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IB Psychology Cognitive Level of Analysis PPT
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COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Matt Blazek
What is Cognitive Psychology? Study of the structure &
functions of the mind Mind: element of a person
that enables a person to be aware of the world
Cognitive neuroscience: combination of brain & cognitive processes
Cognition
All the processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. (Neisser, 1967).
Requires the use of mental representations Individual differences based on experience
Principles of Cognitive Psych1. Mental processes guide behavior2. The mind can be studied scientifically3. Cognitive processes are influenced by
social and cultural factors
Principle #1
Mental processes guide behavior Bottom-up processing: sensory input Top-down processing: memory
Behaviors are the result Observable actions of an organism
Principle #1 cont.
Mindset (Dweck, 2007) Stereotyping &
discrimination Memory
Reconstructive in nature False memories
Perception Cognitive process that
interprets and organizes sensory information
Principle #2
The mind can be studied scientifically Laboratory
Experiments CAT scan fMRI
Natural Case Studies
Cognition is necessary in daily life Applied research
Principle #3
Cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors Effect of culture on memory (Bartlett ,1932)
Memory is subject to distortions Misattribution, suggestibility, bias
Whorpf (1956) Hypothesis
Linguistic determinism Language impose different conceptions
of reality Get ready for TOK!
AKA- Concepts
Schema Theory
Schemas
Mental representation of knowledge Coined by Bartlett (1932)
Cognitive schema Networks of knowledge, beliefs, and
expectations about the word TOK Question: In what ways, if at all, do
schemas alter our understanding and perception of the world?
Cognitive Schemas
Organize information about the world Can be linked to form systems Used for pattern recognition Help predict the future based on the past Represent knowledge
Practice
Construct a schema for the beach.
Beach
Schema Theory and Memory Three stages
Encoding Storage Retrieval
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Encoding
Transforming sensory information into memory
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Storage
Creating a biological trace of the encoded information in memory May be lost or consolidated (brought
together)
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Retrieval
Accessing and using the stored information Remembering
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Is schema theory valuable?
Uses Categorizing Inferences Memory distortions Stereotyping/prejudice
Limits How are schemas formed? How do schemas work? Is it too vague?
TOK Link 1
To what extent can we trust our perception to represent reality?
TOK Link 2
To what extent does past experience allow us to predict the future?
Working Memory
Models
Models attempt to describe complex phenomena Multi-store model Working-memory model
Multi-store Model: Background Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968), among others An information processing model Basis of the working memory model
Sensory
Memory
Short-term
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Selecti
ve
Attenti
on
Retriev
al
Encodi
ng Sensor
y
InputDecay
Loss
Displacement
Rehearsal
Multi-store Model: Basic Assumptions
1. Memory consists of separate stores2. Memory processes are sequential
Sensory
Memory
Short-term
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Selecti
ve
Attenti
on
Retriev
al
Encodi
ng Sensor
y
InputDecay
Loss
Displacement
Rehearsal
Multi-store Model: Basic Processes1. Attention2. Coding3. Rehearsal
Sensory
Memory
Short-term
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Selecti
ve
Attenti
on
Retriev
al
Encodi
ng Sensor
y
InputDecay
Loss
Displacement
Rehearsal
Multi-store Model: Sensory Memory Related to the different senses
Modality specific Very short- a few seconds Very little makes it to STM
Selective Attention
Sensory
Memory
Short-term
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Selecti
ve
Attenti
on
Retriev
al
Encodi
ng Sensor
y
InputDecay
Loss
Displacement
Rehearsal
Multi-store Model: Short-term Memory (STM)
Limited capacity About seven items 6-12 seconds
Requires attention and rehearsal Practice
Sensory
Memory
Short-term
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Selecti
ve
Attenti
on
Retriev
al
Encodi
ng Sensor
y
InputDecay
Loss
Displacement
Rehearsal
Multi-store Model: Long-term Memory (LTM)
Attended and rehearsed information is encoded
Accessing encoded information is retrieval May be distorted
Sensory
Memory
Short-term
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Selecti
ve
Attenti
on
Retriev
al
Encodi
ng Sensor
y
InputDecay
Loss
Displacement
Rehearsal
Multi-store Model: Problems? Too simplistic Early idea
Limited information Others?
Working Memory
Working Memory: Central Executive
Baddeley & Hitch (1974)
Based on multi-store model
Believe STM is more than one store
Working Memory: STM
Episodic buffer Temporary and
passive display No processing
Phonological loop Articulatory
control system Phonological store
Visuospatial sketchpad Inner eye
Working Memory: Evidence
Dual-task research Interference tasks
Attempting to complete two tasks creates interference
Baddeley & Hitch (1974) Reading and
rehearsing numbers
Working Memory: Evaluation
Active storage & processing in STM
Multi-tasking is possible With impairment
Pickering & Gathercole (2001) Problems with
working memory impair learning
Working Memory: Evaluation
Holmes et al. (2008) Ability to perform on
visual tasks is linked to mathematics performance
Eysenck (1988) Individual differences in
WM may be related to intelligence
Supported by Hambrick & Meinz (2011), Meinz et al. (2012), Unsworth, Shrock, & Engle et al. (2004)
Memory & the Brain
Biological Factors in Memory: Kandel
Learning results in changes to synapses, creating memories
Changes to or strengthening of connections results in neural networks Neurons linked for a particular task,
memory, etc. Lesioning
Cutting of brain tissue
Structure of LTM
Explicit Memory
One of two major LTM systems AKA Declarative
Memory Facts Conscious
retrieval Two Subsystems
Semantic Episodic
Semantic Memory
The “What” of your memory
General knowledge E.g. – Washington
D.C. is the capital of the United States.
Episodic Memory
The “When” of memory
Personal experience E.g. – I went to
Greece for a wedding in 2009.
Implicit Memory
Second major LTM system AKA Non-
declarative memory
Uncouncious memories
Two subsystems Procedural Emotional
Procedural Memory
The “How to do” of memory
Skills, habits, etc. E.g. – Kicking a
soccer ball.
Emotional Memory
The “How it felt” of memory
Not clearly understood
Emotional state May be linked
with limbic system
E.g. – I was excited when I climbed Mt. Olympus.
The Brain and Memory
Hippocampus Role in formation
of explicit memories
Damage prevents formation of new explicit memories
Amygdala Emotional
memories PTSD – emotions
difficult to forget
Brain Damage & Memory
The case of Clive Wearing
Oliver Sacks (2007) wrote about this case CW contracts herpes encephalitis Cannot form new memories
Clean slate every few seconds Suffered from amnesia
Anterograde Retrograde
Implicit memory intact Played music Emotional attachment
Anterograde Amnesia
The inability to form new memories Does not impact existing memory
More like Drew Barrymore Still have old skills, facts, etc.
Retrograde Amnesia
The inability to recall old memories Can create new memories
But what about recalling new memories? Causes of both types include
Infection Trauma Drug use/abuse
Cultural Factors
Cross-Cultural Research
Traditionally focused on Western Culture Expanding to compare East – West
People perform differently on different tasks
Memory Strategies
Cole & Scribner (1974) US and Kpelle of Liberia
Identified relevant words to test Differences in problem solving &
remembering School increased recall of items in
categories Those who did not attend did not improve
with age
Cultural Context
What you learn & how you think impacted by culture
Internet & globalization has lessened the impact
Education systems are a reflection of culture
Chunking & Narratives
School children utilized chunking Grouping information into units Rehearsal
Using narratives improved recall for both groups Narratives utilize a story Chunking used by both groups
Narratives supported by Rogoff & Wadell (1982) Mayan children
TOK Culture Link #1
If learning is culturally mediated, what value is there in studying how people learn?
TOK Culture Link #2
To what extent can we trust the conclusions of psychological research to generalize to other cultures?
TOK Culture Link #3
If memory is distorted and culturally dependent, how can we verify, if at all, the validity of our knowledge? Can we be certain?
Reliability of Memory
Nature of Memory
Reconstructive in nature Active processing of information to make
sense of the world Biases impact reconstruction
Weakness of eye-witness testimony
Repression
Freud believed forgetting was due to repression Unconcious mechanism to keep
unacceptable memories hidden One of his defense mechanisms
Will still have dreams involving negative event
Therapy will recover these memories Are these memories true?
False Memories
To what extent can we trust ‘recovered’ memories?
Memories may be created due to events after the ‘original’ False memories
Elizabeth Loftus (2002) Washington sniper What color was the van?
Serial Reproduction
Bartlett (1932) Remembering
Memory is reconstructive Schemas influence recall Reproducing a story one person at a time
Telephone game Over subsequent reproductions:
Shorter Remain coherent More convential
Reconstructing the Past
Bartlett (1932) People reconstruct memory
to fit in existing schemas Greater complexity =
greater distortion Efforts after meaning
Attempting to find meaningful patterns
Memory is an imaginative reconstruction experience
Eyewitness Testimony
Elizabeth Loftus (begins in 1970s; Loftus & Palmer, 1974)
Nature of questions influences memory How tall was that man? Will you describe the height of the person you
saw? Single words alter recall How fast were the cars going when they
______ into each other? Bumped, collided, contacted, hit, smashedSmashe
dCollided Bumped Hit Contact
ed
40.8 39.3 38.1 34.0 31.8
Accident Test #2
Was there broken glass? Smashed: 32% Hit: 14% Control: 6%
There was no broken glass False memories are possible Ecological validity (Yuille &
Cutshall (1986) Cultural bias Question bias Skill bias
Research Methods
PET Scans & Cognition
Positron Emission Tomography
Can measure glucose consumption Cellular level changes
Alzheimer’s Early reduction in
hippocampus metabolism Mosconi (2005) Needs replication
MRI Scans & Cognition
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Creates 3-D picture fMRI
Detects changes in oxygen use
More active areas of the brain use more oxygen
May also help detect Alzheimer’s early
Kilts (2003) used to investigate product preferences Advanced marketing
Problem Solving & Heuristics
Trial & Error v Algorithms
Trial & error problem solving Edison & the light bulb
Algorithms Methodical, logical rule Guaranteed method to solve problem
Option #3: Heuristics
Heuristics Simple thinking strategy Quick judgments Efficient Error-prone
SPLOYOCHYG 907,200 possible permutations
Insight
Sudden flashes of inspiration May be called intuition
The pieces just ‘fit’ Burst of activity in right
temporal lobe May be part of humor
Sherlock Holmes Hunters
Obstacles to Problem Solving #1 Confirmation bias (Wason, 1960)
Searching only for evidence that confirms hypothesis
What rule was used to create the following set of numbers? 2, 4, 6 Create solutions- I will confirm or deny their
conformity Only rule may be proposed
We seek evidence to verify rather than refute
Obstacles to Problem Solving #2 Fixation
Inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective
Mental set Tendency to approach a problem in a
particular way Usually has been successful
Functional fixedness Only thinking in term of the ‘normal’
function
Heuristics (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974)
Representativeness heuristic Judging likelihood based on how well it
matches a prototype Ignores other relevant factors
Short, slim, & likes to read poetry More likely to be: professor or truck driver
Availability heuristic Estimating likelihood based upon availability
in memory Ex. – Occurrence of ‘k’ as first or third letter Casinos
Overconfidence
Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge I am 98% certain that the population of New Zealand is
between ___ & ___. 1/3 wrong (Kahneman & Taversky, 1979)
Oh, Hitler, why Russia? How long will it take you to write your critique?
Submit estimate & document hours Students routinely underestimate (Buehler et al., 1994)
Overconfidence increases happiness, make decisions easier, seem more credible (Baumeister, 1989) Can learn to be more realistic with feedback (Fischhoff,
1982)
Framing & Belief
Framing The way an issue is posed Significantly impacts decisions &
judgements Belief bias
Tendency of preexisting beliefs to distort logical thinking
Alters validity judgments Belief perseverance
Clinging to initial conceptions after basis is rejected
TOK & Problem Solving
How, if at all, does the overconfidence theory help us understand the our knowledge?
Cognition & Emotion
What are Emotions?
Not necessarily a conscious process Appraisal of situation
Interpretation Multiple components
Components of Emotions
Physiological changes Autonomic & endocrine systems
Subjective Feeling Happy, sad, etc.
Associated behavior Smile, cry, etc.
AKA – Physiological
Biological Factors in Emotion
The Emotional Brain
Amygdala is critical for emotional memories
Hormone release influences memory Adrenaline
The Emotional Brain LeDoux (1999)
Two emotion pathways Short route Long route
Short Route v Long Route
Short route Thalamus to amygdala
Long route Thalamus to sensory cortex/hippocampus
to amygdala Involves brainstem
Both help activate the ‘fight or flight’ response
AKA – Subjective Feelings
Cognitive Factors in Emotion
Appraisal
Evaluations related to how the situation will impact personal well-being Lazarus (1975)
Positive & negative emotions Both are responses to stressors
Experience of stress can be moderated through appraisal Lazarus & Folkman (1984)
Coping Strategies
Folkman & Lazarus (1988) Problem-focused coping
Change the situation or problem Emotion-focused coping
Handle emotions Does not address circumstances of stress
Evidence of Appraisal
Speisman et al. (1964) Emotions can be altered by manipulating
the circumstances Interpretation influences stress
Does this have ecological validity?
Flashbulb Theory
Arousal & Memory
LeDoux (1999) Arousal of emotions can facilitate memory
Emotions influence perception May not be accurate
Flashbulb Memory
Brown & Kulik (1977) Emotional memory that is vivid and
detailed Seem to be recorded like a photograph
flash JFK, MLK, RFK assassinations were
remembered vividly May be neural mechanism
Neuroscience confirms emotions facilitate memory
Doubting Neisser
Importance of event may not be known when it occurs Rehearsal of important events strengthens
memory Flashbulb memory is merely a schema for
the event Neisser (1982)
Neisser & Harsch (1992) Challenger explosion 40% had memory distortion after two
yeasrs
Attitudes & Beliefs
Talarico & Rubin (2003) Greater confidence with emotion Accuracy not improved
Breckler (1994) Current attitudes & beliefs influence recall
about blood donation Holmberg & Holmes (1994)
Current negative relationship alters perception of past interactions
Happiness
Happiness & Economics
Happiness is the sum of positive emotions minus the sum of negative emotions Bentham (1790)
Pleasure and the absence of pain Actions that promote happiness
Menger & Keynes Government should play in role in
happiness
What is Happiness?
Happiness may be a cultural construct Weiner
Up to 50% of happiness is genetic Lyubomirsky (2001)
Cognitive Factors in Happiness
Does Wealth Bring Happiness? Research does not support this
assumption What may account for this?
Social comparison theory (Festinger) Assess yourself in relation to others
Level of aspiration theory (Rotter) Evaluate what you will gain and how likely
it is to achieve General expectancy
Discrepancy Between Wealth & Happiness
1/3 of Americans are happy Steady since 1950s Myers & Diener (1995)
Upward comparison Leads to dissatisfaction Hagerty (2003)
Relative deprivation Envy (Merton & Kitt, 1950)
What Increases Happiness?
It is ‘normal’ to believe the future will be happier Media Success + money = happiness
Not reality Satisfaction with salary brings happiness
Johnson & Kruger (2006) Comparison to others reduces happiness
The Illusory Correlation
Faulty associations May be related to happiness & wealth
Conway, di Fazio, & Mayman (1999) Belief that high status person is:
Happier Less angry Less depressed Less fearful Same in love
Sociocultural Factors in Happiness
The Key to Happiness
Happiness can be achieved through training of mind and heart, reshaping attitudes and outlook Dalai Llama, Art of Happiness (1998)
State of mind is more important than circumstances
Compassion is the basis of happiness Empathy
Being able to understand others
Bhutan or Qatar?
Qatar is one of the richest countries on earth Not one of the happiest countries
Bhutan is a poor country Focused on happiness King coined Gross National Happiness
Contrasts with Western GNP Weiner (2008) concludes there are many
ways to be happy Happiness is cultural
Who’s Happiest?
According to research, Denmark 2/3 are very satisfied with life
Christensen, Herskind, & Vaupel (2006) asked why Welfare state High level of income equality Good economy Democracy Realistic expectations
Map of Happiness (Adrian White)
Calculating World Happiness Meta-analysis
Uses data from multiple studies Only statistical calculations Large amount of data increases validity
The Rankings1. Denmark2. Switzerland23. United States41. UK82. China90. Japan167. Russia
What About US?
Statistical Analysis
How is this map misleading?
Subjective Well-Being
Combines happiness & satisfaction (Inglehart et al., 2004)
1. Puerto Rico2. Mexico3. Denmark4. Ireland5. Iceland United States fifteenth
TOK & Happiness
To what extent is happiness a valid construct when it cannot be compared across cultures?
Positive Psychology
White (2008) Current area of interest in economics &
psychology Focused on empirical study of positive
emotions, strengths-based character, and healthy institutions Seligman, founder of Positive Psychology Smile
Even at a funeral
Healthy, Wealthy, & Wise
According to BBC, 81% of people believe government should invest in happiness
Correlations with happiness Health Wealth Education
Interdependent factors
Culture of Happiness
Most research is conducted in West Life satisfaction is related to income
Money fulfills basic needs Diener & Smiley
Also associated with Trust Safety Lack of corruption
TOK & Happiness (Again)
In what ways is the government responsible for individual happiness in general? In the United States? In another specific culture?
Biological Factors in Happiness
Evolutionary Theory
People adapt to their environment Habituation
We are used to the way things are Adaptation to both positive & negative
factors Humans focus on negative
Threats to safety Striving for more
Genetics
Lykken et al. (1996) Innate baseline or set-point Happiness Twin Study
Identical twins similar in happiness score Regardless of environment
Fraternal twins less similar Genetic influence for happiness
Up to 50% is a ‘set-point’ Only 10% is situational
What about the other 40%?
The How of Happiness (Lyubomirsky 2007)
Devote time to family & friends Easily express gratitude Offer help (Swartz, 1999) Optimistic about future Enjoy life- live in present Exercise Lifelong goals Cope well with stress