder during the stroke to be 7 lb/sq. in and for the piston speed to be of the order of 180-248

ft/s.[4]

[

Indicated horsepower (ihp) is the theoretical power of a reciprocating engine if it is completelyefficient in converting the energy contained in the expanding gases in the cylinders. It is calculated from

the pressures developed in the cylinders, measured by a device called an engine indicator - hence

indicated horsepower. It was the figure normally used for steam engines in the 19th century but is

misleading because the mechanical efficiency of an engine means that the actual power output may only

be 70% to 90% of the indicated horsepower.

[

Brake horsepower (bhp) is the measure of an engine's horsepower without the loss in power causedby the gearbox, generator, differential, water pump, and other auxiliary components such as alternator,

power steering, AC compressor, alternator. Thus the prefix "brake" refers to where the power is

measured: at the engine's output shaft, as on an engine dynamometer. The actual horsepower delivered

to the driving wheels is less. An engine would have to be retested to obtain a rating in another system.
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The term "brake" refers to the original use of a band brake to measure torque during the test (which is

multiplied by the engine RPM and a scaling constant to give horsepower).

SShaft horsepower (shp) is the power delivered to the propeller shaft of a ship or an airplane poweredby a piston engine or a turbine engine (the combination of turbine engine and propeller commonly called

a turboprop). This may be measured, or estimated from the indicated horsepower given a standard figure

for the losses in the transmission (typical figures are around 10%). This metric is uncommon in the

automobile industry, though drivetrain losses can be significant.

[

Effect ive horsepower (ehp) / True horsepower (thp) / Wheel Horsepower (whp) is thepower converted to useful work. In the case of a road vehicle this is the power actually turned into

forward motion as measured on a chassis dynamometer.

"

True hp" is generally 10% to 20% less than the engine's "bhp" ratings due to drivetrain losses.
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