I. The Rational Appeal section -179•Reasons are the key points you’ll use to defend your ideas.•Convince the audience with evidence. Appeal to Reason.• A. established truths—(has own paragraph in chapter)• B. opinions of authorities —(has own paragraph in chapter)

• example: Center for Disease Control website vs. Jimshealth.com• C. primary source information —(has own paragraph in chapter)• D. statistics —(has own paragraph in chapter)• E. personal experience or the experience of others—(has own paragraph in

chapter)•F. Weigh the credibility, quantity, reliability, and applicability of evidence to decide if you should use it, or find something else.• G. Reasoning Strategies• Reasoning Strategy #1: Induction—common, but basic: strategy that requires

us to check all our evidence—sometimes impossible to do• Reasoning Strategy #2: deduction—more sophisticated: shows how the

conclusion develops logically• reductio ad Absurdum• syllogisms—can be used anywhere• analogies—weakest form of argument

Sample Test Question:

• Which one of the following features of argument explains that because its conclusions about one thing rest upon observations about some different thing, analogy is the weakest form of appeal to reason?

A. Rational AppealB. Emotional AppealC. Ferreting Out FallaciesD. Ethical Appeal

A. Rational appeal

II. The Emotional Appeal 179-180

• Emotional appeal can be a powerful reinforcement in your argument.– Good examples in chapter

• takes planning

Sample Test Question:

• Which of the following features of argument is being used when the audience is shown World Trade Center footage in order to gain support for a political candidate?

A. Rational AppealB. Emotional AppealC. Ferreting out Fallacies D. Ethical Appeal

B. Emotional appeal

III. Ethical Appeal 180-181

• Audience must be willing to consider your argument

• If a writer’s tone offends, the project fails• If you have a genuine concern for the topic, a

commitment to the truth, and respect for others, you sound reasonable.

• Always check for snide remarks during the revision process.

Sample Test Question

• Which of the following features of argument points out that if a writer seems fair-minded, the audience will be more willing to consider the argument?

A. Rational AppealB. Emotional AppealC. Ferreting out FallaciesD. Ethical Appeal

D. Ethical Appeal

IV. Ferreting Out Fallacies page 181-184Fallacies are lapses in logic; they are mistakes. They weaken an argument, so avoid

them. Stop using them yourself, and stop falling for them in other areas of your life.• Basing conclusion on too little evidence• Drawing the wrong conclusion with enough evidence• Attaching characteristics to an entire group• Presenting only part of the evidence…leaving out important information on purpose• Only giving 2 choices when there are more than 2• Asserting the truth of some unproved statement• Answering a question by restating the same question• Sidetracking the issue by giving irrelevant information• Attacking the person instead of their opinions• Playing to the fears of the audience…scare-tactics• Connecting something negative about one person to another person• Assuming that since 1 event follows another, the first caused the second• Assuming that 2 circumstances are similar in all important respects, when they are

really not

Sample test question

• Which one of the following features of argument warns that two circumstances or things are rarely similar in all important respects?

A. Rational AppealB. Emotional AppealC. Ferreting out FallaciesD. Ethical Appeal

C. Ferreting out FallaciesPage 184Faulty Analogy section

V. Planning the Argument

• Focus the question– decide your opinion– keep an open mind– Learn the opposition– Etc.

• explore the topic– Decide what kinds of evidence support you– Will the evidence be reliable? – If the issue involves taking action, what about the consequences?– Write a dialogue in order to develop the argument.– Make a chart or table to sort out the possibilities.– Think about the objections to each or your positions, and decide how

you will counter-argue

…continued

• Arguments for different purposes• As you think about your position and the evidence, think about the

purpose of your argument and how that might affect the strategies you choose to use.

• Directing Arguments to Readers– Remember that purpose and argument are linked.

• Think about their interests, etc.

• Rogerian Arguments– reduce their feelings of antagonism by showing you are

understanding, find common ground, etc.• Exploratory Arguments

– There’s room to add your doubts, method of reasoning, etc.

Sample test question

• You ask yourself the question, “What kinds of evidence will support you position?” during the ________ stage of an argument paper.

Choices: – Planning– Drafting– Revising

planning

VI. Drafting

• A typical introduction arouses the reader’s interest and may also present the proposition—a special thesis statement that names the issue and the author’s position.

• Since you’ve collected your evidence, make sure you embed it into the paragraphs as you write.

Sample test question:

• During the ________ stage of the argument paper, I make sure to embed my evidence throughout the paper, not just in one section.

Choices:• Planning• Drafting• revising

Drafting

VII. Revision

• Ask these questions and others like them?– Was my topic too controversial? – Was it aimed at the right audience?– Was the evidence adequate and sound?– Did I use the best kind of emotional appeal?– Did I present myself in a favorable light?– Was my argument free of fallacies?– Was my structure effective?– Did my statistics adequately support my ideas?

Sample test question

• You ask yourself the question, “Did I make sure to use a mature tone in my paper?” during the ___________ stage of the argument paper.

Choices:• Planning• Drafting• revising

revising

Format

• Multiple choice—choose the 1 best answer.• Fill-in-the-blank—choices provided• 1 writing question (We’ll do this part on

Monday--)– 200 word minimum– Possible Topics: • The 3 stages of writing• Ethics in writing• Etc.