i ii ASEAN · An ASEAN Community is envisioned by the year 2020. Therefore, this report has paid special attention to our community building efforts toward an environmentally sustainable

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Catalogue-in-Publication Data

Third ASEAN State of the Environment Report 2006Jakarta: ASEAN Secretariat, November 2006

Main Report 167 pages, in CD-ROM.

1. Environment - Report - ASEAN 2. ASEAN - Environmental Protection

333.705

ISBN 979-3496-39-8Printed in Malaysia

The text of this publication may be freely quoted or reprinted with proper acknowledgment.

Copyright ASEAN Secretariat 2006All rights reserved

The preparation of the Third ASEAN State of the Environment Report 2006 was supervised and coordinated by theASEAN Secretariat. The following focal point agencies coordinated national inputs from the respective ASEAN MemberCountries: Ministry of Development, Negara Brunei Darussalam; Ministry of Environment, Royal Kingdom of Cambodia;Ministry of State for Environment, Republic of Indonesia; Science Technology and Environment Agency, Lao People'sDemocratic Republic; Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment, Malaysia; Ministry of Forestry, Union ofMyanmar; Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Republic of the Philippines; Ministry of the Environment andWater Resources, Republic of Singapore; Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Royal Kingdom of Thailand; andMinistry of Natural Resources and Environment, Socialist Republic of Viet Nam.

The ASEAN Secretariat wishes to express its sincere appreciation to UNEP and the Hanns Seidel Foundation for thegenerous financial support provided for the preparation of this Report. The ASEAN Secretariat also wishes to express itssincere appreciation to the experts, officials, institutions and numerous individuals who contributed to the preparation of theReport.

Every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the information presented, and to fully acknowledge all sourcesof information, graphics and photographs used in the Report. Any omissions or errors that may appear in this Report isunintended.

Cover Illustration:

The fern, a common plant in ASEAN, transforming into flying birds against a blue background denotes the richnessand vitality of biodiversity and a clean and green ASEAN.

Third ASEAN State of the Environment Report 2006 iii

am pleased to present the ASEAN State of the Environment Report2006, the third in the series. The first report was published in 1997 and

the second report in 2000.

The ASEAN region faces several challenges in protecting theenvironment and ensuring the sustainability of its natural resources. TheASEAN State of the Environment Reports highlight key characteristics anddevelopments concerning the condition of the environment. These includewhat ASEAN is doing to address the challenges at the national andregional level.

I

FOREWORD

An ASEAN Community is envisioned by the year 2020. Therefore, this report has paid special attention toour community building efforts toward an environmentally sustainable ASEAN Community. The Vientiane ActionProgramme 2004–2010, the current roadmap, demonstrates our commitment through concrete measures andmilestones to achieve this goal. The environmental programmes and measures in the VAP are situated withinthe context of sustainable development to ensure full integration and mutually supportive development of thevarious inter-related sectors.

Measures of environmental sustainability from reputable independent studies have placed the region at alevel above the world average. However, the challenges foreseen call for even greater effort to ensure furtherimprovement in environmental sustainability of the ASEAN region.

National, regional and global environmental issues cannot be set apart from one another. It is our hope thatthrough the publication of the ASEAN State of the Environment Report, the global community will betterappreciate the issues and concerns faced by the ASEAN region, and join hands to address them collectively.

I would like to congratulate all those who have been involved in producing this useful report. My sincereappreciation goes to the United Nations Environment Programme and the Hanns Seidel Foundation for thefinancial and technical support provided during the preparation of this report.

Thank you.

Ong Keng YongSecretary-General of ASEAN

iv Third ASEAN State of the Environment Report 2006

CONTENTS

Foreword iii

Contents v

List of Tables vi

List of Figures viii

List of Boxes ix

Chapter 1: Introduction 1

Chapter 2: Geographical Setting, People and Demography 7

Chapter 3: Social Development 16

Chapter 4: Economic Development 27

Chapter 5: Freshwater and Marine Ecosystems 37

Chapter 6: Terrestrial Ecosystems 55

Chapter 7: Atmosphere 77

Chapter 8: Global Environmental Issues 91

Chapter 9: ASEAN Environmental Management Framework 104

Chapter 10: Towards An Environmentally Sustainable ASEAN 123Community

Appendix I Acronmys and Abbreviations 134

Appendix II Sources and References 140

Appendix III Scheduled ASEAN Meetings on the Environment: 1452001 – 2005

Appendix IV Preparation of the Third ASEAN State of the 158Environment Report

Third ASEAN State of the Environment Report 2006 v

LIST OF TABLES

PageTable 1.1 PSR Model vis-à-vis the SOER3 Framework 5Table 2.1 Population (mid-2005) 12Table 2.2 Population Density, 2005 14Table 3.1 Rank in Human Development Reports, 2001 – 2005 18Table 3.2 Poverty Incidence (based on respective national poverty line) 18Table 3.3 Immunisation against Measles and DPT among One-Year Old Children (%) 22Table 3.4 HIV Prevalence among 15 – 24 Year Old People, Both Sexes (%) 23Table 4.1 Production of Five Major Food Crops in ASEAN, 2003 – 2004 (‘000 metric tons) 31Table 4.2 Growth of ASEAN’s Five Major Food Commodities 31Table 4.3 ASEAN Exports and Imports of Fishery Products (Million US$) 31Table 4.4 ASEAN Primary Energy Production (1999 – 2001) 32Table 5.1 List of Wetlands of International Importance in ASEAN Countries 47

(as of 12 October 2005)Table 5.2 Marine Protected Areas in Member Countries 53Table 5.3 Number of Priority MPAs of Global/Regional (A) and National (B) Significance 53Table 6.1 Land Areas 57Table 6.2 Wood Volume and Wood Biomass in Forests 58Table 6.3 World Rank in Total Diversity 63Table 6.4 Richness of ASEAN by Taxa 64Table 6.5 Inventory of Endemic Species 65Table 6.6 Inventory of Endangered Species 66Table 6.7 IUCN-Classified Protected Areas 68Table 6.8 Protected Areas (based on national classification) 69Table 6.9 Disposal Methods for Municipal Solid Waste in Selected Member Countries 74Table 7.1 Air Quality Regulations in Selected Member Countries 83Table 7.2 Phase Out of Leaded Gasoline in Member Countries (as of 2005) 86Table 8.1 Lead Countries for the MEAs (end of 2005) 93Table 8.2 Participation in the Vienna Convention, Montreal Protocol, and Its Four Amendments 94

(as of 22 July 2005)Table 8.3 Participation in UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol (as of 2005) 95Table 8.4 Number of CITES-Listed Species in Member Countries (as of 2006) 99Table 8.5 Number of World Heritage Sites in Member Countries 101Table 8.6 Participation in Conservation and Biodiversity related MEAs 102Table 8.7 Participation in Chemical and Hazardous Waste related Conventions 103Table 9.1 Lead Countries for the Ten Priority Areas for Cooperation 110Table 9.2 Guidelines to Control Land and Forest Fires under the ASEAN Agreement on 112

Transboundary Haze PollutionTable 9.3 Completed and On-Going Programmes and Activities to Control Transboundary 114

Haze PollutionTable 9.4 Marine Water Quality Criteria for the ASEAN Region 115Table 9.5 Regional Project Proposals on Water Resources Management and its 116

Lead Country/iesTable 9.6 Participating Cities in the AIESC 116Table 9.7 Goals and Objectives of Clean Air, Clean Land, and Clean Water of AIESC 117Table 9.8 State of the Environment Reports of Member Countries 120Table 9.9 Major Cooperative Activities with ASEAN Dialogue Partners 121Table 10.1 Environmental Sustainable Index of selected ASEAN Member Countries, 2005 126Table 10.2 Ecological Footprints of Selected Member Countries, World and Regional 127

Income Groups, 2002Table 10.3 Potential Sources of Environmental Insecurity in the ASEAN Region 129

vi Third ASEAN State of the Environment Report 2006

LIST OF FIGURES

PageFigure 1.1 Pressure-State-Response Model 5Figure 2.1 Land Area of Member Countries 9Figure 2.2 ASEAN’s Population Compared to Other Regions, (Mid-2004) 12Figure 2.3 Projected Population, 2000 – 2020 13Figure 2.4 Rate of Natural Increase in Population (%), 2004 13Figure 2.5 Crude Birth and Death Rates (%), 2005 13Figure 2.6 Scatter Plot for Fertility and Income, 2003 13Figure 2.7 Projected Fertility Rates 2000 – 2020 14Figure 2.8 Projected Share of Rural Population to Total Population, 2000 – 2020 15Figure 2.9 Urbanisation Projections, 2000 – 2020 15Figure 3.1 Gini Indices of selected ASEAN Member Countries 20Figure 3.2 Percentage Share of Income/Consumption in selected Member Countries, 20

Various Survey Years (1997 – 2002)Figure 3.3 Labour Force Participation Rate in Member Countries, 2003 20Figure 3.4 Unemployment Rate of People 15 Years and Above, 2001 and 2004 21Figure 3.5 Prevalence of Underweight Children in Member Countries, 1993 – 2003 21Figure 3.6 Reduction in Proportion of Children Under-5 Moderately or Severely Underweight (%) 22

(MDG Goal 1, Target 2) Baseline Data (1990 – 1995) vs. Latest Data (1996 – 2004)Figure 3.7 Reduction in Under-nourishment as Percentage of Total Population 22

(MDG Goal 1, Target 2) Baseline Data (1990 – 1995) vs. Latest Data (1996 – 2004)Figure 3.8 Reduction in Child Mortality (MDG Goal 4, Target 5) Baseline Data (1990 – 1995) 22

vs. Latest Data (1996 – 2004)Figure 3.9 Population with Access to Water (%), 2002 23Figure 3.10 Population with Access to Sanitation (%), 2002 23Figure 3.11 Adult Literacy Rate among Males 24Figure 3.12 Adult Literacy Rate among Females 24Figure 3.13 Gross Enrolment in Schools, 2000 – 2003 24Figure 4.1 Rate of Economic Growth in ASEAN 29Figure 4.2 Rate of Economic Growth 29Figure 4.3 GDP per capita in ASEAN at Current Market Prices (US$) 29Figure 4.4 GDP per capita in Selected Member Countries at Current Market Prices (US$) 30Figure 4.5 GDP Share of Major Groups, 2004 30Figure 4.6 GDP Contribution by Sector, 2003 32Figure 4.7 Growth Rate of the Industrial Sectors in terms of GDP Contribution, 1998 – 2000 32

and 2001 – 2003Figure 4.8 GDP per Unit of Energy Use in Selected Member Countries, 2001 – 2002 33Figure 4.9 Intra-ASEAN Visitor Arrivals (Millions) 34Figure 4.10 Growth Rate of Tourist Arrivals in the ASEAN Region, 2001 – 2004 34Figure 4.11 Tourist Arrivals in Member Countries, 2001 – 2004 35Figure 5.1 Total Internal Renewable Freshwater Resources of Selected Regions, 1997 – 2001 39Figure 5.2 Per Capita Internal Renewable Freshwater Resources of Selected Regions 39Figure 5.3 ASEAN’s Total Available Internal Water Resources (‘000 cu. km.), 2004 40Figure 5.4 Per Capita Supply of Annual Internal Renewable Freshwater Resources, 1996 – 2004 40Figure 5.5 Sources of Freshwater in Member Countries 41Figure 5.6 Number of Marine Species in the ASEAN Region 50Figure 5.7 Coral Reef Areas (in sq. km.) of Member Countries 51Figure 5.8 Reefs at Risk Summary by Country 51Figure 5.9 Fishery and Aquaculture Productions in the ASEAN Region, 1995 – 2002 52

Third ASEAN State of the Environment Report 2006 vii

Figure 5.10 World and ASEAN’s Annual Per Capita Food Supply, 1995 – 2002 52Figure 6.1 Total Forest Area 57Figure 6.2 Ratio of Forest to Land Area (%), 2005 57Figure 6.3 Consumption of Forest Wood Products, 1998 – 2002 59Figure 6.4 Waste Generation in Selected Countries (kg/cap/day), 2001 71Figure 6.5 Estimated Annual Generation of Hazardous Waste in Selected Member Countries 72

(‘000 tonnes)Figure 7.1 Air Pollution Emissions 79Figure 7.2 Air Pollution in selected Capital Cities of Member Countries 79Figure 7.3 Hotspot Counts 88Figure 7.4 Monthly Hotspot Counts in the ASEAN Region 88Figure 7.5 Hotspot Counts in Borneo 89Figure 7.6 Hotspot Counts in Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia 89Figure 7.7 Hotspot Counts in the Mekong Region and the Philippines (2005) 90Figure 8.1a Consumption of Ozone-Depleting CFCs, (1995 – 2001) in ODP metric tonnes 93Figure 8.1b Consumption of Ozone-Depleting CFCs, (2001 – 2005) in ODP metric tonnes 94Figure 8.2 CO2 Emissions of Regional Organisations/Groups, 1995 – 2002 95Figure 8.3 CO2 Emissions of ASEAN and other Regions, 2001 95Figure 9.1 ASEAN Institutional Framework for Environmental Cooperation 110Figure 9.2 ASEAN Haze Action Online Website (www.haze-online.or.id) 111

viii Third ASEAN State of the Environment Report 2006

LIST OF BOXES

PageBox 2.1 The Sumatra-Andaman earthquake and tsunami of 26 December 2004 11Box 3.1 Consequences of Environmental Degradation on Irrigated Rice Production, 25

Households, Population, and Women: A Case Study from the Philippines Box 3.2 ASEAN Millennium Development Compact 26Box 4.1 Major Renewable Energy Programmes in ASEAN Countries 33Box 4.2 Green Corners Programme in Singapore 36Box 5.1 ASEAN Strategic Plan of Action on Water Resources Management 42Box 5.2 The Deep Tunnel Sewerage System in Singapore 44Box 5.3 Ramsar Sites in Indonesia 46Box 5.4 Integrated Coastal and Marine Management in Indonesia 49Box 6.1 ASEAN-German Regional Forest Programme for Southeast Asia (ReFOP) 61Box 6.2 ASEAN-Korea Environmental Cooperation Project on Restoration of Degraded 61

Forest Ecosystems in the Southeast Asian Tropical RegionsBox 6.3 The Challenge of Landmine and Unexploded Ordinance (UXO) in Cambodia 63Box 6.4 ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB) 64Box 6.5 The ASEAN Wildlife Enforcement Network (ASEAN-WEN) 65Box 6.6 Conserving the Tiger 66Box 6.7 Conserving Orang Utan 67Box 6.8 Transboundary Conservation Areas 67Box 6.9 The ASEAN Heritage Parks (AHP) Programme 69Box 6.10 Singapore’s Strategy on Waste Management 73Box 6.11 Kualiti Alam Integrated Hazardous Waste Treatment Plant , Malaysia 75Box 7.1 Air Pollution from Tricycles in the Philippines 80Box 7.2 ASEAN’s Initiative on Environmentally Sustainable Cities (AIESC) 82Box 7.3 Dedicated Busway System to Improve Traffic and Reduce Air Pollution in Jakarta 84Box 7.4 Air Quality Monitoring Programme in Malaysia 85Box 7.5 Transboundary Haze Episode in Malaysia (August 2005) 87Box 8.1 Potential CDM Projects in ASEAN 96Box 8.2 Implementation of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) in Indonesia and Malaysia 96Box 8.3 Important Bird Areas in the ASEAN Region 98Box 8.4 ASEAN Statement on CITES on the Occasion of the Thirteenth Meeting of the 100

Conference of the Parties to CITES, Bangkok, 11 October 2004Box 8.5 ASEAN Regional Action Plan on Trade in Wild Fauna and Flora (2005 – 2010) 100Box 9.1 Strategies to Achieve Environmental Sustainability 106Box 9.2 Assessment of Accomplishments of Ha Noi Plan of Action 1999 – 2004 107Box 9.3 ASEAN Environmental Agreements, 1981 – 2005 108Box 9.4 ASEAN Action Plans related to Environment, 1995 – 2005 108Box 9.5 The ASEAN Peatland Management Initiative (APMI) 113Box 9.6 ASEAN Environmental Education Inventory Database (AEEID) 118Box 9.7 Sekolah Lestari – Environment Award Programme 119Box 10.1 The Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI) 125Box 10.2 Philippine Ecological Footprint, 1961 – 2002 127

The ASEAN Community shall be established comprising three pillars,namely political and security cooperation, economic cooperation, and

socio-cultural cooperation that are closely intertwined and mutuallyreinforcing for the purpose of ensuring durable peace, stability and

shared prosperity in the region.

Declaration of ASEAN Concord II 7th October 2003

CHAPTER 1Introduction

Chapter 1: Introduction

2 Third ASEAN State of the Environment Report 2006

n 7th October 2003, the Heads ofState/Government of ASEAN Member

Countries declared that: “an ASEAN Communityshall be established comprising three pillars,namely political and security cooperation, economiccooperation, and socio-cultural cooperation that areclosely intertwined and mutually reinforcing for thepurpose of ensuring durable peace, stability andshared prosperity in the region.”

A key concept embodied in this statement isthat prosperity in the region shall be both durableand shared. Through sustained economic growththe ASEAN Leaders are determined to attainprosperity for the region. Such prosperity will bedurable only if the resources that fuel economicgrowth are utilised in a sustainable manner. And itwill be truly shared only if the benefits are equitablydistributed to all sectors of society. The Leaders ineffect have declared that sustainable development– where there exists a dynamic and mutuallysupportive balance between economic growth,social equity and environmental integrity – shall bethe guiding principle for the region in its efforts toestablish an ASEAN Community. Accordingly, theLeaders envision a “clean and green ASEAN withfully established mechanisms for sustainabledevelopment to ensure the protection of theregion’s environment, the sustainability of its naturalresources and the high quality of life of its people.”

Challenges

The region faces enormous challenges on theroad towards an environmentally sustainable andprosperous ASEAN Community.

The first and most important challenge is tonarrow the socio-economic divide among andwithin countries of the region while ensuring aproper balance between economic developmentand environmental protection. Technical anddevelopment cooperation will be needed to addressthe development divide and accelerate theeconomic integration of the less developedcountries in the region and of the less developedcommunities within some countries.

In conceptualising the ASEAN EconomicCommunity, one of the three pillars of the ASEANCommunity, the Leaders stated that “deepeningand broadening integration of ASEAN shall beaccompanied by technical and development

cooperation in order to address the developmentdivide and accelerate the economic integration…sothat the benefits of ASEAN integration are sharedand enable all ASEAN Member Countries to moveforward in a unified manner.” Regional integration isanchored on economic integration and borderlesstrading. An environmental challenge resulting fromeconomic integration is the concurrent need toharmonise environmental standards as well asenvironmental legislation and enforcement toensure that as tariffs are dismantled, environmentalissues does not emerge as non-tariff measures.

The second challenge is to prevent or reducethe occurrence of natural and man-made disastersand minimise the damage caused by them. Theregion is exposed to typhoons, floods, droughts,landslides, tsunamis, earthquakes, volcaniceruptions, land and forest fires and the resultingsmoke haze that may hamper economicdevelopment, social cohesion, and political stabilityof the region. Unless communities and propertiesare made safer from disasters, the sustainabledevelopment of the region may be impeded.

The Indian Ocean earthquake that triggered adevastating tsunami in December 2004 resulting inthe death of between 170,000 to 250,000 persons,millions of dollars in environmental and propertydamages, and immeasurable grief and humansuffering illustrates the vulnerability of the region tonatural disasters. The recurrent episodes oftransboundary haze pollution resulting from forestsand land fires and the frequent typhoons and floodsthat affect many countries of the region areexamples of disasters influenced by geo-physicalsettings, climatological factors, demographicchanges, increased human activity. Internationaland regional cooperation, including technical andfinancial assistance, is required to acquire andinstall disaster-monitoring technology andequipment, train and mobilise personnel, andmitigate impacts and alleviate suffering whendisasters strike.

The third challenge is to address adequately theworsening air pollution, noise and congestion, lackof adequate infrastructures and waste disposal andmanagement in the urban areas of most countries ofthe region resulting from, among others, increasingenergy and materials consumption, worsening trafficconditions, rapid industrialisation, and uncontrolledrural-to-urban migration.

O

Third ASEAN State of the Environment Report 2006 3


Economic activities are located largely in theurban areas of many countries in the region. Insome countries these activities are centred in onlytwo or three of the major cities thus causing adisproportionate increase in the population of theseareas. The result is urban congestion, inadequatehousing and growth of slum areas and marginalsettlements, and inadequate waste managementand other social services. Addressing this challengewill require proper planning and management ofdevelopment activities to address the twin issues ofcongestion and poverty, on one hand, anddevelopment and pollution on the other.Concomitant with this will be the need to developand apply cleaner production, energy and transporttechnologies and systems, and promote moresustainable production and consumption patterns.

The fourth challenge is to reverse the trend ofland degradation, deforestation, depletion of naturalresources and loss of biodiversity in many countriesof the region and promote the conservation andsustainable use of biological and genetic resources.There has been increasing exploitation of the richbiological resources of the region for commercialpurposes and to sustain a growing population.Habitat fragmentation ensuing from variouseconomic activities and human encroachment,reduced genetic diversity resulting from excessiveapplication of modern agriculture, and depletion ofprimary forests due to illegal and unmonitoredlogging and clearing for agriculture are some of theurgent issues that require immediate attention.

The region’s natural resources need to beconserved and managed in a sustainable mannerand fairly and equitably shared toward enhancing thequality of life of the people in the region. Countries ofthe region have to intensify the introduction ofsustainable forest and agricultural managementpolicies and practices and widen the extent ofprotected areas in order to arrest the declining trendin biological diversity, land quality and forest cover.For this purpose, stronger international and regionalcooperation, wider advocacy and informationcampaigns, and more vigorous enforcement ofexisting legislations at the national and local levelswill be of paramount importance.

The fifth challenge is to effectively protect theregion’s freshwater resources and marine and coastalecosystems. The region’s internal freshwaterresources are adequate but their management,

distribution and quality are facing increasingpressures and signs of deterioration. The region’smarine and coastal areas, which are recognised as aglobal centre for marine, shallow water and tropicaldiversity, are suffering from physical habitat alteration,pollution from human and economic activities, andunsustainable use and overexploitation.

The quality and availability of clean freshwaterwill be among the most pressing environmentalproblems that the region will face in the future. Thedemand for water will be increasing and competing.The challenge will be how to meet this demand withdwindling supply. Similarly, there will be increasingpressure on the marine and coastal ecosystemssince economic and human activities in mostcountries in the region are most active in coastalzones. This will require more effective planning andmanagement and a shift from advocacy andinformation gathering to concrete action andvigorous implementation of appropriate programmesand measures.

The sixth challenge is to address globalenvironmental issues while at the same timeaddressing the immediate and pressing economic,social and environmental issues that confront eachcountry in unique and multifarious ways. Addressingglobal environmental issues such as ozone depletionand climate change, loss of biodiversity, internationaltrade in endangered species and biosafety,transboundary movement of hazardous wastes andtoxic chemicals, and trade in tropical timber, competefor time and resources with addressing immediateand pressing problems such as poverty, hunger anddisease, lack of water and sanitation facilities, wastedisposal and management and the like.

The region’s contribution to greenhouse gasesemissions, although still low, is rising due to rapideconomic growth, increasing use of coal and otherhydrocarbon fuels, and inefficient use of resources.With respect to biodiversity, countries in the regionhave to address, among others, the problems ofextinction of some flora and fauna, transboundarymovement of alien species, preservation of wetlands,and protection of endangered and migratory species.On transboundary movement of hazardous wastesand toxic chemicals, the region has to address thechallenge of some countries becoming dumpinggrounds of hazardous wastes from developedcountries and other countries becoming themselvesproducers and exporters of toxic chemicals. On trade



in tropical timber, the challenge for countries that stillhave wide forest coverage is how to exploit theseforest resources to generate national revenue andhelp alleviate poverty in a manner that is sustainable.

The seventh and most crucial challenge is tofurther strengthen regional institutional arrangementsto make them more effective in promotingenvironmental sustainability as the region movestoward an integrated, peaceful and caring ASEANCommunity. A clean and green ASEAN Communitywill require the presence of institutions able to makebinding decisions, mobilise resources and supportworthwhile programmes and projects, engage otherinternational and regional partners in meaningfulpartnerships, and harness the support of civil societyorganisations and the private sector.

Regional environmental governance remains animportant challenge to countries in the region. Withinthe context of ASEAN, there is need for more robustinteractions among formal and informal institutions inthe region as well as the various actors within thesocieties of each country in order to effectivelyinfluence how regional environmental problems areidentified and addressed. There is need for nationalgovernments and regional institutions to ensurebetter integration of their development plans andenvironmental policies, promote more active publicinvolvement in environmental management, andimprove regional environmental monitoring andsurveillance processes.

ASEAN State of the EnvironmentReports

ASEAN publishes its State of the EnvironmentReport (SoER) periodically, generally every threeyears. The First ASEAN State of the EnvironmentReport was published in 1997 and covered onlyseven countries that were member countries ofASEAN at that time. Three years later, the SecondASEAN State of the Environment Report 2000 waspublished, which covered the ten member countriesof ASEAN.

In 2002, the ASEAN Report to the World Summiton Sustainable Development (WSSD) was publishedand presented to the WSSD held in South Africa. Inview of this publication, ASEAN deferred publicationof the Third ASEAN State of the Environment Reportto 2006. As with previous reports, it was publishedwith the full participation of and inputs from allASEAN member countries. The United NationsEnvironment Programme and the Hanns SeidelFoundation provided financial support for thepreparation and publication of this Report. TheASEAN Secretariat provided overall coordinationand supervision, and finalised the text of the Report.

The SoERs are published to offer a glimpse ofthe prospects and challenges facing the region andhighlight what ASEAN has done to protect theenvironment and promote sustainable development.This Report specifically:

• describes the environmental conditions in theregion and developments in related sectors byproviding and analysing relevant economic,social and environmental data and indicators;

• presents developments in key emerging issues,particularly global environmental issues anddevelopments in socio-economic sectors, inrecognition of the dynamics of environmentalissues that transcend national borders; and

• highlights ASEAN’s initiatives in environmentalmanagement and sustainable development, itsachievements and constraints, goals for thefuture, and opportunities for collaboration.

The Report will be useful for a wide range ofreaders from decision and policy makers ingovernment, relevant staff of international, regionaland national organisations, non-governmentalorganisations, civil society organisations, students,teachers and researchers of various schools anduniversities, and the general public who are involvedor interested in facts and issues pertaining toenvironment and sustainable development. As suchit presents geographic and demographic informationabout the region, discusses the economic and socialdevelopment of countries of the region, assesses theterrestrial, freshwater, marine, coastal andatmospheric ecosystems, elaborates the relevantglobal environmental issues and the region’sresponse to these issues, describes theenvironmental management framework being usedby ASEAN to address environment and sustainabledevelopment issues, and analyses the issue of



environmental sustainability as the region movestowards the establishment of an ASEAN Community.

Framework and Organisation ofSoER3

The ASEAN State of the Environment Reportshave always followed the Pressure-State-ResponseModel, which states that human activities exertpressure on the environment causing the state(condition) of the environment to change thusrequiring a response that affect human activitiesand the state of the environment as well. In thisthird report, Chapters 2 to 4 cover the “pressure”factors, Chapters 5 to 7 present the “state” of theenvironment in the region, and Chapters 8 to 10discusses the regional “response”.

Chapter 1: Introduction presents the keyenvironmental issues, the objectives andorganisation of the report. It provides an overviewof ASEAN’s vision to achieve an environmentallysustainable ASEAN Community by 2020. However,ASEAN must address a number of environmentalproblems and challenges that may emerge ashindrances to the accomplishment of ASEAN Vision2020.

Chapter 2: Geographical Setting, Peopleand Demography reviews the geo-physical settingand demographics of the region. These factorscharacterises the unique common andtransboundary environmental problems faced theregion, and describes how regional cooperation isimperative to resolve this issues.

Chapter 3: Social Development considerssocial trends emphasing the link betweenenvironment and poverty, the impact of poverty onenvironmental health, and the high degree ofvulnerability of the poor to natural disastersincluding those exacerbated by human activities.

Chapter 4: Economic Development reviewsrecent patterns of economic growth, examines howcertain sectors such as mining and agriculturecould exert stress on the environment if notsustainably managed, while at the same timehigher income levels as a result of economicgrowth are necessary to reduce poverty, and toaccord better care for the environment.

Chapter 5: Freshwater and MarineEcosystems assesses the state of freshwater andmarine ecosystems in the region. The region’swater resources were under increasing pressure.The challenge would be to adequately meetcompeting demands and avoid conflict over theallocation and use of the region’s shared waterresources.

Chapter 6: Terrestrial Ecosystemsinvestigates the state of the terrestrial ecosystemsin the region. While the rate of deforestation in theregion was highest in the world, there was adeclining trend as the production and consumptionof forest wood products also declined. Despite areceding forest cover, the region remained amongthe most biologically diverse regions in the worldand has made good effort to protect its richbiodiversity.

PRESSURE

Pressure

ResourcesEnergytransportIndustry

AgricultureFisheriesOthers

HUMAN ACTIVITIESAND IMPACTS

STATE

Airwater

Land resourcesBio-diversity

Human settlementsCulture and heritage

STATE OR CONDITIONS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

Information Information

Social responses(decisions-actions)

Social responses(decisions-actions)

RESPONSE

LegislationEconomic instruments

New technologiesChanging community values

International obligationsOthers

INSTITUTIONAL AND INDIVIDUAL RESPONSES

PSR Model SOER3 Chapters

Pressure Chapter 2: Geographical Setting,People and Demography

Chapter 3: Social DevelopmentChapter 4: Economic Development

State Chapter 5: Freshwater and MarineEcosystems

Chapter 6: Terrestrial EcosystemsChapter 7: Atmosphere

Response Chapter 8: Global EnvironmentalIssues

Chapter 9: ASEAN EnvironmentalManagement Framework

Chapter 10: Towards An EnvironmentallySustainable ASEANCommunity

Figure 1.1: Pressure-State-Response Model

Source: UNEP/EAP-AP

Table 1.1: PSR Model vis-à-vis the SoER3 Framework



Chapter 7: Atmosphere evaluates air qualityand atmospheric conditions in the region. Thequality of the air in the region as a whole wasgenerally good although it varied considerablyacross the region deteriorating significantly in highlyurbanised and industrialised areas. The region hadtwo major air pollution concerns, namelytransboundary air pollution resulting from land andforest fires, and the deterioration of urban air qualityarising from increased energy use by the transportand industry sectors.

Chapter 8: Global Environmental Issuesassesses the participation of member countries inaddressing global environmental issues. Membercountries have been actively engaged inaddressing these global issues as they impactsignificantly on the region, even though they are not the major contributors to these globalenvironmental issues.

Chapter 9: ASEAN EnvironmentalManagement Framework reviews the salientfeatures of ASEAN policy and institutionalframework, and the major programmes andactivities undertaken in the region, and shows howit is closely integrated with the social and economicsectors, principally through the ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community pillar.

Chapter 10: Towards an EnvironmentallySustainable ASEAN Community concludes byhighlighting efforts to achieve an ASEANCommunity that is environmentally sustainable. Itassesses some measures of environmentalsustainability which show that the region hasachieved higher than average scores that the worldaverage. It also offers insights into how ASEAN iscommitted to enhancing environmental sustainabilityas it pursues its overall goal of establishing anASEAN Community by 2020.

Source of Information

Data gathering, as in any publication, has beenthe most difficult phase in the preparation of thisReport. Even though ASEAN has been trying togenerate their own data and share suchinformation, however there is no mechanism toensure this is done on a systematic and regularbasis. This problem is not unique to ASEAN.However, in the process of preparing thispublication, it became clear that it is important to

institute a mechanism to regularly shareinformation, harmonise databases, and mutuallysupport preparation of national and regionalreports. Such a mechanism will also facilitatereporting obligations to outside bodies. ASEAN willcontinue to pursue this matter based on theexperiences gained from national and regionalreporting.

As much as possible, ASEAN-sourced datawere employed in this report. Sources were fromthe various databases and publications of ASEANSecretariat (e.g., Environment and DisasterManagement Unit, Natural Resources Unit, HumanDevelopment Unit, Bureau of Economic Integration,Bureau of Finance and Integration Support,Finance and Macroeconomic Surveillance Unit,Tourism Unit, etc.) and other ASEAN-affiliatedinstitutions (e.g., ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity,and ASEAN Centre for Energy). The national Stateof the Environment Reports of member countriesprovided valuable information for the preparation ofthis report.

Where ASEAN data is not available, therelevant information was sourced from reputablesources. These include:

• International organisations – UN agencies (i.e.,United Nations Environment Programme, Foodand Agriculture Organisation, United NationsDevelopment Programme, World HealthOrganisation, UN Economic and SocialCommission for Asia and the Pacific, UnitedNations Industrial and DevelopmentOrganisation, United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organisation, UNDepartment of Economic and Social Affairs, UNCommission on Sustainable Development,Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,UNEP-Global Resource Information Database,various MEA Secretariats, etc.), World TradeOrganisation, World Tourism Organisation.

• International development/finance institutions –Asian Development Bank, World Bank,International Monetary Fund, etc.

• Environmental NGOs/other organisations –World Resources Institute, World ConservationUnion or IUCN, Conservation International,Basel Action Network, BirdLife International,TRAFFIC Southeast Asia, World Wildlife Fund,and others.

ASEAN Vision 2020 envisions ASEAN as a concert of Southeast AsianNations, outward looking, living in peace, stability and prosperity,

bonded together in partnership in dynamic development and in a community of caring societies.

Vientiane Action Programme

CHAPTER 2Geographical Setting,People and Demography

Chapter 2: Geographical Setting, People and Demography


Geographical Setting

The ten member countries of the Associationof Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), namely,Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, LaoPDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines,Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam, lie on thewaters of the Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean,Andaman Sea, and South China Sea. They occupya geographical space commonly referred to as“Southeast Asia”1 that stretches more than 3,300km from north to south (latitudes 30° North to 11°

South) and 5,600 km from west to east (longitudes92° West to 142° East).

Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand andViet Nam are located in the Indochina sub-region(commonly referred to as Mainland Southeast Asia),while Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, thePhilippines and Singapore are located in a sub-regioncommonly referred to as the Malay archipelago (alsoknown as Maritime Southeast Asia). Of the tenmember countries, only Lao PDR is landlocked, whileall others have direct access to the sea.

he geo-physical and climatic conditions of the ASEAN region have endowed it with rich naturalresources, sustaining a myriad of economic activities and livelihoods, and providing critical life

support systems such as fresh water and clean air. However, the region has one of the highestpopulation densities in the world with about 125 people per square kilometre, compared with the worldaverage of 43 people per square kilometre. The region also has high urban population density,particularly in the mega cities of Bangkok, Jakarta and Manila. The rural-urban migration rate andurban-rural population are projected to increase steadily by an average of 15% and 10% respectivelyby 2020. The large population exerts increasing pressure on the natural resources of the region, inaddition to exacerbating urban environmental degradation. The geo-physical and climatic conditions ofthe region also unleashes a number of natural hazards, the most common are typhoons, floods,earthquake and tsunamis, landslides, volcanic eruptions, droughts and wild fires. These naturalhazards interacting with prevailing vulnerabilities in countries have caused disasters that seriouslyimpaired economic activities, social development and the environmental conditions of the region. Thecommon and shared geo-physical and climatic conditions bring about common or transboundaryenvironmental issues such as air, water and land pollution, urban environmental degradation,transboundary haze pollution, and depletion of natural resources, particularly biological diversity.ASEAN, recognising the importance of regional collaboration to tackle these issues collectively, hasforged effective cooperation in these areas.

T

Extent 3,300 km North to South5,600 km West to East

Land area 4.47 million sq. km.3% of the world’s total

Climate Tropical (monsoon-influenced)

Temperature Annual range typically 25 – 30 ºC

Rainfall 828 to 3280 mm. per year

Population (mid 2005) 558 million

ASEAN population as % of world total (mid 2004) 7.7%

Projected population in 2020 651 million

Population density (2005) 125 people per sq. km.



Country Sizes and Terrains

The ten member countries have a combinedland area of approximately 4.47 million squarekilometres or about 3% of the world’s total landarea of 136 million sq km. The land areas varywidely from Singapore (0.7 sq. km.) to Indonesia(1,891 sq. km.), the latter accounting for about 40%of the land area of the region

Countries with water borders or coastlines areendowed with natural ports that enable them toharvest rich and diverse marine resources, and withmany beautiful white sand beaches that drawmultitudes of visitors into the region.

Inland water bodies, like the meanderingMekong River running through Myanmar, Thailand,Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam, provide theseriparian countries with freshwater resources,transportation, and hydropower. Mangrove swampsand waterfalls abound in the region. Other well-known inland water bodies include the Inle Lake inMyanmar, Tonle Sap in Cambodia, Lake Toba inIndonesia, and Laguna de Bay in the Philippines.

The region has alluvial plains and fertile deltasthat serve either as arable land for farming andpasturing or as residential and industrial areas.Cambodia, for example, has a lacustrine plain,2

measuring about 2,590 sq. km. during dry seasonand 24,600 sq. km. during wet season, that is usedfor wet rice cultivation. Forests and jungles aboundthat serve as breeding grounds for various types offlora and fauna. Rainforests in the region contain

The ASEAN Region

Myanmar

677.0

15.16% Malaysia

330.0

7.39%

Lao PDR

237.0

5.31%

Indonesia

1,891.0

42.35%

Cambodia

181.0

4.05%

Brunei Daruss alam

5.8

0.13%

Viet Nam

330.0

7.39%

Thailan d

513.0

11 .49%

Philippine s

300.0

6.72%

Singapore

0.7

0.02%

Figure 2.1: Land Area of Member Countries

Source: ASEAN Statistical Pocketbook (2006)

Note: Land areas in ‘000 sq. km.



about 200 tree species in one single hectare,making the region the most biologically diverse inthe world. The island of Borneo, which hasextensive tropical rainforest cover, typifies an islandblessed with a bounty of wildlife animals, plants,trees and birds.

Land bulges in the form of volcanoes,mountains, valleys, hills, plateaus and cavesabound in the region. Among the most notable areMount Mayon in the Philippines, Mount Kinabalu inMalaysia, Hkakabo Razi in Myanmar, and PuncakJaya in Indonesia.

Oceans, Seas, and Gulfs

There are three major seas and two gulfs3 thatprovide the region with abundant marine resources,energy reservoirs, and shipping lanes that permitinter- and intra-ASEAN trade. These are the SouthChina Sea, Andaman Sea, the Philippine Sea, Gulfof Thailand, and Gulf of Tonkin. The South ChinaSea is the biggest water body within the region withan area of 3.5 million sq. km., followed by theAndaman Sea with 798,000 sq. km. The Gulf ofThailand has an area of 320,000 sq. km., while theGulf of Tonkin has 115,200 sq. km.

The South China Sea is an enclave of thePhilippines, Malaysia, Brunei Darussalam,Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, Cambodia and VietNam. On its western side lies the Gulf of Thailandand the Gulf of Tonkin. The Andaman Sea islocated south of Myanmar and west of Thailand andis part of the Indian Ocean. The Philippine Sea ispart of the Pacific Ocean bordering the Philippines.The Gulf of Thailand is surrounded by northernMalaysia, southern and eastern parts of Thailand,south-western Cambodia, and south-western VietNam. The Gulf of Tonkin lies along the coastalareas of eastern Viet Nam. The South China Sea isthe deepest among the region’s water bodies, witha depth of 5,020 metres below sea level, followedby the Andaman Sea, 3,780 metres deep. The twogulfs have shallow waters. The Gulf of Thailand hasa depth of 80 metres while the Gulf of Tonkin is onlyabout 20 metres deep.

Marine and mineral resources abound in thesewater bodies. Molluscs and about 250 edible fishescan be harvested and caught in the Andaman Sea.The Philippine Sea is host to hard and soft coralsand about 20% of the world’s shellfish. Sea turtles,

sharks, moray eels, octopuses, sea snakes, tuna,and a number of whale species are just some of themarine animals that live in this sea. The shallowwaters of the Gulf of Thailand and Gulf of Tonkin areimportant fishing grounds for its riparian countries.Coral reefs also abound in these two gulfs. TheSouth China Sea has economically importantspecies such as crustaceans, coastal fishes, pelagicfishes, herring, sardines, and anchovies. There arelarge reservoirs of oil and natural gas deep withinthe South China Sea and the Gulf of Thailand.

The shipping lanes in the seas within andaround the region are as important to the region asthe marine resources. The Andaman Sea allowsMyanmar to trade with its neighbouring nationswhile the Gulf of Thailand has harbours that areused for commercial fishing and trading byCambodia, Thailand and Viet Nam. Haiphong inViet Nam is a major port in the Gulf of Tonkin. TheStraits of Malacca and the South China Sea areamong the busiest sea lanes in the world.

Climate and Natural Hazards

A major part of the region experiences relativelywarm temperatures throughout the year typicallyranging from 25°C to 30°C, as it straddles theequator. Monsoons affect the climate in the region.The Northeast Monsoon, on one hand, bringstyphoons and severe weather with winds rangingfrom 10 to 30 knots. This usually occurs betweenthe months of November and March. TheSouthwest Monsoon, on the other hand, causesmoderately strong dry winds and rains during themonths of May to September. There are twomonths, April and October, called the inter-monsoon season, during which the regionexperiences light winds and little variation intemperature. The average humidity ranges from70% to 90% and the average precipitation is from828 mm. to 3,280 mm.

Because of its geology and geographicallocation, the region suffers from climaticabnormalities and natural hazards such astyphoons, floods, droughts and accompanying wildfires, earthquakes and tsunamis, volcaniceruptions, storm surges and tidal waves. The regionhas experienced recently major disasters amongwhich were the earthquake and tsunami ofDecember in 2004 and the recurring land and forestfires and transboundary haze pollution.



Box 2.1: The Sumatra-Andaman earthquake and tsunami of 26 December 2004

The tsunami of 26 December 2004 was caused byan earthquake in the Indian Ocean, also known as theSumatra-Andaman Earthquake, located at 3.298ºN and95.779ºE northwest of Sumatra Island in Indonesia.Measuring 8.9 in the Richter Scale, the tectonicearthquake and the following tsunamis had claimed thelives of about 170,000 to 250,000 people anddevastated many coastal communities in Indonesia,Thailand, Myanmar and Malaysia and other countriesoutside the region such as Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Indiaand the Maldives.

In Indonesia, the disaster resulted in about 174,000 deaths and displaced over 420,000 people,mainly from the provinces of North Sumatra andNanggroe Aceh Darussalam. In Nanggroe AcehDarussalam, 389 school buildings were completelydestroyed and 621 school buildings were heavilydamaged. The total damages and losses wereestimated to exceed 41 trillion Rupiah.

In Thailand, the tsunami hit the southern partcomprised of six provinces along the Andaman coast,namely, Phang-nga, Krabi, Phuket, Ranong, Trang andSatul. Almost 60,000 people were severely affected bythe tsunami, resulting in the death of 5,395 people. The

total damage was valued at approximately 16 billionBaht. The damage on the environment and naturalresources includes coral reefs especially at the divingspots, beaches and coastal areas, and deep andshallow water wells as well as water piping systems,loss of mangrove forest, occurrence of sinkholes andlandslides in 16 provinces, and problems of soil erosion,soil salinity and solid wastes.

Countries Affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake

Height of the Tsunami Wave

Source: State of the Environment in Indonesia 2004; State of the Environment in Thailand 2005



Population and Demography

The population of ASEAN membercountries in mid-2005 was approximately558 million people, which comprisesabout 7.7% of the world’s totalpopulation. In terms of regionaldistribution, the ASEAN region has thefourth largest population after South-Central Asia, Eastern Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa. Indonesia is the mostpopulous country in the region with about40% or 220 million people. It is the fourthmost populous country in the world afterChina, India, and the United States. SixASEAN countries are among the top 50most populous countries in the world,namely, Indonesia, Philippines, Viet Nam,Thailand, Myanmar and Malaysia.

The region’s population is expected to growfrom 558 million in 2005 to around 650 million in2020. Crude birth rate will outpace crude death rateresulting in a rate of natural increase ranging from0.6% to 2.3%. The ratio of births and deaths in the

ten ASEAN member countries is estimatedbetween 2:1 and 7:1, in other words, there will beabout two to seven babies born for every oneperson who dies in the region.

Country Population (millions) Percent of Total

Brunei Darussalam 0.4 0.07

Cambodia 13.7 2.45

Indonesia 219.9 39.37

Lao PDR 6.0 1.07

Malaysia 26.1 4.67

Myanmar 53.22 9.67

Philippines 84.2 15.07

Singapore 4.4 0.79

Thailand 64.8 11.60

Viet Nam 83.1 14.88

TOTAL 558.5 100.00

Table 2.1: Population (mid-2005)


Western Europe

2.59%

South America

5.12%

Northern Europe

1.35%

Eastern Europe

4.19%

Central America

2.05%

Western Asia

2.93%

Caribbean

0.55%

Northern America

4.57%

Australia / New Zealand

0.34% Oceania

0.12%

Southeast Asia7.69%

Sub-Saharan Africa

10.28%Eastern Africa

3.79%Middle Africa

1.50%

Northern Africa

2.68%

Southern Africa

0.74%

Western Africa

3.69%

Eastern Asia

21.47%

South-Central Asia

22.26%

Southern Europe

2.09%

Figure 2.2: ASEAN’s Population Compared to Other Regions, (Mid-2004)

Source: Population Reference Bureau (2005).



Lao PDR and Cambodia are among thecountries with the highest rates of naturalincrease, 2.3% and 2.2%,respectively. Lao PDR also hasthe highest crude birth anddeath rates, 34.5% and 11.9% in2005, respectively, which meansthat even though there are morebabies being born, relativelymore deaths also occur. Bothcountries have experiencedbaby boom after peace wasrestored in the 1970s asreflected in the high fertilityrates. In more affluent countries,the fertility rate is lower. Forexample, Singapore’s fertilityrate remains low at 1.3% or onechild per mother, in spite of the pro-natal policy of itsgovernment. Singapore has the

lowest crude birth rate (10.4% in 2005) whileBrunei Darussalam has the lowest crude deathrate (2.8% in 2005).

The region’s age structure is relatively youngas a consequence of high fertility and mortalityrates. High fertility results in having moresegments of the population of ages 0 to 14compared to other age groups. Similarly, highmortality rate results in substantially reducednumber of old people. This situation producespopulation pyramids (if age-groups are plotted inascending order along the Y-axis, and populationin each age-group along the X-axis) that are muchwider at the bottom. Since 2000 the region’spopulation within the age bracket 0 – 4 years hasbegan to decline and this trend is expected tocontinue till 2020. Accordingly, while the region’spopulation will continue to grow, there will be a

Co

un

try

Percent Rate

Viet Nam

Thailand

Singapore

Philippines

Malaysia

Lao PDR

Indonesia

Cambodia

Brunei Darussalam

Myanmar

0.5– 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Figure 2.4: Rate of Natural Increase in Population (%),

2004

Source: UN-ESA Population Division (2005).

-

50

100

150

200

250

300

2000 2005 2010 2015 2020Year

Po

pu

lati

on

(m

illi

on

s)

Brunei Darussalam

CambodiaIndonesiaLao PDRMalaysiaMyanmarPhilippinesSingaporeThailandViet Nam

Figure 2.3: Projected Population, 2000 – 2020

Source: UN-ESA Population Division (2005)

Co

un

try

Percent Rate

Viet Nam

Thailand

Singapore

Philippines

Malaysia

Lao PDR

Indonesia

Cambodia

Brunei Darussalam

Myanmar

5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00

Crude Birth Rate

Crude Death Rate

Figure 2.5: Crude Birth and Death Rates (%), 2005


0

10,000

20,000

30,000

0 1 2 3 4 5

Fertility Rate

GD

P P

er C

ap

ita

US

$

Brunei Darussalam (HI)

Cambodia (LI)

Indonesia (LI)

Lao PDR (LI)

Malaysia (UMI)

Myanmar (LI)

Philippines (LMI)

Singapore (HI)

Thailand (LMI)

Viet Nam (LI)

Source: ASEAN website (2005) and WHO (2005).

LI – lower income; LMI – lower middle income;

UMI – upper middle income; HI – high income

Figure 2.6: Scatter Plot for Fertility and Income, 2003



diminution in the number of young people as thefertility rates in the region continue its downwardtrend from an average of 2.5% in 2000 – 2005 to2.0% in 2015 – 2020. Singapore is the only countryin the region that is expected to have an increasedfertility rate, from 1.35% in 2000 – 2005 to 1.44% in2015 – 2020, owing to the government’s pro-natalpolicy to arrest the growth of its ageing society.

As a result of declining fertility, the populationpyramids show that the “youth bulges” in the 5 – 9and 15 – 19 age brackets, that started to protrudein 2000, will be reflected in the 10 – 14 and 20 – 24age brackets in 2005. In 2020, these bulges will stillbe present but not as prominently as in 2000.These youth bulges reflect temporary increases inthe proportion of young people in a populationresulting from a transition from high to low fertility.They generally belong to the age group 15 – 24representing 20% or more of the population. Youthbulges are good news for countries faced with anageing population (e.g., Singapore) because moreproductive young people will be available to supportthe economy.

Singapore has the highest population density inthe region with 6,164 persons per sq. km. of landarea in 2005 while Lao PDR has the lowestpopulation density with only 25 persons per sq. km.The average population density in the region is 125 persons per sq. km. (2005).4 All countries ofthe region with the exception of Lao PDR exceedthe world’s average population density of 43 peopleper sq. km.

The region experienced a gradual diminution inthe share of rural population from 54% in 2000 to52% in 2005, despite the increase in ruralpopulation density from 1987 to 2001. The biggestdecrease in rural population occurred in Indonesia

and the Philippines. Indonesia’srural population in 2000 was 58%of the total population, but itdeclined to 52% in 2005. ThePhilippines, similarly, had a ruralpopulation of 42% in 2000, whichdecreased to only 37% in 2005.However, in Cambodia, Lao PDR,Malaysia and Thailand ruralpopulation densities increased forvarious reasons such as highfertility among rural women anddecrease in rural land areas dueto changes in political orgeographical classification ofboundaries

There is a general trend in theregion of rural-to-urban migration.

Indonesia had the biggest rural-to-urban exodus ofpeople of around 18.8 million, followed by thePhilippines with 7.6 million. Brunei Darussalamhad the smallest exodus of 43,000 people. Theexodus of rural population is not always to thelargest city of each country. In many countries themigration is towards urban areas other than thecapital cities.

Country Population Density (persons/sq.km.)

Singapore 6,164

Philippines 281

Viet Nam 252

Thailand 127

Indonesia 116

Cambodia 77

Malaysia 79

Brunei Darussalam 67

Myanmar 83

Lao PDR 25

ASEAN 125

Table 2.2: Population Density, 2005 (persons/sq.km.)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

2000-2005 2005-2010 2010-2015 2015-2020

Year

Ra

te

Brunei Darussalam

Cambodia

Indonesia

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Myanmar

Philippines

Singapore

Thailand

Viet Nam

Figure 2.7: Projected Fertility Rates 2000 – 2020




0

25

50

75

100

125

2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Year

Pe

rce

nt

Brunei Darussalam

Cambodia

Indonesia

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Myanmar

Philippine s

Singapo re

Thailan d

Viet Nam

Figure 2.8: Projected Share of Rural Population to Total Population, 2000 – 2020


0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Year

Po

pu

lati

on

(m

illi

on

s)

Brunei Darussalam

Cambodia

Indonesia

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Myanmar

Philippines

Singapore

Thailand

Viet Nam

Figure 2.9: Urbanisation Projections, 2000 – 2020


End Notes1 In this report, the word “region” refers to the “ASEAN region” rather than “Southeast Asian region.” This is to avoid

confusion where some publications include non-ASEAN countries in the geographical term “Southeast Asia.”2 Lacustrine denotes a sedimentary environment of a lake. Lacustrine deposition thus means sedimentation into a

lake. 3 There are other water bodies worth mentioning, and these are: Indonesian Sea, Seram Sea, Moluca Sea, Celebes

Sea, and Sulu Sea. 4 ASEAN Statistical Pocketbook (2006)

The hallmark of a strong and resilient community of caring societies is its commitment and capability to address the core

issues of poverty, equity and health.


CHAPTER 3Social Development


Chapter 3: Social Development

he level of social and human development – measured broadly in terms of income, health, literacy,longevity – goes hand-in-hand with environmental health. For example, the poor, individually, are not

the main cause of environmental degradation, but widespread poverty, a symptom of lack of viableeconomic activities, often leads to heavy exploitation of natural resources for livelihood. On the otherhand, the poor can be caught is a vicious cycle of bad environmental conditions causing widespreaddiseases. The people need to be lifted out of the poverty line to ensure better quality of life and care forthe environment. In this respect, the UNDP Human Development Index has shown encouragingimprovements in member countries, with Singapore and Brunei Darussalam ranked “high”, and the rest“medium”. Despite the robust economic recovery after the financial crisis, income poverty in somecountries remained high. On average, about 20% of the people in the region live below the nationalpoverty line. Efforts to reduce the gap between the rich and the poor in some countries had limitedsuccess for a variety of reasons, including limited employment opportunities. However, the region’seconomic growth had been accompanied by some improvement in health and education. The literacylevel increased to around 90% of the total population, and most countries have achieved the MDGtarget of reducing child mortality by two-thirds. Immunisation coverage against measles and DPT wasgood for most countries ranging from 42% to 100%. The prevalence of HIV/AIDS was relatively low inmost countries but remains a source of concern for some countries with 1.5% to 2.6% prevalence rateamong 15 – 24 year-olds. Access to clean and safe water increased to an average of 77% for the entireregion but access to improved sanitation facilities remained lower at 64%. For some countries, theadvantages of economic growth had not filtered down to all levels of society and poverty. Regionalcooperation has therefore being aimed at developing and enhancing human resources, raising thestandard of living of disadvantaged communities, generating employment and alleviating poverty andsocio-economic disparities.

T

Human Development Index ranking (2005) High: Singapore (25), Brunei Darussalam (33)(of 177 countries evaluated; lower is better) Medium: Malaysia (61), Thailand (73), Philippines (84),

Viet Nam (108), Indonesia (110), Myanmar (129), Cambodia (130), Lao PDR (133)

Poverty Incidence Cambodia (36%), Indonesia (17%), Lao PDR (32%), (% of population living below respective national Malaysia (5%), Myanmar (27%), Philippines (30%), poverty line) (latest national estimates) Thailand (12%), Viet Nam (27%)

Longevity (2000 – 2003)Adult mortality rate Men (257), women (186) per 1000Survival to age 65 Men (61%), women (70%)Infant deaths 41 per 1000 live births

Health (1998 – 2003)Babies born underweight(1998 – 2003) 12% under 2.5 kgUnderweight children (1995 – 2003) 31%Immunisation: DPT (2003) 42% to 99% coverageImmunisation: Measles (2000) 52.8% to 100% coverageIncidence of HIV/AIDS (2003) less than 0.1% to 2.6%

among 15 – 24 year-olds (high estimate)Access to water (2002) 77%Access to improved sanitation facilities (2002) 64%

Literacy rate (2004) over 90%



Human Development

A good indicator of the level of humandevelopment in the region may be obtained usingthe Human Development Index (HDI) of the UnitedNations Development Programme (UNDP). It is acomposite measure of standard of living (measuredby real GDP per capita, adjusted for purchasingpower), longevity (measured by life expectancy),and knowledge (measured by adult literacy andmean years of schooling). The HDI ranks countriesat three levels: high, medium and low.

Two countries in the region, namely Singaporeand Brunei Darussalam, were consistently placed inthe “high human development” group from 2001 to2005. Singapore had been the perennial frontrunneramong the ten ASEAN Member Countries by makingit within the top 25 to 28 among 160 to 170 pluscountries (varies each year) included in the study. Itwas followed by Brunei Darussalam between 32 and35. The other eight countries were placed in the“medium human development” level, with theexception of Lao PDR which, until 2003, was at “lowhuman development” level.

Poverty

The latest available national estimates ofpoverty incidence based on national poverty line

show that 36 % of the population of Cambodia wasbelow its national poverty line, Indonesia (17%),Lao PDR (32%), Malaysia (5%), Myanmar (27%),Philippines (30%), Thailand (12%), and Viet Nam(27%). It is to be noted that as the national povertyline varies among countries, the level of povertyincidence cannot be compared among ASEAN

Table 3.1: Rank in Human Development Reports, 2001 – 2005

Source: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2001 – 2005), Human Development Report (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press).

RankCountry (grouped Human Development Level Year

using 2005 HDI ranking) (using 2005 grouping) 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

1 Singapore 26 25 28 25 25

2 Brunei Darussalam 32 32 31 33 33

3 Malaysia 56 59 58 59 61

4 Thailand 66 70 74 76 73

5 Philippines 70 77 85 83 84

6 Viet Nam 101 109 109 112 108

7 Indonesia 102 110 112 111 110

8 Myanmar 118 127 131 132 129

9 Cambodia 121 130 130 130 130

10 Lao PDR 131 143 135 135 133

No. of Countries Evaluated Each Year 162 173 174 177 177

High

Medium

Country Latest Available National Estimates (%)

Brunei Darussalam –

Cambodia 36 (1999)

Indonesia 17 (2003)

Lao PDR 32 (2003)

Malaysia 5 (2002)

Myanmar 27 (2001)

Philippines 30 (2003)

Singapore –

Thailand 12 (2004)

Viet Nam 27 (2004)

Table 3.2: Poverty Incidence (based on respective

national poverty line)

Source: Adapted from “Towards an ASEAN Millennium Development

Compact”, ASEAN Secretariat, (2006)

*Notes: Brunei Darussalam and Singapore does not have explicit

national poverty line



Member Countries. On average, about 20 % of thepeople in ASEAN still live below the nationalpoverty line.

The Gini Index (a measure of income equalitywhere zero means perfect equality and 100 theopposite) of countries in the region revealed thatthe countries with the highest GDP were notnecessarily the most egalitarian. For example,Indonesia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam had lower Gini

Indices compared to Malaysia, Philippines,Thailand and Singapore. Available data on thedistribution of income also showed that the highest20% or highest 10% income/consumption groupscomprising the economic elites in each countryamassed almost half and a third, respectively, ofthe national GDP. This finding was consistent withthe “inequality” finding using the Gini Index.

Poverty alleviation is the most important socio-

Top photos show the dilapidated structures of housing used by the urban poor in one of the slum areas in Metro Manila,Philippines. Bottom photos show the new houses built from voluntary contributions of a faith-based organisation andsweat equity of both the beneficiaries and members of the organisation.



economic concern of many countries in the region.In the Philippines, for example, the task of povertyreduction is hindered by the inability of theeconomy to generate jobs for a rapidly growinglabour force. In Cambodia, Lao PDR andMyanmar, poverty reduction will requirestrengthening of the agricultural sector andintensification of efforts in rural development. Inthese countries, rural sector development isgenerally hampered by remoteness and lack ofnecessary transport services. However, the mostvisible manifestation of poverty in some counties ofthe region is the presence of numerous slums andmarginal settlements in the capital cities (e.g.,Manila in the Philippines, Jakarta in Indonesia).For this reason, the provision of decent housing toslum dwellers has become a priority concern notonly of the government but, more significantly, ofsome civil society organisations. An example is theGawad Kalinga (meaning giving care) programme,which a faith-based organisation started in thePhilippines in 2003 and is now also present inIndonesia and Cambodia.

A number of countries in the region weresuccessful in significantly reducing poverty. Latestavailable data (released in 2005 but using varioussurvey years) revealed that Viet Nam, Thailand andIndonesia had managed to successfully reduce byhalf – ahead of the MDG target year of 2015 – theproportion of people living below US$1 a day. VietNam in particular exited from a three-year PovertyReduction and Growth Facility arrangement withIMF in April 2004 and was commended for the pro-poor orientation of its public investment. On theother hand, other countries like the Philippineswere still trying their best to meet the MDG target ofreducing poverty by at least half by 2015.

Employment

The labour force in the region comprisedaround 46% of the total population in 2004 or 261million people. Employment would help alleviatepoverty if income is sufficient to provide the basicnecessities of life like food, water, clothing andshelter. Around 85% of the region’s males (i.e.males of employment age) and about 66% offemales were employed in 2003. Among people 15years and above, unemployment in 2004 washighest in the Philippines with 11.7% females and10.4% males unemployed. These levels werehigher than the unemployment figures reported in2001, with 9.4% male unemployment and 10.3%female unemployment.

49.2

46.1

37

34.3

40.4

37

43.2

42.5

01020304050CAM

IND

LAO

MAL

PHI

SIN

THA

VIE

Figure 3.1: Gini Indices of selected ASEAN Member

Countries

Source: WB (2005)

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Percentage

CAM

IND

LAO

MAL

PHI

SIN

THA

VIE

Cou

ntry

Lowest 10%Lowest 20%

Second 20%Third 20%

Fourth 20%Highest 20%

Highest 10%

Figure 3.2: Percentage Share of Income/Consumption

in selected Member Countries, Various

Survey Years (1997 – 2002)

Source: WB (2005)

25

50

0

75

100

(%)

BRU CAM IND LAO MAL MYA PHI SIN THA VIE

CountryMaleFemale

Figure 3.3: Labour Force Participation Rate in

Member Countries, 2003

Source: WB (2005)



Health

Longevity should not be just about having along life but also about having a healthy life freefrom hunger and sickness or diseases throughoutone’s lifetime. Unfortunately, statistics showed thatmany children in the region, right from the very daythey were born, had to cope with lack of sufficientnourishment to sustain their growth. On the otherhand, many adults were afflicted with sickness anddiseases by their own choice (e.g., lung diseasefrom cigarette smoking) or negligence (e.g.,HIV/AIDS from unprotected sex). But a far greaternumber, due to poverty or lack of access to suitablemedical and social services, suffered or died fromdiseases that medical science and technology hadlong eradicated or made easily preventable (e.g.,malaria or cholera).

An average of 12% of babies born in the regionbetween 1998 and 2003 suffered from low birthweight, weighing less than 2,500 grams beforesignificant postnatal weight loss had occurred. Inthe Philippines, the percentage was higher at 20%,followed by Myanmar (15%), and Lao PDR (14%).On the other hand, an average of 31% childrenwere found to be underweight, that is, the weightsfor their ages were not within accepted internationalstandard, during the period 1995 – 2003. Many ofthem were in Cambodia (45%), Viet Nam (34%),Philippines (32%) and Myanmar (28%). In the same

period, 1993 – 2005, the average number ofchildren in the entire region whose growth wasstunted (the heights for their ages were not withinaccepted international standard) was 36%. Most ofthem were in Cambodia (45%), Indonesia (42%),Myanmar (42%) and Lao PDR (41%).1

In support of the MDGs, many governments inthe region achieved significant improvements inproviding nourishment and appropriate medical careto babies. For example, on the MDG target ofreducing hunger among under 5-year old childrenand undernourished people, many countries havealready met the target of reducing by half theproportion of babies suffering from malnutrition.Malaysia surpassed this target with a 92% reductionin the number of under-5 malnourished children. But

Source: WB (2003 to 2005).

Note: Data are for most recent year available

0

2

4

6

8

10

12(%

)

Bru

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a

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a

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a

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Phi

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Sin

gapo

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Thai

land

Country

Male 2001 Male 2004 Female 2001 Female 2004

Figure 3.4: Unemployment Rate of People 15 Years and Above, 2001 and 2004


0

10

20

30

40

50

CAM IND LAO MAL MYA PHI SIN THA VIE

Country

Pre

vale

nce

(%) 1993-2000

1996-2002

1995-2003

Figure 3.5: Prevalence of Underweight Children inMember Countries, 1993 – 2003



other countries would have to work harder as thenumber of under-5 malnourished babies hadincreased. On the MDG target of reducing childmortality by two-thirds, most countries, namely,Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia,Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam hadalso already achieved it.

The rate of immunisation for measles wasalready high in the region in 2000 ranging from43.1% in Lao PDR and 55.4% in Cambodia to 97%in Viet Nam and 99% in Brunei Darussalam. In2003, coverage of immunisation further improvedfor most countries, for example, Cambodia from55.4% to 65%, Malaysia from 88% to 92%. In thecase of DPT, Brunei had 100% immunisationcoverage in 2000 while Cambodia had 48.8%.

92

17

-15

-14

9

4

-50

0

50

100

CAM

IND

LAO

MAL

PHI

VIE

0

50

100

150

200BRU

CAM

IND

LAO

MAL

MYA

PHI

SIN

THA

VIE

Base Data

Latest Data

33

40

15

29

39

23

24

33

0

10

20

30

40

50CAM

IND

LAO

MAL

MYA

PHI

THA

VIE

Country Measles DPT

2000 2002 2003 2000

Brunei 99.0 99.0 99.0 100.0Darussalam

Cambodia 55.4 52.0 65.0 48.8

Indonesia 72.0 72.0 72.0 –

Lao PDR 43.1 55.0 42.0 52.8

Malaysia 88.0 92.0 92.0 –

Myanmar 84.0 75.0 75.0 82.0

Philippines 81.0 80.0 80.0 –

Singapore 91.0 91.0 88.0 91.0

Thailand 94.0 94.0 94.0 –

Viet Nam 97.0 96.0 93.0 97.8

Table 3.3: Immunisation against Measles and DPTamong One-Year Old Children (%)


Figure 3.7: Reduction in Under-nourishment asPercentage of Total Population (MDG Goal1, Target 2) Baseline Data (1990 – 1995)vs. Latest Data (1996 – 2004)

Figure 3.8: Reduction in Child Mortality (MDG Goal 4,Target 5) Baseline Data (1990 – 1995) vs.Latest Data (1996 – 2004)

Figure 3.6: Reduction in Proportion of Children Under-5Moderately or Severely Underweight (%)(MDG Goal 1, Target 2) Baseline Data (1990– 1995) vs. Latest Data (1996 – 2004)

Source: UNESCAP-UNDP-ADB (2005)

Note: No available comparative data for other AMCs.







The HIV/AIDS prevalence rate among 15 – 24year-old people in the region was still relatively lowin 2003, ranging from less than 0.1% in BruneiDarussalam and the Philippines to 1.5% inThailand and 2.6% in Cambodia. Although theprevalence was low, most countries in the regionhad recognised the problem and wereimplementing some measures in cooperation withUnited Nations agencies and non-governmentalorganisations.

Access to clean water supply and appropriatesanitation had improved steadily throughout theregion and a majority of residents could get cleanand safe water for their everyday needs. However,Cambodia and Lao PDR would need to installmore water supply and distribution facilitiesbecause they had low water accessibility rate at34% and 43%, respectively. In general, access toimproved sanitation facilities was lower comparedto water accessibility throughout the region. Theregional average in 2002 was only 64% withCambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam havingsanitation accessibility rates of only 16%, 24% and41%, respectively.

Literacy

The level of literacy among the people in theASEAN region has also been improving steadily. In2004, over 90% of the population in the regioncould understand, read and write simple statements

about their everyday lives. Literacy rates wereparticularly high in Brunei Darussalam, Philippines,Thailand and Singapore reaching 95% to 99% in2004. On the other hand, gross enrolment inprimary, secondary and tertiary schools in theregion averaged a mere 67.8% in 2000 – 2003,increasing from 65% in the period 2000 – 2001 to69% in 2002 – 2003.

Country HIV Prevalence (%)

Brunei Darussalam < 0.1

Cambodia 2.6

Indonesia 0.1

Lao PDR 0.1

Malaysia 0.4

Myanmar 1.2

Philippines < 0.1

Singapore 0.2

Thailand 1.5

Viet Nam 0.4

Table 3.4: HIV Prevalence among 15 – 24 Year OldPeople, Both Sexes (%)


43

9580

85

100

85

73

100

34

78

0

20

40

60

80

100BRU

CAM

IND

LAO

MAL

MYA

PHI

SIN

THA

VIE

Figure 3.9: Population with Access to Water (%), 2002

Source: ASEAN (2004) and WB (2002 and 2005)

41

24

99

88

73

100

99

100

16

52

0

20

40

60

80

100BRU

CAM

IND

LAO

MAL

MYA

PHI

SIN

THA

VIE

Figure 3.10: Population with Access to Sanitation(%), 2002

Source: ASEAN (2004) and WB (2002 and 2005)



0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Brun

eiDa

russ

alam

Cam

bodi

a

Indo

nesia

Lao

PDR

Malay

sia

Myan

mar

Philip

pine

s

Sing

apor

e

Thail

and

Viet

Nam

Country

(%)

2000 2003 2004

Figure 3.11: Adult Literacy Rate among Males


0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Bru

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Indo

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Phi

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land

Viet

Nam

Country

(%)

2000 2003 2004

Figure 3.12: Adult Literacy Rate among Females


0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Rat

io (%

)

SIN BRU MAL THA PHI VIE IND MYA CAM LAO

Country

2000-2001

2001-2002

2002-2003

Figure 3.13: Gross Enrolment in Schools, 2000 – 2003

Source: UNDP (2000–2005) and WB (2005b)

Note: (1) AMCs were arranged according to their HDI 2005 ranks, and (2) Data are for the most recent year

available.



Poverty and Environment

There is a causal link between poverty andenvironmental degradation. Poverty poses a threatto the environment if poor people exploit fragileecosystems and natural resources to meet theirdaily needs. In the urban setting, slums andmarginal settlements that are usually located nearthe river banks contribute to the pollution of urbanrivers. Due to severe congestion in these areas,

proper disposal of solid wastes is also difficult.Conversely, environmental degradation poses athreat to poor people since most poor peopledepend on their surrounding natural resources forlivelihood. In addition, the poor are the mostvulnerable to environmental hazards and naturaldisasters. A study on the consequences of forestdenudation to farming and to women’s lives in poorrural areas in the Philippines shows the tight nexusbetween poverty and environment.

Box 3.1: Consequences of Environmental Degradation on Irrigated Rice Production, Households, Population,and Women: A Case Study from the Philippines

The degradation of irrigation infrastructure,exacerbated by high electricity costs of irrigation, hasexpanded the area used for partially-irrigated and rain-fed farms, which has led to a massive decline in riceproduction. This leads to greater poverty for smallholderrice farmers. In many areas, the low income from ricehas led to the conversion of land to industrial,recreational or residential use. Due to unemploymentand the inability of rice farming to absorb the availablelabour force, plus the higher wages and greateropportunities offered by non-farm employment, malefarmers migrate to the cities, particularly during the dryseason. Unless technologies are forthcoming toincrease crop productivity and cropping intensity bygrowing drought-tolerant crops, male migration willcontinue, leaving women as the sole managers of theiranimals, minor crops, and all household responsibilities.

Lack of irrigation that would enable farmers to growtwo to three crops of rice per year tends to intensify landuse and increase the yield per hectare through the useof modern varieties. This is supported by a study thatstated that rice production is characterised by long-termstagnation or declines in yields under intensive irrigatedrice production. The degradation of the paddyenvironment can occur due to one or more causes: pestpressure, rapid depletion of micro-nutrients and changesin soil chemistry brought about by intensive croppingand increased reliance on low quality irrigation water.

Rural women who do not have access to alternativeand remunerative employment in the village have towork as hired labourers in transplanting and harvestingoperations, where they are paid either in cash or in-kind(i.e., a share of the paddy). Their wages depend on theirfarming skills and speed. In transplanting, greatercompetition results in smaller take-home wages. Such

rural women suffer from low returns on their labour andfrom low self-esteem in maintaining family food security.

Low incomes, lack of employment opportunities,increased indebtedness, and diminishing sources ofhome-produced foods – all these lead to less availablefood for a family with an average of six children. Thepoor quality of food and reduced mother's time in foodpreparation lead to child malnutrition and high infantmortality. In the absence of alternative support systems,the greater time mothers are obliged to spend outsidethe home leads to the neglect of child care, less time forbreast-feeding, and poorer feeding habits.

Environmental and economic pressures in thelowland, rain-fed areas result in the loss of sustainablelivelihood and reduced employment. This has led togreater and growing migration from the lowlands to theupland areas, thereby merely transferring theenvironmental and economic pressures to higher zones.Conflicts consequently arise between the lowlandmigrants and the upland farmers and indigenous tribalcommunities. The resulting population pressureexacerbates the poverty and survival needs of theuplands people, including both migrant and indigenouscommunities. This, in turn, feeds further, denuding forestlands and environmental degradation, as the resourcesof nature become the only accessible goods that can beexploited. Resource depletion, poverty andunemployment lead to rural-urban migration, and theproliferation of city slums and squatter settlements, alsoimposing various negative environmental penalties.

Source: Excerpts from Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)(2005), “Environment, Women and Population: Interrelated Issues inRural Development in Southeast Asia” 4 Oct 2005.

In general, efforts to reduce poverty andgenerate more jobs in the region have met withdifficult challenges. This situation underscores theneed to strengthen pro-poor growth strategies anddelivery of basic services to the poorer sector ofsociety. In general, for economic growth to be pro-poor, it must have two characteristics: first, growth

must be rapid enough to have an immediate effectin reducing income poverty; and second, growthmust result in greater equity in income and betteraccess to a wide range of social services. Thistwin challenge should therefore be given utmostpriority in the policy agenda of countries in theregion.



End Notes1 World Bank (2003 – 2005)

Box 3.2: ASEAN Millennium Development Compact

An ASEAN workshop on regional cooperation andMDGs, convened with support from the UNDPRegional Bureau for Asia and the Pacific on 1 – 2August 2005, provided a forum for peer-learning onapproaches to mainstream poverty into nationaldevelopment agendas and policy measures for povertymonitoring and reduction, bearing in mind priorities forsustainable development. The workshop’s key outcomewas the agreement to develop an “ASEAN MillenniumDevelopment Compact” (AMDC) to serve as theASEAN value-add to ongoing efforts of ASEANMember Countries to implement the MDGs. TheAMDC’s objective of narrowing the development gapbetween ASEAN Member Countries is also in ASEAN’saction agenda for rural development and povertyeradication.

While the AMDC and its proposed cooperationmodalities would focus on MDG Goal 1, which is toeradicate extreme poverty and hunger, there is arecognition of the need for greater advocacy and inter-sectoral collaboration, citing the importance of acomprehensive approach to addressing the MDG goals.Poverty is the cornerstone to which the targets foreducation, health, environmental sustainability andgender equality would be linked. The AMDC would thusprovide the framework under which the different ASEANbodies addressing these priorities could meet, sharerespective experiences and challenges, and reachsolutions in a larger forum.

For example, universal education cannot beaccomplished if poverty keeps children out of school.Providing adequate education and employmentopportunities for girls and young women is an importantconsideration for helping families out of poverty.Providing the poor with basic healthcare and affordable

drugs for treatment of AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis andother infectious diseases contribute to overallimprovements in human well-being. Environmentalfactors also play a crucial role in the health of thepopulation. Having access to safe drinking water andproper sanitation will help reduce maternal and childmortality and prevent the spread of diseases. Adequacyof habitat is also vital to maintaining a decent standardof living. Development assistance can help accelerateefforts to achieve these goals. Developed countries canassist the less developed through aid, technologytransfer and helping to create more employmentopportunities, especially for youth.

The AMDC thus demonstrates ASEAN’s “ProsperThy Neighbours” policy, which is a win-win solution tobridging the different levels of economic developmentamong the ASEAN Member Countries.

The AMDC initiative was highlighted to, andwelcomed by Ministers attending the “Asia PacificRegional Ministerial Meeting on MDGs: The WayForward 2015” on 3 – 5 August 2005 in Jakarta. TheJakarta Declaration issued on this occasion stated thatthe Ministers were “encouraged to learn of thepioneering step taken by the Association of SoutheastAsian Nations (ASEAN) to prepare an ASEANMillennium Development Compact which will catalysemany inter-country initiatives to plan for effectivecollective action at all levels in achieving the MDGs.”

The ASEAN Ministers on Rural Development andPoverty Eradication (AMRDPE) will discuss how theAMDC can be an effective tool for ASEAN MemberCountries to achieve economic growth with equity,through partnerships and mutual support.

Social equity must accompany economicgrowth if development is to become sustainable.Growth that does not generate decent employmentopportunities to a wide sector of the population isnot a very desirable economic growth pattern. Toavoid this type of growth will require, among others,the provision of needed investments that generate

jobs, and the strengthening of institutions andcapacity to deliver social services such aseducation and health to the entire population. Thisis an important challenge to the region. Unless thisis adequately and effectively addressed, there willbe disparities in the social development of manycountries in the region.

“Poverty alleviation, equity and human development lie at the core of a strong and resilient ASEANCommunity. These are also principles underscored in the United Nations Millennium Declaration.ASEAN Member Countries are part of the global compact formed by the Millennium Declaration whichlaid out the Millennium Development Goals. ASEAN Leaders have reaffirmed their commitment to worktogether to achieve the Millennium Development Goals, emphasising partnerships and mutual support“

(Ong Keng Yong , Secretary-General of ASEAN)

The ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) to be achieved by the year 2020embodies the realisation of ASEAN’s aspiration of a stable, prosperous

and highly competitive region, functioning as a single market andproduction base by 2020, in which there is a free flow of goods, services

and skilled labour, and a freer flow of capital, along with equitableeconomic development and reduced poverty and socio-economic

disparities within and across its Member Countries


CHAPTER 4Economic Development

Chapter 4: Economic Development


ustained economic growth is essential to improve the standard of living and to provide better carefor the environment. As a resource-rich region, the economy of the region is heavily dependent on

its natural resources. Nevertheless it is comforting to note that the economy of the region waspredominantly service (44.4%) and industry-based (40.9%), with agriculture accounting for only 14.7%of the region’s economic production. However, the contribution of agriculture and mining to GDP was at27%, compared to manufacturing at 25% and financial services sector at 10% in 2003. Mining was thefastest-growing sector posting a 58% increase from 1998 to 2000 and continuing its robust growth in2003. There was an overall decrease in the region’s primary energy production, with new andrenewable energy accounting for only 3% of oil-based power. In view of the steep escalation of oilprices, many countries in the region are investing in renewable sources of energy such as bio-diesel.Fisheries production experienced a similar growth with exports of fishery products outpacing imports.Tourism arrivals recorded an impressive growth of 28% in 2004 compared to the slump in 2003, andeco-tourism offers great potential for the countries of the region. The challenge to the region would beto ensure sustainable management practices in many of these resource-based industries/services sothat it not only helps conserve the natural capital for the long term, but at the same time minimisesdetrimental local and transboundary pollution. With the increased awareness on environment, thedemand for green products/services offers unique opportunities to diversify the market by offering nicheproducts. Also green-growth or green-productivity has been shown to support the triple bottom-line, i.e.profitability, social responsibility and environmental protection, and therefore should be widely adoptedin the region.

S

ASEAN Economic Growth

ASEAN GDP per capita (nominal)

ASEAN GDP/capita (2005) Range (among member countries – nominal) US$ 106 – 26,821

Trade (2004)Exports US$ 552 billionImports US$ 492 billion

Economic Structure

Service-based ASEAN (44.4%); most service-oriented (2004): Singapore (63.7%)

Industry-based ASEAN (40.9%); most industry-oriented (2004): Brunei Darussalam (58.4%)

Agriculture-based ASEAN (14.7%); most agriculture-oriented (2004): Lao PDR (50.2%), Myanmar (42.9%) and Cambodia (32.8%),

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

3.4% 5.0% 5.6% 6.1% 5.5%

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

US$ 1,096 US$ 1,209 US$ 1,322 US$ 1,440 US$ 1,569



Economic Growth andPerformance

The economy of ASEAN as a wholeexperienced modest average growth of 5.1% from2001 to 2005, rising steadily from 3.4% in 2001 to ahigh of 6.1% in 2004 before declining slightly to5.5% in 2005. This was the result of strongerconsumer demand and renewed consumerconfidence, sharp revival in tourism after the 2003SARS scare, increased trade and exports, and ageneral revival of the business environment.

The average GDP per capita increasedmoderately by about 43%, from US$1,096 in 2001to US$1,569 in 2005. Singapore and Brunei

Darussalam posted the highest GDP per capita in2005 at US$26,821 and US$16,882, respectively,and were among the high-income countries of theworld. Malaysia, on the other hand, is the onlyASEAN country that belongs to the upper-middleincome bracket, with a GDP per capita of $5,001 in2005. Indonesia moved up from the low-incomecategory to join the rank of the Philippines andThailand. Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar and VietNam were listed in the low-income category. Almostall countries in the region experienced steadygrowth in GDP per capita during the period 2001 to2005. For example, Lao PDR increased its percapita GDP by over 91% from US$326 to US$623,Viet Nam by 53% from US$415 to US$635, andCambodia by about 40% from US$288 to US$404.

-5

0

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Country

Per

cent

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Figure 4.2: Rate of Economic Growth


Note: Singapore rebased its National Accounts using the year 2000 as the base year.

3.4

5.05.6

6.15.5

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005Year

Per

cent

Figure 4.1: Rate of Economic Growth in ASEAN


1,0961,209

1,3221,440

1,569

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Year

US

$Figure 4.3: GDP per capita in ASEAN at Current

Market Prices (US$)




Economic Structure

Data for 2004 showed that the economy of theregion was predominantly service- (44.4%) andindustry-based (40.9%), with agriculture accountingfor only 14.7% of the region’s economic production.The service-based economic activities includedwholesale and retail trade; restaurants and hotels;transport, storage and communications; financing,insurance, real estate and business services; andcommunity, social and personal services. Industry-

based activities included mining, quarrying,manufacturing, construction and public utilities(electricity, gas, and water). Agricultural activities,on the other hand, consisted of farming, hunting,forestry, fishing and livestock raising. In 2004 themost service-oriented economies were that ofSingapore (63.7%) and Malaysia (49.7%), the mostindustry-oriented economies were that of BruneiDarussalam (58.4%) and Thailand (46.7%), and themost agriculturally-oriented economies were that ofLao PDR (50.2%) and Myanmar (42.9%)

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

30,000

25,000

20,000

15,000

10,000

5,000

3,000

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

GD

P P

er

Cap

ital (U

S$)

Country

Brunei Darussalam Cambodia Malaysia Thailand Viet NamSingaporePhilippinesMyanmarLao PDRIndonesia

Figure 4.4: GDP per capita in Selected Member Countries at Current Market Prices (US$)


Notes: 1. Computed using period exchange rates.

2. Indonesia and Singapore rebased its National Accounts using the year 2000 as the base year.

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Bru

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Cam

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Indo

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Sin

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Thai

land

Vie

t Nam

AS

EA

N

Country

Per

cent

Agriculture

Industry

Services

Figure 4.5: GDP Share of Major Groups, 2004


Note: Computed based on GDP at constant prices.



Agriculture and Fishery Products

While the share of agriculture in the overalleconomy of the region was only 14.7% in 2004, itremained an important factor in the utilisation of theregion’s natural resources (e.g. use of water forirrigation) and in determining the quality of theenvironment (e.g. presence of pesticide residuals).Paddy, maize, soybean, sugarcane and cassavawere the five major agricultural crops produced inthe region. Between 2003 and 2004, there was aslight to moderate increase in the production ofpaddy (3.9%), maize (11.3%) and cassava (0.8%)but the production of sugarcane declinedsignificantly (12.1%) and of soybean slightly (1.7%).Between 2001 and 2004, the production of paddyand maize grew steadily but soybean andsugarcane suffered significant declines in 2001 and2004, respectively.

The region is also a major producer of fisheryproducts namely, fish, crustaceans, and aquaticinvertebrates. Fish is exported live, chilled,frozen, dried and salted or in the form of fish filletand other types of fish meat. In 2001, the total

value of the region’s exports of fish and fishproducts, crustaceans, molluscs and otherinvertebrates amounted to over $4.1 billion andincreased steadily to nearly $6.2 billion in 2004.The region also imported fishery productsamounting to about $1.6 billion in 2001 andalmost $2.4 billion in 2004. The region remains anet exporter of fish and other fishery products intothe world market.

Industry

Although most of the countries in the regionwere promoting growth in the industry andservices sector, the Asian Development Bankdata (2003) showed that the agriculture sectorcontribution to the overall GDP remainedsignificant. The share of the manufacturing sectorwas 25% while that of the financial servicessector was 10%. In terms of growth, mining wasthe fastest-rising sector posting a 58% increasefrom 1998 to 2000 and continuing its robustgrowth in 2003. The rate declined in 2001 – 2003to 28% but still had the highest growth rate. Thephenomenal rise of the GDP contribution of themining sector was strongly felt in 1998 – 2000 inLao PDR, when it registered a phenomenal 305%growth. This was followed in 2001 – 2003 byMyanmar and the Philippines when the GDPcontributions of their mining sectors grew by 74%and 77%, respectively.

Food Crop 2003 2004

Paddy 160,350 166,579

Maize 22,724 25,301

Soybean 1,376 1,353

Sugarcane 141,433 124,264

Cassava 29,575 29,800

Table 4.1: Production of Five Major Food Crops inASEAN, 2003 – 2004 (‘000 metric tons)


2001 2002 2003 2004

Table 4.3: ASEAN Exports and Imports of FisheryProducts (Million US$)


Food Crop 2001 2002 2003 2004

Paddy 1.1 1.0 3.5 3.9

Maize 0.4 0.8 5.3 11.3

Soybean (10.7) (8.1) 4.7 (1.7)

Sugarcane 5.9 12.6 20.1 (12.1)

Cassava 5.0 (3.0) 16.5 0.8

Table 4.2: Growth of ASEAN’s Five Major FoodCommodities


EXPORTS

Fish and 1,003 1,085 1,373 1,841fish products

Crustaceans 2,709 2,180 2,328 3,507

Molluscs 429 462 563 809

IMPORTS

Fish and 1,170 988 1,330 1,605fish products

Crustaceans 336 274 373 600

Molluscs 152 89 156 172



Energy

Between 1999 and 2000, there was a slightincrease in the production of primary energy in theregion, with coal production increasing by 3%,crude oil by 3%, natural gas by almost 6%,hydropower by 2%, and geothermal energy bynearly 14%. With only partial data available for2001, the trend showed an overall decrease in theregion’s primary energy production, although thereappeared to be a significant increase in theproduction of other energy sources.

In terms of GDP per unit of energy use, thePhilippines was the most efficient user of energy

with a ratio of 6.8 in 2001 and 7.6 in 2002. Incomparison, Singapore’s GDP per unit of energygrew from 2.9 in 2001 to 3.8 in 2002. Theimprovement in the GDP-energy use ratios reflectsstructural changes, improvement in energyefficiency of some economic sectors, and morefavourable fuel mixes in the country.

In 2000 the region had a total installed powercapacity of 95,900 megawatts (MW) mostly fromoil-based power plants. Indonesia had 36% of thetotal installed capacity in the region, followed byViet Nam (20%), and Malaysia (14%). Anadditional 12,330 MW had been installed by 2005,and by 2010 the capacity would increase by 48%to 142,300 MW. On the other hand, the totalinstalled capacity from new and renewablesources (NRES) (wind, solar, biomass, etc.) wasonly 2,870 MW in 2000, a mere 3% of oil-basedpower.

The regional average utilisation of NRES was9% in 2000 with Lao PDR and Myanmar leadingthe region with 24% and 22%, respectively. It wasexpected that the share of NRES would increase by25% to 3,610 MW in 2010. Nevertheless, sincemany countries of the region are still dependent onoil for their energy requirements, particularly, thePhilippines, Thailand and Singapore, thesecountries were hit hard by the global oil priceincrease that started in 2005.

Transport and

communications

7%

Others

7%

Public

admini-

stration

4%

Construction

4% Trade

14%

Electricity,

gas, and

water

2%

Manufacturing25%

Mining

3%

Agriculture24%

Finance

10%

Figure 4.6: GDP Contribution by Sector, 2003

Ra

te

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

–10Agr

Industrial Origin

Fin PubAd OthersTranTradConElecManMin

Ave 1998–2000

Ave 2001–2003

Figure 4.7: Growth Rate of the Industrial Sectors interms of GDP Contribution, 1998 – 2000and 2001 – 2003

Agr – agriculture; Min – mining; Man – manufacturing;

Elec – electricity, gas, and water; Con – Construction; Trad – trade;

Tran – transportation and communication; Fin – Finance;

PubAd – Public Administration.

Unit 1999 2000 2001

COAL KTON 114,000 118,000

CRUDE OIL, KBBL 947,000 971,000NGL & CONDENSATE

NATURAL GAS MNCUFT 5,370,000 5,680,000 2,990,000

BIOMASS KTON 136,000 145,000 60,300

HYDRO GWH 61,400 62,800 48,800

GEOTHERMAL GWH 14,500 16,500 10,400

OTHER GWH 630 630 20,900SOURCES

Table 4.4: ASEAN Primary Energy Production (1999 –2001)

Source: ASEAN Centre for Energy

website < http://www.aseanenergy.org >

Abbreviations: KTON – kilo tonne; KBBL – kilo barrel; MNCUFT –

million cubic feet; GWH – gigawatthour

Source: ADB (2004).

Note: Computed.



Tourism

Tourism in the region was steadily rising from2000 to 2002 until it slumped in 2003 due to thecombined global effects of the Iraq war, SARS, anda persistently weak global economy.1 The regionwelcomed about 39 million tourists in 2000, 42million in 2001, 44 million in 2002, and decreasedby 12% in 2003. But the tourist arrivals quicklyrecovered in 2004 with an impressive 28% increasein tourist arrivals, which translated to about 50million visitors or 12 million visitors more comparedto that of 2003.

8

6

4

2

0

2001

2002

Country

Ye

ar

PP

P U

S$

Pe

r U

nit

VIE

PHITHA

SINMALIND

2002

2001

Figure 4.8: GDP per Unit of Energy Use in SelectedMember Countries, 2001 – 2002

Box 4.1: Major Renewable Energy Programmes in ASEAN Countries

Source: Guillermo R.Balce (2001), “Energy Security and Sustainable Development – ASEAN Region, “a Powerpoint presentation presented at the 7th

ASCOPE Conferencwe and Exhibition 2001, Putra World Trade Centre (PWTC), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Acronyms: ACE – ASEAN Centre for Energy; ENCON Fund – Energy Conservation Promotion Fund; NRSE-SSN – New and Renewable Sources of

Energy-Subsector Netwok; PRESSEA – Promotion of Renewable Energy Sources in Southeast Asia

Brunei Darussalam Focus on hydropower and solar.

Cambodia Focus on biomass, solar, and micro hydro.

Indonesia Small power purchase tariff and pre-electrification programmepromotion of local manufacturing capability; and focus onhydro biomass, solar, geothermal, and hybrid.

Lao PDR Focus on biomass, solar, wind, and microhydro.

Malaysia Renewable Energy (RE) as fifth fuel; promote small-scale gridconnected and decentralized RE systems for ruralelectrification; R&D on solar, hydro and systemsmanufacturing; and focus on biomass cogen.

Myanmar Commercialisation of solar, wind, biomass, and micro-hydrosystems for rural applications.

Philippines Village rural electrification; credit programmes; and focus onsolar, wind, biomass, and micro hydro.

Singapore Efficient use of municipal solid wastes for large-scale powergeneration.

Thailand ENCON Fund; full-scale demonstration projects for proven RE technologies and promotion of industrial applications; grid-connected RE systems through the small power producerprogramme; and manufacturing schemes for biomass energy.

Vietnam R&D on RE systems for rural applications; and market modelsfor stand-alone/hybrid.

ASEAN Develop ASEAN manufacturing capabilities in RE; create a (ACE / NRSESSN) policy and institutional framework for RE; promote intra-

ASEAN cooperation on ASEAN made products; establishASEAN NRSE standards; promote the application ofrenewable energy for rural electrification; and promote AEAN-EU PRESSEA



All countries in the region, except Myanmar,received fewer tourists in 2003 with Malaysiahaving the largest percentage drop of 20%,followed by Singapore (19%) and Lao PDR (14%).Although Myanmar’s tourist arrivals did not reachthe million mark, and was just 2% of the region’stotal in 2003, it posted a hefty 175% increase. In2002 only 217 thousand international visitors visitedMyanmar, but in 2005 there was a big influx of 660thousand visitors (an increase of 200%). Touristsheaded to Myanmar to see the “old Asia”, visitingthe Shwedagon Pagoda and other 11th and 12th

century Buddhist monuments.

In terms of total head count, Malaysia was stillthe top tourist destination in the region with 16.4million visitors (2005), about 34% of the region,followed by Thailand (18%) and Singapore (18%).Tourists from Singapore numbered 12 million,followed by Japan, Malaysia and China with morethan 3 million visitors each. The rest, ranging from1.7 million to 2.8 million visitors, came fromIndonesia, Thailand, South Korea, US, Australia,and Taiwan. Four out of the top ten countries fromwhich tourists originated were from the ASEANregion, indicating the healthy growth of intra-ASEAN tourism. An estimated $26 billion each yearwere spent by tourists in the region from 2000 to2003. Thailand and Malaysia earned the most in2003, around $10 billion and $8 billion respectively.The two were also the only countries in the regionwhose tourism receipts increased between 2000and 2003.

Tourists visit the Shwedagon Pagoda in Myanmar, theGrand Palace in Thailand, and a private beach in thePhilippines (top-to-bottom)

42.0 43.838.4

49.0 48.7

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Year

Mill

ions

Figure 4.9: Intra-ASEAN Visitor Arrivals (Millions)


27.8

-12.3

4.3

7.2

-20

-10

0

10

20

30

40

2001 2002 2003 2004

Year

Per

cent

Figure 4.10: Growth Rate of Tourist Arrivals in theASEAN Region, 2001 – 2004




Economic Development andEnvironmental Protection

The vital economic signs in the region as awhole were generally positive during the periodunder review with GDP per capita climbing steadilyand growth rates remaining positive during theentire period. Since 2002, the performance of FDIwas also positive and growing steadily. Positive netexports (over imports) boosted the economies ofmost countries in the region despite the globalthreats of terrorism and epidemics, among others.

The increased international tourist arrivals andtourism receipts is good news for the region as awhole. If properly planned and managed a robusttourism industry could put pressure on both thegovernment and the community to improve thecleanliness of surroundings and intensify theconservation of natural resources through thedesignation of protected areas for the benefit oftourists. However, the negative impacts of tourismshould be given appropriate attention ensuring thatfragile ecosystems were not harmed, pristinebeaches and other tourist destinations were notpolluted, and local social and cultural practices andbeliefs were recognised and respected.

In terms of energy, there was a growingconsumption of fossil fuels in the region and somecountries suffered from energy deficits, with powersupply unable to cope with rapidly growingeconomies. These countries should therefore focusmore attention and resources in developing andutilising renewable energy resources andtechnologies as well as improve energy efficiencies

and demand side management (e.g. energyconservation) to improve energy security andreduce vulnerability to global oil price increases.

There are positive signs in a number ofcountries indicating greater awareness among thegeneral public of the inextricable link betweeneconomic growth and the consumption of goods, onone hand, and environmental protection andresource conservation, on the other. Consumersare becoming increasingly aware of the need topurchase products that are energy efficient andpackaged in an environmentally-friendly manner.With the promotion of environmental labelling, thistrend will result in significant reductions in theconsumption of energy and raw materials, thuspromoting environmentally sustainable economicgrowth and sustainable consumerism.

Sound economic development could ultimatelybecome beneficial to the environment if, at thenational and local levels, the rising incomes couldlead to improved access to health and environmentalservices and more resources being allocated toenvironmental protection and conservation. Theincrease in national GDP and income should lead tomore sophisticated environmental policies, bettertraining of environmental personnel, and higherinvestments in appropriate pollution abatementtechnologies and equipment. The greening ofeconomic development will be a continuing challengeto all countries in the region. This means maintainingthe rising trend in economic growth while consumingless non-renewable resources and producing lessresidual. The promotion of green growth will helpensure the sustainability of the region’s future.

(mill

ion)

Country

20

15

10

5

–LAO MYA VIETHASINFHIMALINDCAMBRU

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

Figure 4.11: Tourist Arrivals in Member Countries, 2001 – 2004

Source: ASEAN (2004) and ASEAN Website (2005)



End Note1 World Tourism Organisation (2004), Tourism Highlights: Edition 2004 (Madrid: WTO), p. 2.

The economy of the region continues to grow ata moderate pace driven by an expanding globaland regional consumption of goods and utilisationof services. This implies increasing use of naturalresources (e.g. minerals, fossil fuels, timber, andother biological resources) with the concomitantgeneration of residuals (e.g. wastewater effluentsand air emissions) and wastes (e.g. usedappliances, discarded packaging materials). Theextraction and processing of raw materials asinputs to industrial production, construction ofinfrastructures and generation of energy, and thepoor management of wastes and other externalitiesresulting from economic activities are the principalsources of pressures on the environment. Thechallenge for the region is to enhance or maintainthis economic growth in a manner that will have aminimum of adverse impact on the various

ecosystems of the region. This will require, amongothers, the promotion of cleaner productiontechnologies, resource recovery and wasteminimisation, and consumer education to favour theconsumption of environmentally-friendly products.

The other challenge is to narrow the gapbetween the level of development among countriesin the region. This will require, among others,further strengthening regional cooperation andpromoting increased foreign direct investments andtourism into the region, in particular, intra-ASEANtrade, investment and tourism. Related to this is theeconomic divide within countries, particularlybetween the rural and urban areas. This can beaddressed by, among others, instituting policies thatmake economic growth more pro-poor.

Box 4.2: Green Corners Programme in Singapore

In Singapore, electricity is generated from theburning of natural gas and oil in power plants, 20% ofwhich is consumed by the household sector. To promoteenergy conservation among consumers, the NationalEnergy Efficiency Committee (NEEC) launched thevoluntary Energy Labelling Scheme (ELS) for householdappliances in April 2002. Administered by the SingaporeEnvironment Council (SEC) and supported by theNational Environment Agency (NEA), the ELS aims toencourage consumers to choose, and thereby increasedemand for energy-efficient appliances.

At present, the ELS covers two appliance categories,namely refrigerators and air conditioners, which typicallyaccount for 45% – 65% of household electricityconsumption. To date, 101 air conditioner and 76refrigerator models have been labelled under the scheme.

Energy Labels

Labels are carried on appliance models in retailstores. To increase the visibility of these models, NEAand SEC launched the Green Corners programme inMarch 2003. Under this voluntary programme,participating retail shops would dedicate an area or

corner in their showrooms to showcase energy-labelledappliance models. Educational posters and standeespublicising the Energy Label would be placed alongsidethese appliance models for added impact.

To date, nine stores owned by four retailers areparticipating in the Green Corners programme. GreenCorners are gaining popularity because shoppers arebecoming more aware of the need to save energy. NEAand SEC will continue to collaborate and encouragemore retailers to set up Green Corners.

Green Corner

Source: Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources, Singapore

(2006)

Ensure ASEAN’s coastal and marine environment are sustainably managed;representative ecosystems, pristine areas and species protected; economic

activities sustainably managed, and public awareness of the coastal andmarine environment instilled.

Promote sustainability of water resources to ensure sufficient water quantity of acceptable quality to meet the needs of the people of ASEAN in terms of

health, food security, the economy and the environment, taking intoconsideration the strong linkage between water,

health and poverty.


CHAPTER 5Freshwater and MarineEcosystems

Chapter 5: Freshwater and Marine Ecosystems


ater is an important environmental resource; it sustains life and economic activities, and is usedextensively as a waste sink. The overall availability of freshwater in the region is good, but some

countries experience seasonal scarcity. The region’s water resources were under increasing pressureas economic and human activities exerted tremendous stress on fragile coastal and marineecosystems. The withdrawal of freshwater from rivers, lakes, reservoirs and underground aquifers hadgrown at rates faster than replenishment resulting in reduced river and lake levels, depleted aquifersand lowered water tables. Agricultural use, mainly for irrigation, accounted for the major part of waterwithdrawals but the effect of water development programmes for hydropower and domestic andindustrial requirements was also significant. Contamination by pollutants from industrial and domesticsources, urban and agricultural run-off, and saline intrusion had also seriously degraded water quality.Growing population, increasing use of agro-chemicals, and rising demand from agriculture and industrycombined with contamination of water resources from a range of sources would imply lower per capitaavailability of clean freshwater in the future. Marine fisheries production had increased with theintroduction of modern fishing methods and expansion of fishing activities. Excessive land reclamationand coastal development for residential and commercial use, the discharge of domestic and industrialwastes into rivers and nearby seas, oil spills and other contaminants from shipping and other maritimeactivities, and surface run-off and drainage from port and surrounding areas all contributed to thecontinuing destruction of coral reefs, depletion of mangrove areas, contamination of coastal waters, anddeterioration of marine and coastal ecosystems. There is a need for a more effective and integratedmanagement system that strikes a delicate balance between current social and economic needs andconservation for future needs. The ASEAN Strategic Plan of Action on Water Resources Management,the ASEAN Marine Water Quality Criteria and the ASEAN Criteria for National Marine Protected Areasand Marine Heritage Areas are some of the regional responses that complement and support actions atthe national level.

W

ASEAN Coastline 173,000 kilometres (11% of world total)

ASEAN Renewable Water Resources 7,062 cubic kilometres(16% of world total, 1997 – 2001)

ASEAN Marine Fish Production 12.5 million metric tonnes(15% of world total, 2002)

ASEAN Overall Fish Exports $6.16 billion (2004)ASEAN Overall Fish Imports $2.38 billion (2004)

ASEAN Mangrove Forests 34% of world total

ASEAN Mangrove Species 5 – 45 species(7 – 64% of world total)

Coral Reefs at RiskGlobal 58% (27% at high/very high risk)ASEAN 80% (55% at high/very high risk)

Ramsar Wetland Sites in ASEAN 26 sites covering 811,000 hectares



Freshwater Resources

The availability and quality of freshwater will beamong the most pressing environmental problemsthat many ASEAN countries will face in the future.Data up to 2001 show that the region had about7,000 cubic kilometres of internal renewable freshwater resources which comprised of averageannual flow of rivers and recharge of groundwater(aquifers) generated from endogenous (internal)precipitation. Available data indicate that theamount of internal renewable freshwater resources

of the region was next only to South America butexceeded that of Africa and North America for theperiod 1997 – 2001. The region’s annual per capitasupply of freshwater increased at an average rateof 38% from 1996 to 1999 but started to decreaseat an average rate of 17% beginning from 2000 to2004, partly as a result of the continuing increasein the region’s population and developmentactivities. The supply peaked at a level of over22,000 cu m/capita in 1999 – 2000 and declinedsignificantly to just over 12,000 cu m/capita in2004.

0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000

(cu km)

Central America & Caribbean

Europe

Middle East & North Africa

North America

Oceania

South America

Sub-Saharan Africa

ASEAN

Reg

ion

Figure 5.1: Total Internal Renewable Freshwater Resources of Selected Regions, 1997 – 2001

Source: WRI (2005) based on FAO 2003 data

0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000

(cu m/capita)

Central America & Caribbean

Europe

Middle East & North Africa

North America

Oceania

South America

Sub-Saharan Africa

ASEAN

Reg

ion

Figure 5.2: Per Capita Internal Renewable Freshwater Resources of Selected Regions

Source: WRI (2005) based on FAO 2003 data



Owing to their different sizes, geographiclocations and natural resources endowments, theavailability of internal freshwater resources in eachASEAN Member Country varies considerably. In2004, the region’s total available internal waterresources was estimated to be approximately 4,500

cu km annually. Indonesia produced the largestamount of freshwater in the region accounting forabout 41% of the region’s total. It is followed byMyanmar (20%) and Malaysia (14%). BruneiDarussalam (0.08%) and Singapore (0.01%) hadthe smallest volume of freshwater resources.

While there was seasonal variations in percapita water supply in some countries, overall there

was a progressive slight decline over the yearsfrom 1996 to 2004 in most member countries.

Philippines146

3.23%

Viet Nam335

7.40%

Thailand216

4.77%

Singapore0.6

0.01%

Lao PDR308

6.81%

Indonesia1,852

40.92%

Cambodia134

2.96%

BruneiDarussalam

3.40.08%

Malaysia630

13.92%

Myanmar901

19.91%

Figure 5.3: ASEAN’s Total Available Internal Water Resources (‘000 cu km), 2004

Source: State of Water Resources Management in ASEAN, ASEAN Secretariat (2005)

0

10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

60000

70000

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2003 2004

Year

Uni

t (cu

m/c

apita

)

Brunei Darussalam

Cambodia

Indonesia

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Myanmar

Philippines

Singapore

Thailand

Viet Nam

Figure 5.4: Per Capita Supply of Annual Internal Renewable Freshwater Resources, 1996 – 2004

Source: WB (1998 – 2005) and WRI (2005)



Freshwater comes from two main sourcesnamely, surface water and groundwater. Surfacewater originates from rivers, lakes, and natural orman-made reservoirs. In the ASEAN region, thereare more internal bodies of water in thearchipelagic countries such as Indonesia and thePhilippines than in the continental countries suchas Myanmar, Lao PDR and Thailand. However, thecontinental rivers are longer, with larger drainageareas, and lower runoff yields. The Mekong River isthe largest and most important river in the region.Its rich aquatic resources support the livelihoods ofthe people of the riparian states of Cambodia, LaoPDR, Myanmar, Thailand and Viet Nam. Aside fromrivers, lakes are also sources of freshwater in theregion. The most popular among them in the regionare the Tonle Sap in Cambodia, Lake Toba inIndonesia, Laguna de Bay in the Philippines, andSongkhla Lake in Thailand.

The second source of freshwater isgroundwater. In the region, substantial volumes ofgroundwater can be found at various depths, withyields ranging from small volumes in shallowweathered and jointed layers of ancient crystallinebasement rock to enormous volumes at severalhundred-metre depths in alluvial plain sediment.

Ninety percent of the region’s freshwatercomes from surface water and ten percent fromgroundwater. Freshwater in Brunei Darussalam is99% extracted from surface water, the highest inthe region. On the other hand, one-fifth of thePhilippines’ total freshwater is sourced fromgroundwater, the highest in the region.

In the ASEAN region, on average 78% offreshwater is used for agricultural purposes, while11% each are used for domestic and industrialpurposes. From 1987 to 2003 Cambodia used 94%of its freshwater for agricultural purposes, thehighest percentage in the region. Agriculture alsoconsumed most of the freshwater supply inIndonesia, Thailand and Myanmar accounting for90% or more of the total. In Singapore, however,the industrial and domestic sectors accounted for50% each of its freshwater demand. Overall, therehad not been much change in the pattern offreshwater utilisation by the various sectors in theregion during the past decade. However, in terms ofthe rate of water accessibility, on the average, only77% of ASEAN residents could get clean safewater for their everyday needs. Cambodia and LaoPDR had the lowest accessibility rates of 34% and43%, respectively.

BRU CAM IND LAO MAL MYA PHI THA VIE

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

(cu

km)

Country

Groundwater

Surface water

Figure 5.5: Sources of Freshwater in MemberCountries

Source: FAO (2005)

Note: For this graph, the volumes of overlapping water were equally

divided between the groundwater and surface water in each AMC



Box 5.1: ASEAN Strategic Plan of Action on Water Resources Management

The vision for water resources management inASEAN was initially defined in the ASEAN Long TermStrategic Plan for Water Resources Managementendorsed by the ASEAN environment ministers in 2003.The vision calls for “the attainment of sustainability ofwater resources to ensure sufficient water quantity ofacceptable quality to meet the needs of the people ofSoutheast Asia in terms of health, food security,economy and environment.” It stipulates concern for fourmajor aspects of water management: (a) access to safe,adequate and affordable water supply, hygiene andsanitation; (b) provision of sufficient water that willensure food security for the region; (c) provision ofsufficient water to spur and sustain the economies of theregion; and (d) protection of the water environment topreserve flow regimes, biodiversity and cultural heritageas well as the mitigation of water-related hazards.

The ASEAN Long Term Strategic Plan of Actionidentified five challenges and a number of actions forthe attainment of the long term vision.

Challenge 1: Improve access to safe drinking waterand sanitation

Actions: • Reduce by 50% inadequate accessto safe drinking water by 2015

• Reduce by 50% inadequate accessto sanitation by 2015

Challenge 2: Managing water resources efficientlyand effectively

Actions: • Review water policies and legislationInstitute demand and supply management techniques in watersupply

• Institute demand and supply management techniques in irrigation

• Undertake research and development programmes

Challenge 3: Moving towards integrated river basinmanagement

Actions: • Establish river basin management organisations

• Develop decision support systems• Promote equitable sharing among

water users and the environment• Mitigate water related hazards and

maintain ecological balance

Challenge 4: Promote awareness for improvedgovernance and participation

Actions: • Improve governance• Encourage multi-stockholder partici-

pation in water resources developmentand management

• Mainstream gender concerns in the framework for action

• Develop, enhance and strengthen institutions on a decentralised andparticipatory manner

• Build individual capacities

Challenge 5: Moving towards adequate andaffordable water services

Actions: • Enhance public-private partnerships• Recognise that water is a natural

asset and has social, cultural andeconomic functions and values

The ASEAN Strategic Plan of Action on WaterResources Management is predicated upon the factthat population and economic growth in the region willrequire sustainable management of available waterresources. There will be increasing demand for waterfrom industry and domestic users, while at the sametime food production will also need to increase. Giventhis context, the Plan has the following objectives:

• To define the governing principles that ASEANMember Countries want recognised with respect tosustainable development of their water resources.

• To define the key challenges and issuesconfronting ASEAN with respect to sustainablewater resources management.

• To define the key actions that will facilitate the rapidattainment of improved integrated water resourcesmanagement across ASEAN.

(continued next page)

The region as a whole is not expected to sufferfrom any severe and widespread water shortage upto the year 2025.1 On average, the ASEAN regionwill only be able to use 10% of its internalrenewable freshwater resources. However, in thecase of Singapore, besides diversifying its watersupply resources, Singapore also manages itswater demand as an integral part of the overall

strategy to ensure adequate supply. In Singapore,water demand management is achieved throughproper water accounting, control of unaccounted forwater and adoption of water conservationmeasures. This has enabled domestic per capitaconsumption to be kept at 160 litres per capita perday in 2005.



• To define a set of project activities that will buildknowledge and capacity with respect to integratedwater resources management across the ASEANregion.

The report on the “State of Water ResourcesManagement in ASEAN” produced in conjunction withthe Plan identified a number of significant challengesand issues including the following:

• Overall demand for water is expected to increaseby about one-third over the next 20 years.

• While most Southeast Asian countries do not havea physical scarcity of water, seasonal scarcity doesoccur.

• Although there is no physical water scarcity acrossASEAN (except Singapore), potentially rapid ratesof economic development may put considerablepressure on countries in terms of financing thesustainable development of water supply andsanitation schemes.

• The need to ensure that data of the highest qualityis obtained to facilitate integrated water resourcesmanagement.

• As a response to seasonal water scarcity andgrowing urban centers, demand for groundwaterwill increase and management plans will need tobe developed to ensure the sustainable exploitationof this critical resource and to maintain its quality.

• Given good overall water availability, mostcountries are in a strong position to plan how waterwill be managed for environmental purposesincluding the maintenance of key inland fisheries.

• Protection of the quality of water supplies is andwill be a significant activity for all countries over thenext 20 years.

• Several countries are unlikely to meet theMillennium Development Goals relating to drinkingwater and sanitation based on current rates ofprogress.

• In many countries it is considered that theimpacts of extreme events and climate changeand variability will be of as much concern togovernments as many of the above issues, sincesubsistence farmers and the poor are generallymore severely impacted by such factors andconsequently they may increase poverty levelsand risks of starvation unless adequately plannedfor.

• With respect to governance of water resources,while many countries are aware of the need forchange to improve water resources management,there is need for continued support at all levels toensure that his happens.

• Fragmentation of the management of waterbetween several agencies within countries need tobe examined to determine if improved institutionalarrangements can be developed.

• The fragmentation of water resources managementimpacts negatively on the need to harmonisemonitoring programmes for water quantity andquality.

• Capacity building at a range of levels is also auniversal requirement with the probable exceptionof Singapore.

Source: ASEAN Strategic Plan of Action on Water Resources

Management, ASEAN Secretariat (2005)

(continued from previous page)

Water Quality Management

The countries of the region have establishedpollution control strategies to arrest the furtherdeterioration of the quality of its freshwaterresources. The enactment and enforcement ofwater pollution control laws is the mechanism mostcommonly used by governments in the region,although some economic-related mechanisms arealso in place in a few countries.

All countries in the region have systematisedtheir water source classification. Water sourceclassification involves categorising watercoursesinto classes, and then managing thosewatercourses according to goals or standards set

for each class. Brunei Darussalam has establisheda water management committee to formulatestandards, monitoring requirements, and mitigationplans to control pollution. The Philippines, on theother hand, has classified inland freshwaterreservoirs into five classes through anadministrative order. In Singapore, run-offs fromboth protected and unprotected catchments arecollected in its reservoirs which serve as drinkingwater sources.

The establishment of sewerage and sewagetreatment systems and the construction of centralwastewater treatment facilities in a number ofcountries are concrete manifestations of theirgovernments’ concern to prevent water pollution.



Box 5.2: The Deep Tunnel Sewerage System in Singapore

The Deep Tunnel Sewerage System (DTSS) is an

efficient and cost-effective engineering solution to meet

Singapore’s long term needs for used water collection,

treatment and disposal. Presently Singapore has a

sewerage system comprising six water reclamation

plants (WRPs) serving six catchment areas together

with the network of 3100 km of sewers and 130

pumping stations. With increasing population and

industrial growth, one option is to simply continue

expanding the treatment capacity of the plants and

adding on more pumping stations. This will not be a

sustainable solution in land scarce Singapore. To

overcome this constraint, the DTSS was conceived.

The concept of the DTSS is to replace the existing

sewerage system with an entirely new system

consisting of cross-island deep tunnels and a network

of link-sewers to intercept used water from the existing

sewers. The link-sewers and tunnels will channel all

used water by gravity to a new large water reclamation

plant located at the eastern end of Singapore. The

treated effluent will then be discharged into the Straits

of Singapore in the south.

The DTSS is an integral part of the water loop,

allowing Public Utilities Board (PUB) to channel used

water to the Changi WRP and then onto NEWater

factories, where high grade reclaimed water is

produced for use in industries and also to add to

Singapore’s drinking water supply after treatment. By

collecting and treating every drop of used water, DTSS

helps to "close the water loop”.

Upon completion of the DTSS, the land currently

occupied by the six existing water reclamation plants

and the 130 pumping stations and the surrounding

buffer areas can be released for higher value

development. This is estimated to be 1000 hectares.

The roof of Changi WRP is also designed to cater for

other usage (e.g. factories for light industries and

NEWater factories). In the long run, due to economies

of scale, the centralisation of WRPs into a single huge

WRP will be more cost-effective in terms of construction

and operation cost.

The DTSS conveys used water to Changi WRP by

gravity without the need for intermediate pumping

stations and pumping mains. Hence, there will no

longer be the risk of sewage overflow which would

otherwise cause serious concerns over public health

and contamination of water sources.

Source: Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources, Singapore

(2006)

Aside from water pollution, there are manyother issues and problems that revolve aroundwater quality management ranging fromdiminishing freshwater sources, low wateraccessibility rate to high cost of the maintenanceof water supply and sewerage facilities. These areaddressed in various ways and at different levelsby the governments of ASEAN countries. In thearea of capacity building and governance, for

example, some countries have managed to startvery promising new initiatives in the areas ofcommunity involvement, awareness raising, andcoordination between government departmentsand statutory bodies.

Some of the most common initiatives andmeasures related to capacity building andgovernance include the following:

Singapore has the most well-developed sewerageinfrastructure composed of six centralised sewagetreatment facilities (also known as WaterReclamation Plants) and a network of 3,100kilometres of sewer pipes. These six WaterReclamation Plants treat 1.34 millon cubic metres

per day of used water that is collected byunderground sewers. Only a very small amount ofused water is treated by sewage treatment plants(STPs) in a few isolated areas. These STPs willbe phased out with the development of theseareas.



• Creation of national body for coordination andpolicy development;

• Creation of separate water resources agencynot associated with ministries responsible forwater development;

• Attempts to coordinate and/or integrate waterand environmental agencies;

• Devolution of management to decentralisedoperations;

• Increased recognition of the advantages ofmanaging water at a basin and catchmentlevel;

• Programmes to raise public awareness ofwater issues, followed by forms of publicparticipation;

• Participatory irrigation management in variousforms;

• Attempts at integrated land and watermanagement in the face of recognition of theconsequences of degraded catchments andwatersheds;

• The potential for water use rights to assist inthe equitable allocation of water betweencompeting demands in the face of growingwater use; and

• A range of reforms aimed at financialsustainability ranging from cost recovery toprivate sector involvement.2

The overall availability of freshwater in theregion is good but some countries experienceseasonal scarcity, and freshwater resources areunder increasing pressures due to rapidly risingdemand from industrial activities, agricultural use,and a growing population. Overall demand forfreshwater is expected to increase by about a thirdover the next twenty years. To address thesepressures, there is need for a more effective andintegrated management system that strikes adelicate balance between the economic need toexploit these resources to supply current economicand human requirements and need to protectthese resources for the benefit of futuregenerations. The ASEAN Strategic Plan of Actionon Water Resources Management is a significantregional response to this challenge thatcomplements and supports the actions at thenational and local levels.

Wetlands

In the ASEAN region, there are 26 RamsarConvention-listed wetlands in seven countries

(Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar,Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam). The 26wetlands cover 811,000 hectares. Beingdesignated as a Ramsar wetlands of internationalimportance, however, does not insulate thesewetlands from destructive forces or developmentactivities. These include:

• Illegal fishing/overfishing• Dynamite fishing/fish poisoning/cyanide fishing• Land use conversion/land clearing/burning/

reclamations• Mekong development/irrigation projects/dikes

and drainage construction• Illegal hunting/pouching• Illegal logging/cutting of trees for livelihood or

firewoods• Dumping of garbage and wastewater/chemicals

or pollution from nearby resorts and residentialareas

• Tourism/souvenir hunting and trading• Human migration

In the case of the Xuan Thuy Natural WetlandReserve in Viet Nam, the main threat is theconstruction of sea dykes and reclamation ofmangroves and mudflats for aquaculture pondsand agricultural land. On the other hand, theNaujan Lake National Park in the Philippinessuffers from high fishing pressure, encroachmenton the fish sanctuary, harvesting of protectedendemic and migratory fish species, land useconversion and settlement, poaching, hunting andharvesting of forest products, contamination withagricultural chemicals, and water resource useconflicts. In a similar manner, the Doi Hoi Lotwetland in Thailand is subjected, among others, towater pollution from upriver industries, tourismactivities, and urban and agricultural runoff;construction of earthen dams along riverbanks;and spreading of lime on mudflats resulting in thedepletion of molluscs.

With or without the Ramsar designation, mostgovernments in the region have not been remissin their duties to protect their wetlands.Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,Thailand and Viet Nam use various measures andimplement a number of programmes to protectthe biodiversity of their wetlands. National andlocal laws were passed designating them asnational protected areas or parks, whereharvesting and hunting are partially or completely



prohibited. Research laboratories, such as thosein the University of San Carlos in the Philippines,assist in protecting the endemic and endangeredspecies in wetlands.

In general, an existing national governmentagency is designated to lead the wetlandsconservation efforts, and when there is notechnically capable agency, a new one is created.In Malaysia, Philippines and Thailand the localgovernments and civil society groups are activepartners of the national government in conservationmeasures. For example, some NGOs in thePhilippines provide assistance in protecting theTubbataha reefs, and in Thailand, the private DonMor Thong Monastery helps to protect the birds andfishes of a small area of the Bung Khong LongNon-Hunting Area.

Box 5.3: Ramsar Sites in Indonesia

Two of Indonesia’s wetlands have been chosen as

Ramsar sites, namely, Berbak National Park in Jambi

and Danau Sentarum National Park in West

Kalimantan.

Berbak National Park

Berbak National Park is Southeast Asia’s largest

natural conservation area that has not been exploited

by humans. The uniqueness of this national park is

characterised by the combination of wetland forest and

fresh water swamp forest. It is also known as the park

that has the largest variety of palms in Indonesia,

including very rare varieties such as Johaneteijmannia

altiforons and the latest discovered species such as

Lapidonia kingi (Lorantaceae). Berbak’s wetland

ecosystem is the habitat of Sumatra’s rhino

(Dicerorhinus sumatrensis), Sumatera’s tiger (Panthera

tigris sumatrae) and other animals including 300 kinds

of birds. It is also home to hundreds of thousands of

migratory birds.

Danau Sentarum National Park

Danau Sentarum National Park in Kalimantan is

representative of a lake wetland ecosystem, fresh water

swamp forests and tropical rain forests. Danau

Sentarum’s water is characteristically reddish black

because it contains tannin from the wetlands’

surrounding. This national park is the home of a specific

flora called tambesu or tengkawang (Shorea

beccariana) and other kinds of lowland plain forest

plants. The area is the habitat of various plants that

were used for generations by the local communities as

sources of their herbal medicine. Danau Sentarum is

among the world’s most valuable wetlands due to its

unique fish species, such as red arwana (Scleropagea

formosus), belida (Notopterus chitala), to mention a few

of about 120 species. The other animals that live in the

park are the long nose prosbitus–“bekantan” (Nasalis

sarvatus) and the orang utan (Pongo satyrus)

Source: Ministry of the Environment, Indonesia (2006)



Coastal and Marine Resources

With almost all countries in the region (exceptLao PDR) having coastlines, the region’s richmarine and coastal resources have always been

central to the region’s economic development.These resources have, however, been subjected totremendous environmental pressures. The followingproblems associated with declining marine andcoastal resources have been identified and are

Table 5.1: List of Wetlands of International Importance in ASEAN Countries (as of 12 October 2005)

Source: Ramsar Convention website (2005) with updates from member countries (Aug 2006)

Site Date of Designation Region, Country Area (ha)

Boeng Chhmar and Associated 23/06/99 Kampong Thom province, 28,000River System and Floodplain Cambodia

Koh Kapik and Associated Islets 23/06/99 Koh Kong province, Cambodia 12,000

Middle Stretches of the Mekong 23/06/99 Stoeng Treng, Cambodia 14,600River north of Stoeng Treng

Berbak 08/04/92 Jambi, Indonesia 162,700

Danau Sentarum 30/08/94 Kalimantan Barat, Indonesia 80,000

Pulau Kukup 31/01/03 Johor, Malaysia 647

Sungai Pulai 31/01/03 Johor, Malaysia 9,120

Tanjung Piai 31/01/03 Johor, Malaysia 526

Tasek Bera 10/11/94 Pahang, Malaysia 38,400

Moyingyi Wetland Wildlife Sanctuary 17/11/04 Southern Bago, Myanmar 10,240

Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary 12/11/99 Mindanao, Philippines 14,840

Naujan Lake National Park 12/11/99 Oriental Mindoro, Philippines 14,570

Olango Island Wildlife Sanctuary 01/07/94 Cebu, Philippines 5,800

Tubbataha Reefs National Marine Park 12/11/99 Sulu Sea, Philippines 33,200

Bung Khong Long Non-Hunting Area 05/07/01 Nong Khai Province, Thailand 2,210

Don Hoi Lot 05/07/01 Samut Songkhram Province, 87,500Thailand

Had Chao Mai National Park, 14/08/02 Trang Province, Thailand 66,300Mu Koh Libong Non-Hunting Area, Trang River Estuaries

Kaper Estuary, Laemson Marine 14/08/02 Ranong Province, Thailand 122,000National Park, Kraburi Estuary

Krabi Estuary 05/07/01 Krabi Province, Thailand 21,300

Kuan Ki Sian of the Thale Noi 13/05/98 Songkhla Province, Thailand 494Non-Hunting Area

Mu Koh Ang Thong National Park 14/08/02 Surathani Province, Thailand 10,200

Nong Bong Kai Non-Hunting Area 05/07/01 Chiang Rai Province, Thailand 434

Pang Nga Bay National Park 14/08/02 Pang Nga Province, Thailand 40,000

Princess Sirindhorn Wildlife Sanctuary 05/07/01 Narathiwas Province, Thailand 20,100(Pru To Daeng Wildlife Sanctuary)

Bau Sau (Crocodile Lake) Wetlands 04/08/05 Dong Nai, Viet Nam 13,760and Seasonal Floodplains

Xuan Thuy Natural Wetland Reserve 20/09/88 Nam Ha, Viet Nam 12,000



expected to pose a challenge to ASEAN region inthe next 50 years:

• Food security undermined; • Economic dislocation for those whose jobs are

related to the coastal and marine sector;• Public health compromised by toxins and

hazardous compounds in edible marineproducts and by increased dangerous wastelevels in coastal waters used by the public;

• Some coastal areas will be made uninhabitabledue to rising sea levels and intensified severeweather systems from climate change;

• More pollution incidents as greater shippingcongestion and other marine activities lead tomore maritime accidents;

• Infrastructure will deteriorate as pressures ofurbanisation undermine ability to provideadequate infrastructure levels for population;

• Aesthetic and recreational values will be lost;• Conflicts on the use of resources will escalate;

and• Economic development unable to compensate

for irreversible damage.3

Coastal Resources

The aggregate coastline of the ten ASEANcountries is approximately 173,000 kilometres, withIndonesia having the longest coastline. Over two-thirds (70%) of the population in the region live within100 km of the coasts because of the livelihood, food,and water provisions they extract from coastalresources. The presence of large human settlementsand extensive economic activities in coastal areaspose great danger to fragile coastal ecosystems. Onthe other hand, living near coastal areas also posesdanger to human beings when tidal surges andtsunamis are triggered by natural phenomena.

The coastal resources in the region suffer fromphysical habitat alteration, including the destructionof mangrove forests for aquaculture; pollution fromindustrial, domestic, and agricultural sources;destructive fishing methods such as fishing withdynamite and use of cyanide, and shallow-waterfisheries overexploitation.4 The economic activitiesof people living near or in coastal areas can be acause of serious depletion of some coastalresources. For example, shrimp farming became aquick profit “boom-and-bust” enterprise. Shrimpfarms were constructed from productive coastalmangroves. However, as production grew rapidly,stress-induced diseases and reduced water qualityrendered the farms non-productive and, in duetime, the shrimp farms were abandoned. As a resultthe once productive mangrove habitats were leftdeteriorating.5

Global warming and sea level rise are predictedto have negative impacts on the coastal areas inthe region in the future. It is forecasted that globalwarming, through higher evaporation rates, willcause more frequent severe weather systems(monsoons, typhoons) to batter the coastal areas.The warm waters will also detrimentally affect thechances of survival of marine organisms with lowthermal tolerance such as coral reefs. Finally, therise of sea level will inundate low-lying coastalwetlands, and other flat, low elevation coastalareas. Aside from the economic and naturalcauses, there are transboundary environmentalmanagement problems related to coastalmanagement which confront the region, includingthe weak implementation of regulations and othermeasures to prevent overexploitation of coastal andmarine fisheries, especially shared stocks andendangered and threatened species.

Healthy estuary lined with a thick growth of mangroves inQuezon Province, the Philippines



Management failure is also among the causesof declining coastal resources. This problem iseffectively addressed through the application of aholistic Integrated Coastal Zone Management(ICZM). This approach uses horizontal and verticaldimensions of management. In the horizontaldimension, the different sectors which exploit

coastal resources, e.g., industries, tourism,fisheries, forestry, etc., are integrated or involved inmanagement. In the vertical dimension, thedifferent levels of government, e.g., district,municipal, city, provincial, and national, are alignedand have to be mutually supportive of each other inthe area of coastal resources conservation.6

Box 5.4: Integrated Coastal and Marine Management in Indonesia

Integrated coastal and marine management is ofparamount importance in an archipelagic country likeIndonesia where more than 75% of the national area issea and the 24% that is land is fragmented amongst morethan 17,000 islands. Coastal and marine industries suchas oil and gas production, transportation, fisheries andtourism account for a quarter of Gross Domestic Productand employ more than 15% of Indonesia’s workforce.Some 140 million Indonesians live within 60 kilometres ofthe coast; most of them within the large coastal cities thatoccupy a predominant position in the national economy.

Under the framework of GEF/UNDP/IMO RegionalProgramme of Partnerships in EnvironmentalManagement for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA) andsupervision of Ministry of Environment as the Indonesiafocal point for PEMSEA, the Provincial Government ofBali has completed most of the full-cycle of ICMprogramme development and implementation. Theproject started in 2000 and is jointly funded by PEMSEAand Bali Provincial Government. The project site islocated in Bali’s south eastern coast that includes onemunicipality and four regencies, namely DenpasarMunicipality, Badung Regency, Gianyar Regency,Karangasem Regency, and Klungkung Regency.

With better understanding on the benefits of ICM,the local government leaders have initiated integratingthe ICM programmes into the Bali StrategicDevelopment Plan. The ICM programme has alsoenabled various stakeholders to learn the benefits ofworking together in addressing their concerns andinterest related to the multiple-use of coastal areas, inparticular for sustainable tourism development. Forexample, the multiple-use conflicts in Benoa Bay, Baliwere addressed through multi-stakeholder consultationand partnerships. Consensus was reached among theProvincial Government, Regency and MunicipalityGovernment, Legislative Assembly, and localstakeholders to review the planning of the airportexpansion, Benoa port expansion and Bali TourismDevelopment Corporation activities in the Benoa Bay,which was identified as a potential threat to BenoaBay’s ecosystem and resources that also affects theoverall environment in Bali. Indeed, the ICM frameworkand processes had provided a platform for thesestakeholders to share their concerns, knowledge andexperiences as well as resources toward achieving thecommon goals of sustainable development.

The implementation of Bali’s ICM project has alsoinspired the scalling-up of ICM programme to cover allthe coastal regencies in Bali Island as well as replicationof ICM experiences in the other coastal areas inIndonesia. Sukabumi Regency has developed aninitiative to implement the ICM programme sinceFebruary 2003. As a parallel project, implementation ofICM programme in Sukabumi is funded by the localgovernment of Sukabumi Regency and technicalassistance is provided by PEMSEA Regional Programmeand the Ministry of Environment. Strong commitment andsupport of local government and stakeholders haveplayed an important role in ensuring the developmentand implementation of ICM programmes using localresource. A sense of ownership by local government iscritical to ensure project implementation.

The objective of the Sukabumi ICM Programme isto strengthen local capacity in establishing a frameworkfor coastal integrated development and management ofthe regency. The project covers 4 subdistricts namely:




Marine Resources

The ASEAN region is noted for its rich marinebiodiversity and abundant coral reefs. There areup to 4,080 species of fish, 45 species ofmangrove, 19 species of sea grass, and 77species of Scleractinia coral in the region.Indonesia, Philippines and Malaysia have themost diverse marine species. Indonesia hasabout 62% of the region’s fish species. ThePhilippines, on the other hand, has about 23% ofthe region’s sea-grass species. Compared to therest of the world, the region has 34% of the totalmangrove forest area, 64% of mangrove species,31% of coral reef area, and 33% of sea grassspecies.7

The ASEAN region has extensive mangroveforest areas comprising a significant portion of theworld’s total. These mangrove areas are foundmostly in Indonesia. Because of the range ofessential services provided by mangroves, it isessential that the region pursues various strategiesfor their sustainable utilisation. With respect to sea-grass, there are about 58 to 60 species worldwidewith an estimated one-third of these in the region,most of which can be found in the Philippines. Theleaves of sea-grass slow down water currents whiletheir roots stabilise the seabed. For small marinespecies, the sea-grass serve as habitat, while forcoastal zones, it provides a number of ecologicalgoods and ecological services, for instance fishinggrounds, wave protection, oxygen production andprotection against coastal erosion.

Pelabuhan Ratu, Simpenan, Gadobangkong andCitepus sub-district.

Based on the experience of implementing the ICMprogrammes in Indonesia, the following key elements inachieving sustainable coastal management need to befulfilled: 1) intersectoral and interagency coordination,2) policy and functional integration, 3) stakeholders’consultation and participation, 4) institutional and legal

arrangement, and 5) local capacity to plan and manage.The effectiveness of coastal management depends onthe technical and managerial skills which are critical inachieving sustainable use of the resource. The role ofscience is also critical to the advancement of coastalmanagement wherein possible management measuresmust be based on good scientific advice.

Source: Ministry of the Environment, Indonesia (2006)


-500

1,0001,5002,0002,5003,0003,5004,0004,500

Num

ber

of S

peci

es


Country

Fish

0

5

10

15

20

BRU CAM IND MAL MYA PHI SIN THA VIECountry

Seagrass

Num

ber

Num

ber o

f Spe

cies

BRU CAM IND MAL MYA PHI SIN THA VIE

50

40

30

20

10

0

Country

Mangrove

01020304050607080

Num

ber

BRU IND MAL MYA PHI SIN THA VIECountry

Scleractinia coral

Figure 5.6: Number of Marine Species in the ASEAN Region

Source: WRI (2005)

Note: Data are from the most recent year between 1992 and 2003



It is estimated that there are 284,000 sq km ofcoral reefs in the world of which almost a third canbe found in the ASEAN region. Indonesia has themost number of coral reefs with 50,875 sq km(61%), followed by the Philippines with 25,819 sqkm (31%). Singapore has 54 sq km of coral reefs(0.06%). The Scleractinia corals, also known asStony star corals, are colonial corals found inabundance in the clear, shallow tropical waters ofthe region. They are the world's primary reef-builders. The calcareous skeletons of these coralsaccumulate and are cemented with the help ofalgae, sponges, other corals, thus forming coralreefs.

Coral reefs in the ASEAN region have thehighest levels of biodiversity in the world. Theyprovide livelihood for fishermen as a source ofdecorative stones and fashion jewelry as well asconstruction materials. But destructive activitiessuch as over fishing, discharge of sediments andpollution, and unsustainable tourism are resulting inthe rapid deterioration of this fragile ecosystem.The condition of about 50% of the coral reefs in theregion, on the average, are already in the “high”risk level and about 5% are in the “very high” risklevel. Singapore’s coral reefs are in “high” risk levelwhile nearly 90% of those in Cambodia are in thesame risk level. Brunei Darussalam’s coral reefsare the most protected in the region with nearly80% of them in the “low” risk level.

In the Philippines and Indonesia a major threatto coral reefs is blast and dynamite fishing, whichcan destroy the reefs directly or drive away thefishes that live in them. Two species of fishes havealready been driven away from these two countries’reefs, namely, Groupers and Snappers. There areother fishing techniques in the region that causeserious damage to coral reefs. These are muro-amiand pa-aling 8 in the Philippines and illegal trawlingin Malaysia and Thailand.9

Coral bleaching is another significant threat tocorals. It occurs when the photosynthetic algaezooxanthellae are expelled from the corals’ polyps.With the algae gone, the corals lose their pigments.The algae are expelled when corals suffer fromstresses brought about by increased watertemperature (global warming) and solar irradiance(photosynthetically active radiation and ultravioletband light).

Fishery Resources

The ASEAN region falls within the WesternCentral Pacific marine statistical area of the Foodand Agriculture Organisation. The area isdominated by large continental shelf that lies withinthe Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the ASEANcountries. The Western Central Pacific area is richin demersal marine fish, molluscs, pelagic marinefish, cephalopods, crustaceans, and others. The

SIN54

0.06%

VIE1,1221%

THA365

0.43%

PHI25,81931%

MYA1,6862%

MAL4,0065%

IND50,87561%

CAM42

0.05%

BRU187

0.22%

Figure 5.7: Coral Reef Areas (in sq km) of MemberCountries

Source: Adapted from Burke et al. (2002)

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

Ris

k I

nd

ex

(%

)

BRU CAM IND MAL MYA PHI SIN THA VIE

Country

Low Medium

High Very High

Figure 5.8: Reefs at Risk Summary by Country

Source: Adapted from Burke et al. (2002)



seas of the ASEAN region teem with an estimated4,080 species of fish. Freshwater and marine fishesare major sources of protein and of income for thepeople of the region. From 1995 to 2002, theproduction of fishes from aquaculture and fisheriesgrew by 32% from 13,698 tonnes in 1995 to 16,887tonnes in 2002. This accounted for 13% of theworld’s production. In 2002, Indonesia and Thailandwere among the top ten producing countries ofmarine and inland fisheries. Indonesia was fourthbehind the United States, while Thailand was ninthbehind the Russian Federation. In inland fisheryproduction, Cambodia, Indonesia, and Myanmarranked fourth, fifth, and sixth, respectively, in thesame year.

World fish trade has grown considerably interms of both value and quantity over the lastdecades. Trade tends to flow from less developedto more developed countries, but also betweendeveloped countries. Measured in terms of liveweight, 38% of all fishery products in 2002 weretraded internationally. In the ASEAN region, fishexports increased from $4.14 billion in 2001 to$6.16 billion in 2004. Likewise, fish importsincreased from $1.66 billion in 2001 to $2.38 billionin 2004.10

The increase in the fisheries production from1995 to 2002 helped increase the food supply inthe region from 10.8 million metric tonnes in 1995to 12.9 million metric tonnes in 2002. In 2002, thetotal food supply in the region represented a sizable

chunk of 12.8% of the world’s total supply. ASEAN’sannual rate of increase of food supply per capita of10.2% during the same period exceeded theworld’s rate of 7.2%. The region’s average annualfood supply per capita from 1995 to 2002 was 26kg, which was 10 kg higher than the world’saverage supply.

Fish protein is an important nutritionalrequirement as it contains all the essential aminoacids necessary for physical growth andmaintenance. The intake of fish as part of theregion’s daily animal protein started to increase in1999. From 1995 to 1998, the percentage of fishprotein consumed hovered between 37% to 38%.But starting 1999, it went up to 40% and stayed atthat level up to 2002. The region’s 37% to 40% fishprotein intake exceeded the world’s level of 15% to16% during the same period.

Marine Protected Areas

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are those areasreserved by national or local governments toprotect, maintain, or restore natural and culturalresources in coastal and marine waters. MPAs inthe ASEAN region refer primarily to protected areaswith substantial marine areas, while mangrovereserves with little marine areas are not included.The region has over 310 MPAs. The Philippineshas the highest official MPA listing of over 180,followed by Malaysia with over 40.11 Due to their

-

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

'000

tonn

es

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Year

Total Marine Production

Total Inland Production

Figure 5.9: Fishery and Aquaculture Productions inthe ASEAN Region, 1995 – 2002

Source: WRI (2005)

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

kg

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Year

ASEAN annual per capita supply

World annual per capita supply

Figure 5.10: World and ASEAN’s Annual Per CapitaFood Supply, 1995 – 2002

Source: WRI (2005)



relatively short coastlines, Brunei Darussalam,Cambodia, and Singapore have few MPAs(between 2 to 4). Indonesia, Thailand, and VietNam have 22 to 29 MPAs each.

The MPAs are also classified according tofunding prioritisation. Those that are graded “A”receive prioritised funding from internationalorganisations. They contain high biodiversity valueswith a good chance of being successfullyconserved, and hence, contribute effectively toglobal diversity conservation. Those graded “B” areMPAs that are nationally important that will beprovided with greater national efforts, with orwithout foreign assistance. MPAs of localimportance are those that are essential in forming ahealthy network of sites needed for marineconservation nationally and regionally, as well asfor sustaining fisheries resources that local villagersdepend upon.12

Environmental degradation is the single mostimportant factor causing negative impacts onmarine environment and in marine protected areas.Rapid coastal development and economic growth,as well as pollution from vessel discharges, are themain causes of coastal environmental degradation.For example, Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesiaas the littoral states of one of the busiest shippinglanes in the world, the Malacca Straits, constantlyface threats from oil pollution and shipping-basedpollution.

In February 2004, during the SeventhConference of Parties Meeting of the Conventionon Biological Diversity, the governments ofIndonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines signed aMemorandum of Understanding to take up jointleadership in the conservation, planning andmanagement of the Sulu-Sulawesi MarineEcoregion as part of their contribution to theConvention on Biological Diversity and theJohannesburg Plan of Implementation adopted atthe World Summit on Sustainable Development2002.

On the managerial aspect, 46% of the region’sMPAs have none or very little management, 28%are under moderate management, and only ahandful are well managed.13 To solve the problemsassociated with managing MPAs, three types ofactions can be implemented: (a) actions tostrengthen MPA management, (b) actions to fillgaps in MPA system establishment, and (c) actionson regional cooperation.

The multifarious economic and human activitieshave also exerted stresses on the region’s fragilecoastal and marine ecosystems. To help alleviatethese stresses, more marine sites are targeted tobe nominated as protected areas and heritagesites. At the same time, ASEAN continues topromote collaboration with various organisationsinvolved in national and regional activities oncoastal and marine environment in the region. In

Country Declared MPAs Proposed MPAs

Brunei 6 2 +Darussalam

Cambodia 4 1

Indonesia 29 14 +

Malaysia 40 + 3 +

Myanmar 4 1

Philippines 180 + 100 +

Singapore 2 4

Thailand 23 0

Viet Nam 22 7

Table 5.2: Marine Protected Areas in MemberCountries

Source: ARCBC et. al. (2002)

Note: Proposed MPAs include both official and unofficial proposals.

Country/ Regional/National “B” TotalTerritory Global “A”

Brunei No Info 1 1 +Darussalam

Cambodia 2 2 4

Indonesia 10 7 17

Malaysia 2 6 8

Myanmar 2 2 4

Philippines 5 17 22

Thailand 4 7 11

Viet Nam 1 8 9

Singapore 1 1 2

Table 5.3: Number of Priority MPAs of Global/Regional (A) and National (B) Significance

Source: ARCBC et. al. (2002)

Note: Both declared and proposed MPAs are included.



addition, capacity building activities are beingundertaken to expeditiously implement the ASEANMarine Water Quality Criteria, including reviewingnational laws, regulations and standards toharmonise them with ASEAN criteria, and trainingon analytical, inter-calibration and monitoring

techniques. These regional efforts are directedtowards promoting awareness on the importance ofthese ecosystems and ensuring that the coastaland marine environment are managed in asustainable manner.

End Notes1 ASEAN Secretariat (2005) “Report on the State of Water Resources Management in ASEAN,” (Jakarta: ASEAN

Secretariat)2 ASEAN Secretariat (2005) “Report on the State of Water Resources Management in ASEAN,” (Jakarta: ASEAN

Secretariat) .3 Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2002), Southeast Asia Subregional Report for the World Summit on Sustainable

Development (Manila: ADB), p. 80. 4 Ibid., p. 79. 5 Ibid., pp. 80 – 81. 6 Ibid.7 Computed from the databases of the World Resources Institute (2006), EarthTrends,

< http://earthtrends.wri.org/index.php > 25 Jan 20068 Muro ami is done by pounding and crushing corals underwater to scare the fishes and luring them towards the nets.

Pa-aling uses air bubbles instead of weights to drive fish into nets. See Rene Abesamis (n.d.), “Muro Ami and Pa-Aling,” in World Resources Institute (2006), “Muro Ami and Pa-Aling,”

< http://newsroom.wri.org/mediakits_text.cfm?ContentID=123 > 27 Jan 2006. 9 ARCBC et. al. (2002),”Marine Protected Areas in Southeast Asia,” (Los Banos; pp. 3 – 4).10 ASEAN Statistical Pocketbook 2006 (Jakarta: The ASEAN Secretariat)11 According to ARCBC et. al. (2002), there are still unaccounted MPAs in Indonesia and in the Philippines.12 ARCBC et. al. (2002) , p. 10.13 Ibid., p. 9.

Ensure ASEAN’s rich biological diversity is conserved, and sustainablymanaged, and the benefits arising from these biological and genetic

resources are fairly and equitably shared toward enhancing social, economic and environmental well-being.

Ensure sustainable management of land-based resources while enhancing optimum agricultural production.

Promote sustainable management of forest resources and critical ecosystems through the eradication of unsustainable practices

as well as strengthening of the ASEAN Heritage Parks.


CHAPTER 6Terrestrial Ecosystems

Chapter 6: Terrestrial Ecosystems


f the total land area of the region of 447 million hectares, over 45% are covered with forests andwoodlands, equivalent to around 13.5 billion cubic metres of forest wood volume and 23 billion

tonnes of wood biomass. While the rate of deforestation at 1.35% in the region is the highest in theworld, there was a declining trend as the production and consumption of forest wood products declined.Despite a receding forest cover, the region remained among the most biologically diverse regions in theworld as it had 20% of the world’s known species while occupying only 3% of the world’s total area.There are over 27,000 endemic species in the region of which 86% are endemic plants. However, out ofover 64,800 known species in the region, about 2% were endangered while the region had 7 of theworld’s recognised biodiversity hotspots. The region had made good efforts to protect its richbiodiversity, designating 1,523 IUCN-category protected areas and declaring 27 areas as ASEANHeritage Parks. Still the region experienced various types of land degradation-related disasters such asforest fires, floods, droughts and landslides causing the loss of thousand of lives and displacement ofcommunities. Per capita solid waste production ranged from 0.3 to 1.86 kg/capita/day most of whichwere disposed of in landfills. The disposal of solid and other wastes and the unsustainable harvestingand utilisation of forest products would remain a serious challenge to sustaining the environmentalintegrity of the region’s terrestrial ecosystems.

O

Megadiverse Countries Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines (of 17 countries globally)

Number of Endemic Species in ASEAN 27,000

Number of Protected AreasIUCN category 1,523ASEAN Heritage Parks 27

Forest Cover (2005)(percent of land area)

World 30.3%ASEAN 45.0%

Forest Loss in ASEAN 1990 – 2000 2000 – 2005(average annual decrease in sq. km./year)

2,777 2,751

Deforestation Rate, 2000 – 2005World 0.20% per yearASEAN 1.35% per yearAsia Overall 0.20% per year

Municipal Solid Waste Generation 0.3 – 1.86 kg/capita/day

Land Resources

The ASEAN region has land area ofapproximately 4.47 million sq km (447 millionhectares). Indonesia occupies 42% of this landarea, followed by Myanmar (15%) and Thailand(11%). The total forest cover in the region in 2005was 203 million ha which is 45% of the region’stotal land area. Brunei Darussalam is the only

country in the region that has over 78% of its landstill covered with forests. Indonesia, on the otherhand, has the largest expanse of forest cover (88.5million ha) in the region. Eight of the ten ASEANcountries have 100% tropical forests. OnlyMyanmar and Viet Nam have sub-tropical typeforest comprising 1% and 2% of the total,respectively.



In 2002, the region had around 13.5 billioncubic metres of forest wood volume, the largest inIndonesia with around 61% of the total woodvolume. The wood biomass in the region, on theother hand, amounted to a total of 23 billion tonnesin 2002 with Indonesia again having the largestshare of 61% of the total biomass.

A variety of forest types abound in the ASEANregion – evergreen forests, semi-evergreen forests,deciduous dry dipterocarp forests, mangrove forests,pine forests, canopy forests, tropical moist forests,etc. Aside from timber, non-timber products such asrattan, bamboo, lianas, resins (especially from thedipterocarp species), honey, medicinal plants,benzoin, latex, bark resin and gum can be gatheredor harvested. Deep in the heart of these forests roamwild animals like elephants, wild cows, buffalos andothers. However, deforestation threatens to destroyall of these. The average annual rate of deforestation

in the region from 2000 to 2005 was 2.75 millionhectares or 1.35%. In 1990 about 55% of the landarea of the region was still blanketed by forests butin 2005 this decreased to only 45%.

CountryLand Area

CountryLand Area

(‘000 sq km) (‘000 sq km)

Brunei 5.8 Myanmar 677Darussalam

Cambodia 181 Philippines 300

Indonesia 1,891 Singapore 0.697

Lao PDR 237 Thailand 513

Malaysia 330 Viet Nam 330

Table 6.1: Land Areas


0

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

('000

hec

tare

s)

Bru Cam Ind Lao Mal Mya Phi Sin Tha Vie

Country

20002005

Figure 6.1: Total Forest Area


Note: * Forest Department, Myanmar (data for 2000)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Per

cent

age

Bru Cam Ind Lao Mal Mya Phi Sin Tha VieCountry

Figure 6.2: Ratio of Forest to Land Area (%), 2005


Note: * Department of Environment, Brunei Darussalam (Sept. 2006)

A thriving forest in Indonesia (Centre for Southeast Asian Studies)



Forest Products Production,Trade and Consumption

In general, the production of wood-fuel andindustrial round-wood in the region decreased by34.2% and 2.6%, respectively, from 1998 to 2002but sawn-wood production increased by 54%during the same period. Exports and importscontinued to increase for industrial round-wood andsawn-wood ranging from 57% to 91% (no tradedata available for wood-fuel). The demand forwood-fuel and sawn-wood rose by almost 50% and51%, respectively, but the demand for industrialround-wood dropped by 2%.

Indonesia was the leading producer of woodfuel, industrial round-wood, and sawn-wood from1998 to 2002, followed by Malaysia. In terms ofimports, Malaysia led the region followed byThailand and Philippines. Malaysia was also thelargest wood product exporting country in theregion during the same period, followed byIndonesia and Thailand. In terms of consumption,Indonesia topped the list, followed by Malaysia.From 1998 to 2002, there was a declining trend inthe production, trading and consumption of forestwood products. Nevertheless, the amount of wood-fuel and industrial round wood products produced,traded and consumed still reached the level of tens

of million tonnes, while those of sawn woods tomillion tonnes annually.

Sustainable Forest Managementin Selected ASEAN MemberCountries

Brunei Darussalam

The administration of forest resources has beenunder the legal authority of Forestry Department,Ministry of Industry and Primary Resources since1934. As outlined in the National Forest Policy, 1989Brunei Darussalam continues to commit itself toconserve, develop and manage its forest resourcesfor the promotion and upliftment of the quality of life;the promotion of social, political and economic well-being of the people, and technological progress ofthe country; and for bringing about environmentalamenity and ecological equilibrium over timecontinuum. Long- and short-term forest strategicplan and national forest development programmeshave been formulated to ensure the optimumutilisation of the limited forest resources taking intoconsideration the enhancement of multi services ofthe forest resources and the need to balance witheconomic development, and the protection ofbiological resources and environment amid theincremental need to diversify the national economy.

Table 6.2: Wood Volume and Wood Biomass in Forests

Source: State of the World's Forests 2005 (Rome: FAO), Table 3, p. 139.

Note: a – Forest Department, Myanmar, b – not significant value

CountryWood Volume Wood Biomass

m3/ha million m3 tons/ha million tonnes

Brunei Darussalam 119 52 205 90

Cambodia 40 376 69 648

Indonesia 79 8,240 136 14,200

Lao PDR 29 359 31 390

Malaysia 119 2,290 205 3,950

Myanmar 80a 2,869a 121a 8,252a

Philippines 66 383 114 660

Singapore 119 0b 205 0b

Thailand 17 252 29 434

Viet Nam 38 372 66 643

ASEAN Total 706 15,193 1,181 29,267



-

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

140,000

160,000A

mo

un

t ('0

00 m

3 )

BRU CAM IND LAO MAL MYA PHI THA VIE

Country

Consumption of Woodfuel

1998

20002002

Figure 6.3: Consumption of Forest Wood Products 1998 – 2002

Source: FAO (2001, 2003, and 2005b)

-

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

40,000

Am

ou

nt

('000

m3 )

Bru Cam Ind Lao Mal Mya Phi Sin Tha Vie

Country

Consumption of Industrial Roundwood

199820002002

Source: FAO (2001, 2003, and 2005b)

-

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

4,500

5,000

('00

0 m

3 )

Bru Cam Ind Lao Mal Mya Phi Sin Tha VieCountry

Consumption of Sawnwood

199820002002

Source: FAO (2001, 2003, and 2005b)



Cambodia

In 1997 forests covered about 60% of the totalland area of Cambodia. In the late 1960s, about13% of the forests were lost due to deforestationand forest degradation resulting from forest landencroachment, conversion of forests into other landuses, and illegal logging. To reverse this trend, theGovernment of Cambodia is implementing a longterm, comprehensive national forest managementprogramme in line with the framework of theIntergovernmental Panel on Forest andIntergovernmental Forum on Forest. Thedevelopment of forest policy takes into account therelevant social and cultural aspects, andappropriate criteria and indicators for sustainableforest management that are being developed.

Indonesia

Sustainable forest management is the centralfocus of the Indonesian forest policy framework andmeasures. Its key priorities include combating illegallogging and its associated trade, conservation offorest resources, empowering communities livingwithin and surrounding the forest areas, andpromoting and strengthening sustainable forestmanagement. The implementation of its NationalForest Programme (NFP) is progressing well withthe establishment of a number of NFP workinggroups within the Ministry of Forestry for varioustasks ranging from collecting and distributing dataand information, public consultation, facilitatingNFP-related activities and updating NFP policy. TheNFP Secretariat has been strengthened, workshopson NFP have been held, and a national forest policystatement developed.

Lao PDR

The Government of Lao PDR is committed toachieve a sizable and robust forestry sector thatcan contribute significantly to the economic andsocial development of the country. It has givenmuch attention to its forest policy and has achieveda number of important milestones during the pastfew years including the current legislativeframework, which supports sustainable forestdevelopment and the formulation of a nationalforest strategy to year 2020. Lao PDR is alsostrongly committed to comply with its obligationsunder various international agreements andconventions related to forestry, including the

UNFCCC, UNCCD, CBD, Kyoto Protocol andCITES. The Government is currently consideringratifying the Ramsar Convention.

Malaysia

The Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironment, recently established by theGovernment of Malaysia oversees the management,research and conservation activities of forestryrelated agencies in Peninsular Malaysia (while thejurisdiction of the forestry agencies in the states ofSarawak and Sabah continues to be under therespective state governments). Coordination overforestry matters among the various stategovernments is undertaken through the NationalForestry Council, which is chaired by the DeputyPrime Minister. With this new set-up, a more holistic,multi-disciplinary and cross-sectoral approach will beadopted to address forests and forest-relatedmatters. This will also further enhance the attainmentof sustainable forest management andimplementation of the International Panel onForest/International Forest Forum (IPF/IFF)Proposals for Action in Malaysia. To facilitate theimplementation and assessment of progress atnational and sub-national levels, the MalaysianAssessment on the Implementation of the IPF/IFFProposals for Action was established in April 2001and completed in January 2002. Prior to this, theMalaysia Timber Certification Council (MTCC) withstakeholder consultation helped formulate theMalaysian Criteria, Indicators, Activities andStandards of Performance (MC&I) for forestmanagement certification. To date a total of 4.1million ha forest has been certified under thescheme. Meanwhile three other areas (77,000 ha)has been certified under the international certificationscheme – the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC).

Thailand

Thailand’s new Constitution, which was adoptedin 1997, stresses the right of the people to haveaccess to its natural resources and supports a forestmanagement regime that promotes communityinvolvement. In line with this development, theMinistry of Natural Resources and Environment wasestablished in 2002. It issued a directiveemphasising the importance of people participationin natural resources management. Thailand is fullycommitted to sustainable forest management andconservation, being one of the founding members of



the World Conservation Union and host to its AsiaRegional Office. Thailand has hosted numerousinternational and regional forest conservation andmanagement conferences and events, including thesuccessful holding of the 13th COP of CITES andthe 3rd IUCN World Conservation Congress andSBSTTA-10 and WGABS-3 in Bangkok.

Viet Nam

Viet Nam’s National Forest DevelopmentStrategy for the period 2001 to 2010 was approvedby its Ministry of Agriculture and Rural

Development in 2001. Efforts are now focused onformulating an updated version that will harmoniseit with other related strategies such as theComprehensive Poverty Reduction and GrowthStrategy (2006 – 2020), taking into account anumber of recent major policy initiatives andchanges. Viet Nam has ratified several internationalagreements related to forestry, including UNCCD,RAMSAR, CITES, UNFCCC and CBD. It is also anactive member of various regional organisationsand initiatives that promote sustainable forestrymanagement, including AFP, APFC, INBAR, CIFORand RECOFTC.

Box 6.1: ASEAN-German Regional Forest Programme for Southeast Asia (ReFOP)

The ASEAN-German Regional Forest Programmefor Southeast Asia (ReFOP), commissioned on 1 April2003, is a development cooperation project betweenthe Federal Republic of Germany and ASEAN. Theprogramme aims to facilitate communication andcooperation among the ASEAN Member Countries inorder to implement the Strategic Forestry Plan as partof the Vientiane Action Programme.

Initial phase of ReFOP project was set for 2 yearswith the objective to support the ASEAN Secretariat andAMCs in enhancing regional cooperation in forestry,particularly in timber certification, establishment of

forest clearing house mechanism, strategic monitoring,regional positioning and resource mobilisation throughforest trust fund mechanism. The Programme wasextended for one more year, and was officiallycompleted in July 2006.

The 4-year ReFOP phase II (August 2006 – July2010) with revised objectives, project managementstructure and targeted outputs was agreed in principleby ASEAN in August 2005. The official agreement onthe implementation of ReFOP phase II is expected tobe finalised and signed soon.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF REFOP PHASE I

The achievements of ReFOP phase I for the periodfrom April 2003 to July 2006 are as follows:

• A web-based communication platform entitled“ASEAN Forest Clearing House Mechanism” wasestablished as part of promoting information andknowledge management in forestry. Three roundsof e-discussion were organised on the issues oftimber tracking, national forest policy developmentand forest certification.

• Technical expertise and logistic support wasprovided in developing “ASEAN Criteria andIndicators for sustainable management of tropicalforest” and “ASEAN Guidelines for implementation

of proposals for action of the IntergovernmentalPanel and Forum on Forests”. ASEAN’sperformance in terms of forest policy coordinationand cooperation has substantially improved.

• The introduction of OECD-like peer review processwas agreed, in principle, by ASOF and 3 membercountries have voluntarily agreed to undertake thepeer review trial.

• The specific inputs for developing phasedapproach to forest certification have alsoprogressed particularly in defining legality of timber.

• The formation of an integrated Forestry Desk underthe Natural Resources Unit of the ASEANSecretariat, in place of the Project ManagementUnit, was perceived as a significant progresstowards institutional sustainability.

Box 6.2: ASEAN-Korea Environmental Cooperation Project on Restoration of Degraded Forest Ecosystems inthe Southeast Asian Tropical Regions

The Restoration of Degraded Forest Ecosystems inthe Southeast Asian Tropical Regions was a flagshipASEAN project supported by Republic of Korea (ROK).The 1st phase commenced in 1 July 2000 and ended on

30 June 2005 with a budget of US $ 2.45 million. Thegoal of the project was to contribute to the sustainableand equitable forest management and rehabilitation ofdeforested areas in the tropical forest ecosystems of




Land Degradation andContamination

Land use and land cover have been changingdrastically throughout the region due todeforestation and forest degradation resulting fromthe rapid rate of economic development,demographic changes, and widening socio-economic disparities. One of the consequences ofthis is the increasing vulnerability of the region todisasters such as fires, floods, droughts andlandslides that are made more severe by landdegradation. Soil erosion can occur during loggingoperations (road construction, skidding, etc.) andlandslips (less than 1 metre), and deep-seatedlandslides (more than 3 metres) can happen in theabsence of well-developed forest cover.1 In 2000,floods affected 3.5 million people in Cambodia (orone-third of its population) and 5 million in Viet Nam.The floods caused an estimated damage worthUS$145 million and US$285 million, respectively.Land degradation and soil erosion resulting frompoor land-use practices were identified as the mainfactors aggravating the severity of these floods. Toaddress this problem, among the many initiatives,the ASEAN-ROK project on Restoration ofDegraded Forest Ecosystems in the SoutheastAsian Tropical Region is strengthening partnershipsin research, capacity building, and sharing ofscientific and technical information to ensuresustainable and equitable forest management andrehabilitation of deforested areas.

Two kinds of soils in the coastal lowland areasof the region are particularly vulnerable todegradation due to extensive reclamation activitiesfor human use. These are the soils in coastalmangrove areas and those in freshwater swampforests.2 The reclamation of coastal mangroveareas leads to strong soil acidity when the sulphuricmangrove mud is exposed to air. It may also inducealuminium (Al) and iron (Fe) toxicities andphosphate (P) deficiency. Lands with highconcentration of these elements become unsuitableand are abandoned after a short period of use.

Reclaimed tropical peat, on the other hand,poses three serious problems: land subsidence,underlying sulphuric sediments, and the extremeoligotrophy of peat, including micronutrientdeficiencies. The drying, compaction anddecomposition of the peat through land subsidenceexpose sulphuric elements of shallow peat layers.Strong acidity from oligotrophy, together withcopper deficiency, causes sterility in rice and othercrops.3

Soil is vulnerable to pollution and is easilycontaminated. It is affected by human sewage,industrial waste products, agricultural and millingwastes, and natural contaminants. The mostserious of these is when toxic chemicals, found inpesticides and fertilisers, get mixed with soil. Therange of possibilities of damage to humans andecological health are endless. Hence, it is

ASEAN Member Countries through partnership inresearch, capacity building and sharing of scientific andtechnical information. This project was coordinated bythe National Instrumentation Centre for EnvironmentalManagement (NICEM), College of Agriculture and LifeSciences of Seoul National University, and involvedapproximately 20 institutions in ROK and ASEAN.

Major activities of the project included:

• Regional research activities on forest ecosystemsin member countries on issues of relevance to them.

• On-site field research in particular in the Philippinesdealing with 3 major research themes: restoration,agroforestry and biodiversity.

• An education programme which includes a graduateprogramme, short-term individual and group trainingcourses in various institutions in ROK; and

• Workshops and conferences on related topics toprovide opportunities for participating researchersto improve scientific research skills and to share in-depth knowledge of tropical forests through theexchange of experiences and site visits.

Upon the completion of the project and in order tocapitalise on the strong momentum gained, the ROKagreed to further expand and support the project foranother 3 years (Phase II: 1 July 2006 – 30 June 2008).The main goal of Phase II is 'to consolidate andstrengthen the collaborative research mechanismdealing with regional as well as global concerns onsustainable forest management'. This will be alsoachieved through collaborative partnership in research,capacity building, and sharing of scientific and technicalinformation.




imperative that their production, trading, andconsumption be monitored. Unfortunately, updateddata on the production and consumption ofpesticides and fertilisers in the whole region are notavailable. Only trade data are available. TheASEAN Trade Statistics Database shows that for2004, the region’s exports of fertilisers andpesticides amounted to US$296 million andUS$127 million respectively, while fertiliser andpesticides imports amounted to US$254 million andUS$87 million respectively.

A unique case of land “contamination” or“degradation” occurred in Cambodia where anestimated 0.1 million hectares of land or 0.6% of itstotal land area was rendered unsuitable foragriculture and other uses due to the presence oflandmines and unexploded ordnance (UXO). Theunseen presence of these dangerous explosivesunderneath a significant portion of Cambodia’s landarea remains a major challenge to the productiveuse of this terrestrial resource.

Box 6.3: The Challenge of Landmine and Unexploded Ordinance (UXO) in Cambodia

Since 1993, the Cambodian Mine ActionCentre (CMAC), Halo Trust, and Mine AdvisoryGroup (MAG) have been actively involved in mineand UXO clearance. These organisations nowoperate under the umbrella of the CambodianMine Action and Victim Assistance Authority(CMAA). The land affected by mines and UXOsaccounts for about 0.6% of Cambodia’s total landarea. Between 1979 and March 2002, 52,967mine accidents were reported, with about 16,950or 32% of these incidents resulting in death. Asignificant decline in UXO casualties has occurredfrom several thousand incidents per year (3,276 in1996) to several hundred per year (279 in 2002)due to a combination of de-mining activities, on-the-ground demarcation of existing mined areas,and awareness-raising among villagers.

In 1994, UNDP estimated that 40% ofCambodia’s arable land was mined, with particularconcentration in the northwest region ofBattambang province, an area of some of the

most fertile land. In March 2003, CMAA estimatedthat 15% of Cambodia’s arable or 405,000hectares remained inaccessible due to landmines.This may be an overestimate, however, as itcontradicts other recent CMAA numbers in whichthe total landmine/UXO restricted area, not justarable land, was calculated for each province, andamounted to 109,700 hectares. As the latter figureis more inclusive, considerably less than 4% of thearable land (perhaps about 1%) would berestricted.

Regardless of the figure, the unseenunderground threat of UXO remains a major factorin the agricultural land use of certain areas. It hastaken 10 years for 15,520 hectares of mine-contaminated areas to be cleared and thereremains approximately 109,000 hectares of mine-contaminated areas to be cleared.

Source: State of the Environment Report 2004, Ministry of

Environment, Cambodia

Biological Diversity

Although the region occupies only 3% of theworld’s total surface, 20% of all known species livedeep in its mountains, jungles, rivers, lakes andseas. It also has three of the world’s 17

megadiversity countries, namely, Indonesia,Malaysia and Philippines. However, the ASEANregion also has seven of the world’s 25 recognisedbiodiversity hotspots. Biodiversity hotspots arebiologically rich areas under greatest threat ofdestruction.

Table 6.3: World Rank in Total Diversity

Source: Conservation International (2003b).

Note: A ranking of 1 indicates the country with the most biological diversity in the world.

Country Total Higher Plants Total Mammals Total Birds Total Reptiles Total Amphibians

Indonesia 3 2 5 4 6

Malaysia 14 11 15 14 14

Philippines 17 16 16 17 17



There are 27,100 endemic species in theregion. Of this total, 86% are endemic plants,followed by butterflies (4%), and freshwater fish(3%). The rest (7%) are birds, amphibians,mammals, reptiles, and dragonflies/damselflies.Nine countries of the region share many speciesthat are biologically distinct from the rest of theworld because these countries share common landor water borders. Among the most commonlyshared species are macaques, hornbills, palmcivet, sambar deer, barking deer and sun bear. Outof the 64,800 known species in the region, 2% or1,312 species are endangered. The countries thathave the most endangered species are Malaysia(358 species), Indonesia (349 species) andPhilippines (151 species). As a percentage of theirtotal number of species, Brunei Darussalam andViet Nam, with 3%, have the most number ofspecies endangered.

Recorded Listed % of WorldTaxon ASEAN World

TotalSpecies Totals

Birds 2,400 9,700 25

Mammals 945 4,680 20

Amphibians 655 4,780 14

Reptiles 1,650 7,870 21

Freshwater 1,995 10,000 20fish

Butterflies 2,730 15,000 18

Dragonflies 1,350 6,000 22

Flowering 45,000 250,000 18plants

Table 6.4: Richness of ASEAN by Taxa

Source: ARCBC (2004)

Box 6.4: ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB)

The ASEAN CENTRE FOR BIODIVERSITY (ACB)is an international inter-governmental organisationestablished by ASEAN to support policy formulation,capacity development, promote public awareness andeducation, and enhance collaboration with theinternational community for the conservation,sustainable use, and to facilitate access and equitablesharing of benefits of the rich and diverse biologicaldiversity of the region. The ACB was established byagreement among the governments of ASEAN MemberCountries on 27 September, 2005. The establishment ofthe ACB and numerous other programmes in the regiondemonstrates the commitment of ASEAN towardsbiodiversity conservation, in particular on meeting thetarget of significantly reducing the rate of biodiversityloss by 2010. The initial three-and-half years ofoperation of the Centre will be mainly financed by theEuropean Union. The Centre will further promote thesuccessful work undertaken on networking, training,research, and biodiversity database management bythe ASEAN Regional Centre for BiodiversityConservation Project (ARCBC) 1999 – 2004, – a jointcooperation project between ASEAN and the EuropeanUnion.

A Host Country Agreement for ACB was signed on8 August 2006, at the Malacanan Palace, Manila,

Philippines by the Honorable Alberto Romulo, Secretaryof Foreign Affairs, representing the host Country, andHj. Mohd. Said Bin Pehin Dato Hj. Hashim, PermanentSecretary, Ministry of Development, Brunei Darussalam,representing ASEAN as Chair of the ACB GoverningBoard. The Host Country Agreement, among others,accords various privileges and immunities to enablesmooth and effective operations of the Centre.

The diverse species of the region arecommonly found in six main types of natural habitat– high mountains, evergreen tropical forests,monsoon forests, limestone formations, wetlandsand marine waters. Most of these sites have either

World Heritage Site or ASEAN Heritage Parkinscription. If deforestation in the region continuesat current rates, it is expected that the region willlose up to three-quarters of its forests, and up to42% of its biodiversity by 2100.4

Her Excellency President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyowitnessed the signing and handing over of the HostCountry Agreement (HCA) of the ASEAN Centre forBiodiversity (ACB) on 08 August 2006 in MalacananPalace, Manila, Philippines.



Box 6.5: The ASEAN Wildlife Enforcement Network (ASEAN-WEN)

The ASEAN Ministers responsible for theimplementation of CITES officially launched theestablishment of the ASEAN Wildlife EnforcementNetwork (ASEAN-WEN) on 1st December 2005. Thisfollows the adoption and endorsement of the ASEANRegional Action Plan on Trade in Wild Fauna and Flora(2005 – 2010), in particular to fulfil the second objectiveof the Action Plan which aims “to promote networkingamongst relevant law enforcement authorities inASEAN countries to curb illegal trade in wild fauna andflora”.

ASEAN-WEN aims to address illegal exploitationand trade in CITES-listed species within the ASEANregion. It is an integrated network among lawenforcement agencies and involves the CITESauthorities, customs, police, prosecutors, specialisedgovernmental wildlife-law enforcement organisationsand other relevant national law enforcementagencies.

In principle, ASEAN-WEN will:

• conduct awareness raising programmes, such as the production of publications and other

promotional materials to raise awareness ofwildlife crime and illicit trade in wild fauna andflora;

• produce training materials on combating wildlifecrime and illicit trade in wild fauna and flora, andorganise training activities for wildlife and other lawenforcement officers;

• establish and implement measures to improvecollaboration, cooperation and information exchangebetween and among law enforcement agencies andCITES management authorities.

ASEAN Member Countries at the 1st Meeting ofASEAN-WEN on 25 May 2006 agreed to allocatenecessary financial and human resources, and tocollaborate in cross-border cooperation andcoordination to ensure the effective enforcement oflegislation governing conservation, trade andsustainable use of wild fauna and flora.

Source: ASEAN Secretariat (2006)

Table 6.5: Inventory of Endemic Species

Source: ARCBC (2004).

Notes: a – Forest Department, Myanmar, b – the Ministry of Environment, Singapore, c – the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Thailand

Details

Bru

nei

Dar

uss

alam

Cam

bo

dia

Ind

on

esia

Lao

PD

R

Mal

aysi

a

Mya

nm

ar

Ph

ilip

pin

es

Sin

gap

ore

Th

aila

nd

Vie

t N

amAmphibians 0 5 176 2 64 36a 78 0 7c 54

Birds 0 0 515 0 9 4a 181 0 2c 8

Butterflies 28 0 340 7 117 186a 406 0 41 204

Dragonflies/Damselflies 0 0 0 0 0 0 139 0 0 0

Freshwater Fish 0 1 456 106 55 124a 109 10 72c 82

Mammals 0 0 251 1 6 5a 112 1 5c 2

Plants 585 7 6,994 45 6,784 2,233a 6,371 1b 757c 488

Reptiles 0 0 52 0 17 11a 168 0 47c 4

Total Endemic Species 613 13 8,784 161 7,052 2,599 7,564 12 931 842



Table 6.6: Inventory of Endangered Species


Notes: a – Forest Department, Myanmar, b – the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Thailand

Details

Bru

nei

Dar

uss

alam

Cam

bo

dia

Ind

on

esia

Lao

PD

R

Mal

aysi

a

Mya

nm

ar

Ph

ilip

pin

es

Sin

gap

ore

Th

aila

nd

Vie

t N

am

Species List 4,466 2,147 17,378 2,553 15,653 8,232a 11,262 1,657 8,783b 4,344

Endangered Species 130 75 349 56 358 157a 151 37 282b 120

Endangered Species as 3 3 2 2 2 2a 1 2 3b 3% of Total Species

Box 6.6: Conserving the Tiger

The tiger (Panthera tigris) has long dominated thelandscape of South East Asia and is associated interms of bravery and courage in the local folktales. Ithas also decorated the traditional arts and crafts anddecorates the national emblem of Malaysia. There mayhave been 100,000 tigers, at the end of the 19th centuryranging continental Asia and the Indonesian island ofSumatra. However, the Species Survival Group of IUCNestimates that the present maximum number of wildtigers is probably no more than 7,700. Of these, anestimated 1,450 to 2,150 tigers are found in AMCs, withthe exception being Philippines, Brunei and Singapore.

Based from various government records, about 450tigers are found in Thailand, 500 tigers in the PeninsulaMalaysia and another 400 – 600 in Sumatra.

Habitat destruction and indiscriminate hunting haveled to the drastic decline in the tiger population. As aresult, IUCN considers the tiger as an endangeredspecies and is legally protected under the respectivenational legislation of AMCs. In addition to legislativeactions, AMCs have also designation large protectedareas to conserve some of the existing tigerpopulations. Among them, tigers have been recorded in

the Lomphat Reserve, Cambodia; TamanNegara National Park and Endau RompinNational Park in Peninsular Malaysia; HuaiKha Khaeng Wildlife Reserve and Khao YaiNational Park in Thailand; and Muong NheReserve, Viet Nam. Indonesia has undertakena Population and Habitat Viability Analysis(PHVA) exercise which has identified theGunung Leuser National Park; Kerinci Seblatand Wei Kambas as important conservationareas for tigers. To ensure the tigerscontinues to dominate the ASEAN landscapeand play its ecological role more tiger habitatshave to be protected and the poaching oftigers curtailed.

Source: IUCN cat Specialist Group: http://lynx.uio.no/lynx/catsgportal/cat-website/20_cat-website/home/index_en.htm & DWNP Malaysia

Panthera tigris



To conserve biodiversity and wildlife, a“protected area” (PA) may be created, which can bean area of land or sea especially dedicated to theprotection and maintenance of biological diversity,and of natural and associated cultural resources,and managed through legal or other effectivemeans (as defined by IUCN). These protectedareas vary in terms of the level of protection andthe enabling laws that created them. They can becreated either by countries or by international orregional organisations. The IUCN has six PAclassifications: strict nature reserve/wildernessarea, national park, natural monument,

habitat/species management area, protectedlandscape/seascape, and managed resourceprotected area. Almost 50% of the region’s PAs aremanaged resource protected areas and most ofthem are located in Indonesia. The region has595,700 sq km of designated protected areascomprising about 13% of its total land area. Of thisexpanse 345,000 sq km or 58% are in Indonesia,followed by Thailand (14%) and Lao PDR (6%). Atpresent, the region has a total of 1,524 IUCN-category protected areas with Indonesia having themost at 1,069 or 70% of the total.

Box 6.7: Conserving Orang Utan

The orang utan is one of the great apes that isfacing extinction largely due to loss of their naturalhabitats and hunting pressure. In Sabah, Malaysia, oneestimate is that there are only 5,000 to 10,000 of orangutans left, mainly concentrated in forests along theKinabatangan River. The Sepilok Rehabilitation Centrein Sabah was established to help the conservation ofthe orang utan displaced by habitat destruction andhunting. Although orang utans are fruit eaters, there isrecent evidence showing that they are adapting theirdiet and eating a larger amount of leaves in logged-overforest areas of Kinabatangan. It is estimated that theremay be only 2,000 orang utans left in Sarawak and theyare mainly found in the Batang Ai National Park andLanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary. The orang utans arealso found in Kalimantan, Indonesia. The transboundaryconservation area comprising the Lanjak-EntimauWildlife Sanctuary and the Betung Karihun NationalPark located at the Malaysia-Indonesia border is amongthe biggest protected area in ASEAN that providesamong the best in-situ conservation site for the orangutan and other biodiversity resources.

Orang Utan

Source: Biodiversity in Malaysia, Ministry of Natural Resources and

Environment, Malaysia (2006)

Box 6.8: Transboundary Conservation Areas

Indonesia-Malaysia Transboundary ConservationArea

The Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary (187,000ha) in Sarawak and Betung Kerihun National Park(800,000 ha) in West Kalimantan was proposed as atransboundary conservation area (TBCA) as theyshared many landscape features as well as a commonethnographic history. Later, the Batang Ai National Parkof Sarawak was added making the 1.1 million hectaresTBCA one of the biggest conservation areas inSoutheast Asia. The first phase was implemented in1995. In 2004, another conservation area between

Sarawak and Kalimantan was proposed and this wasthe Pulong Tau National Park in Sarawak and theKayan Mentarang National Park in East Kalimantan.The 165,000 hectares in Sarawak and 1.4 millionhectares in Indonesia would also make thisconservation area one of the largest in the region.

Heart of Borneo Conservation Area of Indonesia,Brunei Darussalam and Malaysia

This proposed transboundary conservation area isone of the most ambitious in the region. The proposedarea is 22 million hectares in size or about one quarter




the land area of Borneo. It would involve the more hillyterrain of Brunei Darussalam, East Malaysia andIndonesia. The island of Borneo is home to some of theworld’s most diverse ecosystems with about 15,000species of plants. Borneo is also home to rare, largemammals such as orang utans, elephants and theSumatran rhinoceros. The Indonesian and Bruneigovernments, the Sabah Wildlife Department and theWWF have a team of researchers working on thisproject. In the last decade, over 350 new species havebeen found, including 30 freshwater fishes. Thistransboundary conservation area is expected to beimplemented in 2006.

The Turtle Islands Heritage Protected Area BetweenPhilippines and Malaysia

While concentrating on turtle conservation, thisbilateral agreement signed in May 1996 recognises thatturtle populations are dependent on the marineenvironment. It looks at preserving coral reefs and othermarine flora and fauna as well as important nestingsites for the Green and Hawksbill turtles in Philippinesand Malaysia. This is one of the success stories on theconservation of the green turtle.

Green Turtle

Source: Biodiversity in Malaysia, Ministry of Natural Resources and

Environment, Malaysia (2006)


Table 6.7: IUCN-Classified Protected Areas


Note: a – Forest Department, Myanmar

Managed

CountryNational National

Mgmt Area WildernessLand/ Resource

Park Monument Seascape Protected Area

Brunei Darussalam 1 0 0 24 6 0

Cambodia 7 0 8 5 3 0

Indonesia 36 15 47 154 79 738

Lao PDR 0 0 17 0 0 0

Malaysia 17 1 12 113 1 0

Myanmar 2a 0 0 0 2 0

Philippines 5 0 1 2 11 0

Singapore 0 0 1 0 4 0

Thailand 74 46 37 0 1 0

Viet Nam 9 0 45 0 0 0

ASEAN Total 151 62 168 298 107 738



ASEAN is promoting a regional network ofnational protected areas, known as the “ASEANHeritage Parks” which are protected areas of highconservation importance aimed at preserving intotal a complete spectrum of representativeecosystems of the region. The overall objectives ofdesignating the ASEAN Heritage Parks are togenerate greater awareness, pride, appreciation,enjoyment, conservation of ASEAN’s rich naturalheritage; and generate greater collaborationamong ASEAN Member Countries as well as withits partners on conserving the shared naturalheritage.

The Park is recognised by ASEAN as ashowcase of best practice for conservation andwise use of biological resources. It is thecountry’s responsibility to ensure that the bestpossible level of protection is afforded to the site.However, the Park will benefit from increasedattention and support from the ASEAN HeritageParks Programme and the internationalcommunity.

Number Size (km2)PA/Land area (%)

Brunei 41 1,212 21.00Darussalam

Cambodia 23 31,900a 17.60

Indonesia 1,320 345,000 18.20

Lao PDR 22a 33,900a 14.30a

Malaysia 306 35,000a 10.60a

Myanmar n.a. 26,613a 3.93a

Philippines 347 14,540 4.80

Singapore 16 29 4.20

Thailand 224 82,100a 16.00a

Viet Nam 65 25,400a 7.60a

Table 6.8: Protected Areas (based on national

classification)


Notes: Countries differ in their classification of protected areas. a – data

updated by respective member countries (Aug 2006), n.a. – not

available

Box 6.9: The ASEAN Heritage Parks (AHP) Programme

The ASEAN Heritage Parks (AHP) Programmeaims to ensure that the ASEAN Heritage Parks benefitfrom the best practices of management available,while encouraging further listing of protected areasthrough:

• Capacity development• Information sharing network

• Technical exchange programme• Prioritised access to international funding• Tourism promotion• Joint research programme• Regular conferences of park managers• Management improvement programme• Synergistic reporting to World Heritage and other

related programmes

ASEAN Heritage Park:

Khao Yai National Park in Thailand

ASEAN Heritage Park:

Gunung Leuser National Park in Indonesia



In general, an ASEAN Heritage Park mustembody a variety of ecosystems or speciesrepresented or typical of the region. It mustdemonstrate wholesome ecological processes andmust have the capability to regenerate withminimum human intervention. ASEAN uses tencriteria in designating an ASEAN Heritage Park.These are: ecological completeness,representativeness, naturalness, high conservationimportance, legally gazetted conservation areas,approved management plan, transboundary,uniqueness, high ethno-biological significance, andimportance for endangered or precious biodiversity.The World Heritage Sites are different from ASEANHeritage Parks although some of the latter are alsodesignated as World Heritage Sites. World HeritageSites are selected as globally outstanding siteswhile ASEAN Heritage Parks are selected asregionally representative sites.

The ASEAN Environment Ministers increasedthe number of ASEAN Heritage Parks from 11 to 27when they adopted the ASEAN Declaration onHeritage Parks in 2003 superseding the 1984 ASEANDeclaration on Heritage Parks and Reserves.Continuous efforts are being made to list morenational protected areas as ASEAN Heritage Parks.

Waste Management

The land is usually the final receptor of solidwastes generated by human activities. In 2001, thefive countries in the region (where data wasavailable) generated over 71.3 million tonnes ofmunicipal solid wastes (MSW). Among thesecountries, Philippines generated almost 36.2 milliontonnes followed by Thailand, Viet Nam, Malaysiaand Singapore with 14.1 million tonnes, 12.7 milliontonnes, 5.5 million tonnes and 2.8 million tonnesrespectively. Brunei Darussalam produced anddisposed the least amount of solid waste with only1.28 million tonnes. However, on a per capita basis,Singapore has the highest rate at 1.86 kg percapita per day, followed by Brunei Darussalam(1.4kg/cap/day), Thailand (1.0 kg/cap/day in urbanareas), Lao PDR (0.75 kg/cap/day), Malaysia (0.68 kg/cap/day), Viet Nam (0.61 kg/cap/day), and Philippines (0.30 kg/cap/day in rural areas,0.50 kg/cap/day in urban areas).

There are wastes generated by variousmanufacturing industries that are not identifiedseparately from municipal solid wastes comingfrom domestic and commercial activities. Theseinclude waste paper, plastics and packaging



materials, housekeeping wastes, food wastes fromthe factory’s cafeteria, scrap glass, rubber, ceramicand other materials and other off-specificationmaterials that are discarded with office wastes.There are variations in the composition of solidwastes produced in the capital cities of ASEANcountries. Organic materials constitute the majorportion of wastes in Jakarta, Indonesia (about74%), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (about 65%),Manila, Philippines (about 62%) and BruneiDarussalam (60%), but comprise less than half inBangkok, Thailand (44% – 48%) and Singapore(about 56%). Waste plastics constitute from 10% to30% of the municipal solid waste of various capitalcities in the region.

As the economies of countries in the regionshift from agriculture-based to industry-based, thecharacteristics of the wastes discharged intoterrestrial ecosystems are expected to change withincreasing toxic and hazardous wastes content.Hazardous wastes are also generated byagricultural activities from the use of pesticides andherbicides But as manufacturing activities intensify,more hazardous and toxic wastes are bound to beproduced from metal finishing, metallurgical andelectroplating plants, chemical and electronicsfactories, textile mills, pulp and paper mills andothers. Hazardous wastes are also produced bynon-industrial sources like domestic householdsand hospitals. Domestic households routinelydiscard waste paints and flammable solvents,caustic cleaners, batteries and mercury frombroken thermometers. Hospitals produce anddiscard wastes contaminated with blood and tissuewastes, used needles, scalpels and broken glasswares, expired and unused drugs, and chemical

and radioactive isotopes wastes. These materialsare hazardous because they pose substantial orpotential threats to public health or theenvironment. They have the characteristics ofignitability, corrosivity, reactivity (explosive) andtoxicity.

As a result of industrialisation a number ofcountries in the region like Indonesia, Malaysia,Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam facegrowing management and disposal problems oftoxic and hazardous wastes. In 1993 thesecountries produced only 6.86 million tonnes but itwas predicted that by the year 2010 production oftoxic and hazardous waste would rise to 31 milliontonnes or an increase of over 350%. Indonesia ledthe six countries in terms of volume of production,while Singapore produced about 49,000 tonnes in1993.

An industrial sector which is fast becoming asource of hazardous wastes in the region is theoutsourcing of the fabrication and production ofelectrical components and spare parts. Amongthe ASEAN Member Countries, Malaysia,Philippines, Singapore and Thailand are at theforefront of producing electrical and electronicequipment. Among the four countries, Singaporehad the highest total electrical and electronicproducts, followed by Malaysia, Thailand andPhilippines.

The disposal and management of the wastesfrom the electronics industry constitutes a new andspecial challenge to the region. The use of toxicand hazardous chemicals in the various productionprocesses of the electronics manufacturing plantsposes danger both to the workers and theenvironment. During the production process,workers may inhale or have direct skin contact withthe toxic fumes. If disposed of into the groundwithout the needed control measures, the toxicsubstances of electronic wastes may leach to thesoil and contaminate land and water resources.Even at the recycling stage, unprotected workersmay get exposed to high levels of toxicity fromthese types of wastes. Exposure to toxic chemicalsand wastes from electronic manufacturing plantsmay lead to health problems ranging from minorskin diseases to long-term physical and mentaldeformities depending on the severity and lengthof exposure and the nature of the chemical orwaste.

0 0.5 1 1.5 2

(kg/capita/day)

LAO

MAL

PHI

SIN

THA

VIE

Cou

ntry

Figure 6.4: Waste Generation in Selected Countries(kg/cap/day), 2001

Source: UNEP-DTIE-IETC (2004); the Ministry of Environment,

Singapore (Aug 2006)



Waste Management Practices,Policies and Institutions

Solid waste collection is expensive because ofthe high cost of fuel for transportation. In manycountries in the region (Singapore, Malaysia,Thailand, Philippines, and Indonesia) solid wastecollection and transport is contracted out to privatecompanies. Collection is done door-to-door or usingcommunal containers and bins. The most commonmethod of final disposal is either by using open

dumps, controlled landfills, orsanitary landfills. A few countrieshave solid waste treatmentsystems like incineration orcomposting.

Recycling and resourcerecovery from municipal solidwastes is practiced widely in theregion, although informally in manycases. The following materials,among others, are consideredrecyclables: ferrous and non-ferrous metals, scrap tires, paper,cardboard, plastics, textiles

(including cloth and leather), glass, animal bonesand feathers, and waste oil and grease. In themiddle-income to low-income cities in the region,there exists a long-standing practice of informalseparation and recycling of materials, which iscarried out during storage (by itinerant scavengers),during collection and transport (by the workers andcollectors), and during final disposal (by disposalsite scavengers). This has led to the developmentof enterprises for the gathering, trading, andreprocessing of materials in Bangkok, Manila, HoChi Minh City and Jakarta.

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

1993 2000 2010

Year

'000

tonn

es

INDMALPHISINTHAVIE

Figure 6.5: Estimated Annual Generation of Hazardous Waste in

Selected Member Countries (‘000 tonnes)

Source: UNEP-DTIE-IETC (2004), p. 9

Wastes are segregated during collection Scavengers at the disposal site

Waste plastics are washed in a creek… and dried under the sun before selling



Composting is not well practiced in the regionfor a number of reasons, e.g., high operating andmaintenance costs, poor maintenance andoperation of facilities, odour, and uncompetitivecost of compost compared to commercial fertilisers.However, incineration is widely practiced inSingapore as a means of treating municipal solidwaste and drastically reducing its volume. The fourgovernment-owned and operated incinerationplants in Singapore have a total capacity of 8,200

tonnes per day. In 2005 the plants processed 6,242tonnes of solid waste per day, generated 938million KWH of electricity from waste heat, andrecovered 14,000 tonnes of scrap metal, whichwere sold to a local steel mill for reprocessing intosteel for the construction industry. Advanced airpollution control equipment such as dry limereactors, electrostatic precipitators and catalyticbag filters are installed to ensure compliance withemission standards.

However, in some countries, for example inThailand and Philippines, there is strong oppositionto the use of incinerators for solid waste treatmentbecause of fears of air pollution (e.g., particulatesand dioxins). In Philippines, legislation has bannedthe use of incinerators (Republic Act. 9003).Landfills are the most common methods of finaldisposal of solid wastes in the region. Many landfills

are uncontrolled open dumps but the general trendis towards controlled landfills (with soil cover) andsanitary landfills (with daily soil cover and landfilllining). In some countries, industrial solid wastesare also being disposed of in landfills together withmunicipal solid wastes, although the landfills maynot be designed for co-disposal.

Box 6.10: Singapore’s Strategy on Waste Management

Singapore has a total land area of about 699 sq kmand a population of 4.2 million. Due to scarcity of land,Singapore disposes its solid waste by incinerationwhich reduces its volume by 90%. Waste which cannotbe burnt like construction debris and residual ash fromincineration plants are disposed of at the offshoreSemakau Landfill.

Over the last 30 years, with increasingpopulation, industrialisation and economic growth,Singapore experienced a six-fold increase of wasteoutput, from 1,260 tonnes/day in 1970 to an averageof 6,800 tonnes/day in 2004. If waste continues toincrease at this rate, Singapore would need a newincineration plant every 5 – 7 years and a landfillevery 25 – 30 years. For a small city-state, this is notsustainable.

The long term strategy and solution is to strive forwaste minimisation and recycling. Hence, under theSingapore Green Plan, the target is to raise the overallrecycling rate to 60% by 2012 and to strive towardsachieving the vision of “Zero Landfill and Zero Waste” inthe long run.

Semakau LandfillTuas South Incineration Plant

Source: Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources, Singapore (2006)



The more affluent countries in the region(e.g., Singapore) have sewer and drainagesystems that collect wastewater from homesthrough lateral pipes that are connected to themain sewers that bring the wastewater to atreatment plant or to an ocean outfall. In manycities, public storm water drainage systems alsoserve to carry domestic and industrial wastewatereffluents. Unfortunately, there are instances inmost towns and cities where untreatedwastewater effluents are discharged directly torivers and lakes. The most common domesticsewage handling and treatment systems used inthe region are the following:

On-site:• ventilated improved pit latrine (no water)• pour flush latrine/flush toilet with septic tank• soakway/soakage pits for septic tank effluent• communal/shared facilities for squatter areas

Off-site:• small-bore sewer• septage cartage and treatment in multi-stage

lagoons• simplified condominial (low cost) local sewers• dry weather flow interceptors• conventional trunk sewers and pumping

stations• treatment of collected wastewater by low cost

means including multi-stage lagoons• basic primary treatment and disposal through

marine outfalls with diffusers or directly onto theland

There are various industrial wastewatertreatment systems being used in the region. InSingapore most industries have facilities for pre-treatment before effluents are discharged into thecombined sewer system. Singapore has 2,438industrial wastewater treatment plants. The otherindustrial wastewater treatment systems beingused in the region are as follows:

• Oil interceptors • Balancing/equalisation • Sedimentation/setting/clarifying systems • Neutralisation systems• Chemical treatment • Activated sludge systems • Biological filtration systems • Ion exchange systems • Activated carbon absorption • Other aerobic and anaerobic systems

In the case of hazardous wastes,5 at least fourstrategies to control and manage them are found inthe region. These are: (a) “cradle-to-grave” systemof hazardous waste generation, collection,transport, treatment and final disposal; (b) provisionof hazardous waste inventory, manifest system, andproper facilities for the treatment, recovery, andfinal disposal of residues; (c) promotion of wasteminimisation, recycling, exchange, reuse andrecovery either in-house or at off-site facilities; and(d) use of non-legislative control measures.

As of August 2005, eight out of ten countries inthe region have ratified the Basel Convention on

Table 6.9: Disposal Methods for Municipal Solid Waste in Selected Member Countries

Source: UNEP-DTIE-IETC (2004)

Note: a – the Department of Environment, Brunei Darussalam (Sept. 2006)

CountryDisposal Methods (%)

Composting Open dumping Land-filling Incineration Others

Brunei Darussalam 2a 0a 70a 0a 28a

Indonesia 15 60 10 2 13

Malaysia 10 50 30 5 5

Myanmar 5 80 10 – 5

Philippines 10 75 10 – 5

Singapore – – 10 90 –

Thailand 10 (0 in 2001) 65 (67 in 2001) 5 (32 in 2001) 5 (1 in 2001) 15 (0 in 2001)

Viet Nam 10 70 – – 20



the Control of Transboundary Movements ofHazardous Wastes and Their Disposal and twohave ratified its Basel Amendment. However, manycountries have yet to ratify the accompanying BanAmendment to the Basel Convention on theControl of Transboundary Movements ofHazardous Wastes and their Disposal, and theBasel Protocol on Liability and Compensation forDamage Resulting from TransboundaryMovements of Hazardous Wastes and theirDisposal. Various strategies have been adopted

by Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia,Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam tomanage toxic and hazardous wastes and preventthem from harming terrestrial ecosystems,including requiring environmental impactassessment, promoting public awareness,implementation of industrial zoning, and control ingranting licenses for operators. Many countrieshave constructed hazardous wastes treatmentfacilities, particularly Singapore and Malaysia.6

Singapore has off-site hazardous wastemanagement facilities that are capable ofrecovering about 65% of the waste. InPhilippines, there are facilities for the treatment ofmetal finishing wastewater (in Cebu) and medicalwastes (in Laguna). In Thailand, the government’shazardous waste treatment plant is managed bythe Industrial Estate Authority. In addition,Thailand has five existing central facilities forindustrial hazardous waste recovery and disposalthat are duly licensed by the Department ofIndustrial Works. In Indonesia, there is acentralised hazardous waste treatment facility inWest Java, which is capable of treating 10 to 30tonnes of wastes from Jakarta, Tangerang andBekasi.7 Malaysia has established industry-specific industrial parks, e.g., Bukit KemuningElectroplating Park in the state of Selangor,equipped with centralised wastewater treatmentfacilities. Prior to discharge, the industries areexpected to reduce waste which helps to promotecleaner production options, such as wasteminimisation, resource conservation, reuse andrecycling.

Waste Management Policies andStrategies

There are various laws, regulations, andstandards in the ASEAN region for wastemanagement. Many are municipal or city planningregulations that are related to sewerage. The mostrecent among them are Malaysia’s regulationsconcerning the handling of urban storm water andthe Philippine’s solid waste management law.However, implementation is constrained byinadequate funding. For example, in Indonesia, thebudget for waste management was only 1% fromthe overall budget of the environmental sector in2001 and 2002.8

Waste management is normally the concern ofnational government agencies dealing withenvironment, science and technology, industry,public works, transportation/public utilities, and thelocal government. There are also bureaus,commissions or departments for specific wastemanagement problems, such as for soil, hazardoussubstances, etc. In Myanmar, it is interesting to

Box 6.11: Kualiti Alam Integrated Hazardous Waste Treatment Plant, Malaysia

The treatment facility was officially opened inNovember 1998. Modelled after the Danishhazardous waste processing plant, Kommunekemi inNyborg, it is the first integrated facility for theprocessing of hazardous wastes in Malaysia. Theowners, Kualiti Alam Sdn. Bhd, hold a concession fortreatment of all hazardous wastes in PeninsularMalaysia for 15 years. More than $70 million hasbeen invested in the facility.

The facility receives all types of hazardous wastesexcept hospital and radioactive wastes. Organic wastesare burned in the incineration plant. Acidic and basicorganic fluids are chemically treated to neutralise them.

The residues from chemical treatment and other solidinorganic residues are bound with lime and cementbefore being disposed in a double membrane-linedlandfill, which has a capacity for storing waste residuesup to 20 years.

Companies are required by law to inform theauthorities on the types and quantities of hazardouswastes they generate and the associated collection,storage, and processing methods used. In addition, thecompanies have to pay for the services on the basis ofthe polluter-pay-principle.

Source: UNEP-DTIE-IETC (2004)



note that the city development offices have beenmade in charge of waste management.Overlapping or duplication of functions is a concernin some countries that need some attention. Manyinstitutions responsible for solid waste managementlack the required personnel with adequate training

and expertise. In many cases, there is also verylimited private sector or community participation insolid waste management activities. Accurate dataon the production, handling and disposal ofdomestic, industrial, and toxic and hazardouswastes are often not available or difficult to obtain.

End Notes1 Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) (2005), Forests and

Floods: Drowning in Fiction or Thriving on Facts? (Indonesia: Indonesia Printer), pp. 1 and 6 – 7. 2 Kazutake Kyuma (2003), “Soil Degradation in the Coastal Lowlands of Southeast Asia”

< http://www.fftc.agnet.org/library/article/eb537.html#0 > 15 Nov 2005. 3 Ibid.4 See Navjot S. Sodhi et al. (2004), “Southeast Asian Biodiversity: An Impending Disaster,” Trends in Ecology &

Evolution 19 (December): 654 – 660. 5 Unless otherwise indicated, this section was derived mostly from Pollution Control Department (2002), ASEAN

Achievements and Future Directions in Pollution Control (Bangkok, Thailand: Ministry of Science, Technology, andEnvironment).

6 United Nations Environment Programme-Division of Technology, Industry and Economics-International EnvironmentalTechnology Centre (UNEP-DTIE-IETC) (2004), State of Waste Management in South East Asia (Japan: UNEP-DTIE-IETC), p. 18.

7 Ibid., pp. 18 – 19. 8 Ibid., p. 27.

Prevent transbounday haze pollution as a result of land and/or forest firesthrough concerted national efforts and intensified regional action and

international cooperation, pursued in accordance with the provisions ofthe ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution.

Ensure cities/urban areas in ASEAN are environmentally sustainable,while meeting the social and economic needs of the people.


CHAPTER 7Atmosphere

Chapter 7: Atmosphere


he quality of the air in the region as a whole was generally good. The region faces two major airpollution concerns, namely transboundary haze pollution resulting from land and forest fires, and the

deterioration of urban air quality arising mainly from industries and transportation. The almost annualhaze episode does affect air quality during certain days of the year especially from May – September.While the region has been steadfastly addressing this issue over the years, the imperative of economicdevelopment mainly agriculture activities compounded by adverse weather and climatic conditionsposes a serious challenge to national and regional efforts. The region has about 25 million hectares ofpeatlands, about 60% of world total, from which most of the smoke haze originate. In the highlyurbanised and industrialised areas, particularly in the capital cities, there was a general worsening trendin air quality due primarily to escalating energy consumption resulting from domestic, industrial andtransport activities. Transportation contributed a large share of air pollution to the urban environment.National and regional efforts to improve air quality such as efficient public transportation, increasing useof cleaner fuels especially natural gas and biofuels, implementation of the ASEAN Agreement onTransboundary Haze Pollution, and the ASEAN Sustainable Cities Initiative are being pursued tocontinuously improve the overall air quality of the region.

T

Peatlands in ASEAN 25 million hectares(major source of smoke haze) (60% of world total)

Hotspot Counts(Sumatra, Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia)

Air Quality in 2005 Good Moderate Unhealthy No data(number of days)

Brunei Darussalam 267 7 0 91

IndonesiaJakarta 29 270 18 48Palangkaraya 215 15 17 118

MalaysiaKuala Lumpur 64 234 67 0

Singapore 322 43 0 0

Air Quality

The overall quality of air in the region wasgenerally good. However, atmospheric pollution inthe urban areas of most countries has increaseddramatically, primarily due to growing energyconsumption and increasing number of motorvehicles. The air, particularly in capital cities, iscontaminated by various types of pollutants frominefficient or wasteful use of fuel, poor runningcondition of vehicles, traffic congestion, and open

burning. Almost all countries in the region areaffected by air pollutants such as carbon monoxide(CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx)and volative organic compounds (VOC). Data for2000 indicated that Indonesia had the highest levelof air pollution involving all the four contaminants.Brunei Darussalam and Singapore enjoyedrelatively clean air among all the countries in theregion. Lao PDR, being a predominantly ruraleconomy with low population density, also enjoyedthe benefits of clean and healthy atmosphere.

2002 2003 2004 2005

32,059 13,227 26,661 61,790



Data for 1999 showed that Indonesia’s capitalcity of Jakarta had the highest concentration ofparticulate matter (PM) measuring 103 microgramsper cubic metre (µg/cu m). It was followed byBangkok (74 µg/cu m), Metro Manila (60 µg/cu m),Kuala Lumpur (24 µg/cu m) and Singapore (41 µg/cu m).

The same air pollution data (1995 – 2001) forcities reveal that Metro Manila, Philippines had the highest average concentration of SO2 in theregion at 33 µg/cu m, followed by Kuala Lumpur (24 µg/cu m), Singapore (20 µg/cu m) and Bangkok(1-hr average of 19 µg/cu m). A major portion ofsulphur dioxide emissions comes from power plants

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

('000

met

ric

tons

)


Country

Carbon Monoxide Emissions

Nitrogen Oxides Emissions

Non-Methane VOC Emissions

Sulfur Dioxide Emissions

Figure 7.1: Air Pollution Emissions

Source: WRI (2005)

-

20

40

60

80

100

120

(mic

rogr

ams

per

cubi

c m

eter

)

Jakarta

IND

Kuala Lumpur

MAL

Metro Manila

PHI

n.a.

SIN

Bangkok

THA

City and Country

Particulate Matter (1995)

Sulfur Dioxide (1995-2001)

Nitrogen Dioxide (1995-2001)

Figure 7.2: Air Pollution in selected Capital Cities of Member Countries

Source: World Bank (2005)

Note: Data are averages of the inclusive years, except for Particulate Matter.

Data for SO2 and NO2 of Bangkok updated by Thailand (Aug 2006).



that burn coal and petroleum fuel. When gaseoussulphur dioxide combines with water andatmospheric oxygen, it forms sulphuric acid (H2SO4),which causes “acid rain” that corrodes buildings andmonuments and affects flora and fauna.

In the case of nitrogen oxide emissions,Singapore had an average concentration of 30 µg/cu m in 1995 – 2001 while Bangkok had aconcentration (1-hr average) of 50 µg/cu m. Themain source of nitrogen oxides are from motor

vehicles. Severe traffic congestion adds to thisproblem with car engines running idle for longperiods during the rush hours in the morning andevening.

In the Philippines, a study conducted for theAsian Development Bank found that the widelyused three-wheeled passenger vehicle called“tricycle” contributed to air pollution in two cities dueto poor maintenance of old engines and improperdriving habits of tricycle drivers.

Box 7.1: Air Pollution from Tricycles in the Philippines

Vehicular emissions are predominantly severe inthe Philippines where one third of vehicles consist ofthree-wheeled (tricycles) vehicles. These tricycles aremajor contributors to air pollution as they usuallyoperate with old engines and are poorly maintained.

On-the-spot emission tests of a number of tricyclesin Quezon City (in Metro Manila) and Puerto PrincesaCity (in Palawan Island) were conducted in April 2004. Itis interesting to note that the carbon monoxide (CO)

concentrations, for both idle and higher speeds, of 4-stroke engines have higher values on the average,compared with those of 2-stroke engines. The tests alsoshowed that CO concentration, regardless of the type oftricycle engines, is higher at higher speed. Thisindicates that acceleration, both gradual and abrupt,produces more CO pollutants. Nevertheless, it isinteresting to note that all the tricycles tested passedthe 4% standard set by the Clean Air Act (i.e., RepublicAct 8749).

The emission tests indicate that the averagehydrocarbon (HC) emissions of tricycles both in QuezonCity and Puerto Princesa City are below the maximum

Clean Air Act standard of 7,800 ppm. However, 4-strokeengines emit substantially lower levels of hydrocarbons,both in idle and higher speed conditions.

Type of Engine Quezon City Puerto Princesa City

Condition CO, % Condition CO, %

2-stroke Idle 1.97 Idle 1.772,000 rpm 2.24 2,000 rpm 2.08

4-stroke Idle 2.19 Idle 2.322,000 rpm 2.87 2,000 rpm 2.81

Comparison of CO concentrations in Tricycles, Quezon City and Puerto Princesa City, Philippines, April 2004

rpm – revolutions per minute

Type of Engine Quezon City Puerto Princesa City

Condition HC, ppm Condition HC, ppm

2-stroke Idle 4,140 Idle 6,6102,000 rpm 4,580 2,000 rpm 5,340

4-stroke Idle 1,145 Idle 6702,000 rpm 863 2,000 rpm 386

Comparisons of HC Concentrations in Tricycles, Quezon City and Puerto Princesa City, Philippines, April 2004

ppm – parts per million

Source: Excerpts from Asian Development Bank (2005), Air and Noise Pollution from Tricycles: A Strategic Plan for Quezon City and Puerto Princesa

City, Philippines (Manila: ADB).



Traffic Congestion …

in Metro Manila

Bangkok

and Jakarta.



Improving Air Quality in ASEANMember Countries

ASEAN member countries have taken variousmeasures to deal with air pollution by enacting airpollution control laws and implementing air pollutioncontrol strategies, ambient air quality standards,and air quality monitoring programmes.1

Measures and guidelines are in place for theenforcement of air quality standards, emissionstandards for mobile and stationary sources, and fuelquality standards. Some examples of the mostrecent air pollution control legislations are as follows:

• Cambodia – “The Control of Air Pollution andNoise Disturbance 2000” aims to protect thequality of the environment and protect publichealth from air pollutants and noise disturbancethrough monitoring, control and mitigatingactivities.

• Malaysia – “Environmental Quality (Control ofEmission from Motorcycles) Regulations 2003”which sets limits on gaseous emissions fromcurrent and new models motorcycles, specifiesoperating requirements and requires themanufacturer to conduct verification tests on

both models as well as providing forenforcement mechanism.

• Singapore – “Environmental Pollution Control(Air Impurities) Regulations 2000” requiresindustries and power generation plants to beequipped with pollution control equipment tocomply with the air emission standards.

Environmental impact assessment is widelyused in the region to control and mitigate air pollutionthat may arise as a result of large developmentprojects. It provides a means to identify the potentialimpacts, design mitigation measures, andrecommend monitoring programmes to maintain thequality of the ambient air. Malaysia, Philippines andThailand are known to have effective EIA processesin the region. The implementation of well thought-outland use plans is another means to minimise theimpact of air pollution on people, particularly thosepollutants generated from stationary sources such aspower plants and other industrial processes. InSingapore, for example, the strict implementation ofzoning regulations where manufacturing plants areallowed only in areas designated as industrial zoneshelp minimise the possible adverse impacts of airpollution resulting from normal operations as well asindustrial accidents.

Box 7.2: ASEAN’s Initiative on Environmentally Sustainable Cities (AIESC)

In 2003, the ASEAN Environment Ministers,recognising the scope for regional cooperation in termsof addressing the environmental challenges ofincreasing urbanisation in the region, agreed to form anASEAN Working Group on Environmentally SustainableCities (AWGESC). Principally, the AWGESC is assignedto:

• develop a framework for sustainable cities inASEAN;

• develop strategies and action plans to realise thevision of sustainable cities in ASEAN;

• promote the sharing of information and expertise inenvironmental protection and management tofurther environmental sustainability in ASEANcities;

• recommend common targets and indicators toassess "sustainability" for cities in ASEAN

• facilitate and organise activities, includingseminars, workshops, etc. to promote inter-cityenvironmental cooperation and facilitating transferof know-how and expertise

• foster better understanding and closer cooperationamongst relevant agencies of ASEAN membercountries, and international and community-based

organisations in the areas of urban environmentalmanagement and monitoring; and

• promote public awareness and encourage 3P(Private, Public and People) Sectors' participationin implementing the action programmes to achievethe vision of sustainable cities in ASEAN

The Framework for Environmentally SustainableCities in ASEAN was developed in December 2003,with the vision “Towards Environmentally SustainableCities in ASEAN”. Member countries have since thennominated 24 cities to participate in the implementationof the Framework. In 2005, the ASEAN EnvironmentMinisters endorsed the ASEAN Initiative onEnvironmentally Sustainable Cities (AIESC), whichreplaces the Regional Environmentally SustainableCities Programme (RESCP) and serves as anoverarching mechanism for ASEAN cities to pursueenvironmental sustainability and goes beyond thescope of Clean Air, Clean Water and Clean Land, toinclude green and blue issues in the future. In the scopeof Clean Air, ASEAN principally aims to achieve ASEANlong-term goal of maintaining good ambient air qualityof PSI (Pollutant Standard Index) < 100 to safeguardpublic health.



Table 7.1: Air Quality Regulations in Selected Member Countries


Notes: a – data supplied by Malaysia (Aug 2006), b – data supplied by Myanmar (Aug 2006)

Brunei Darussalam• Petroleum (Pipelines) Act of 1920• Municipal Boards Act 1920 (Revised 1984)• Penal Code 1951

• Atmosphere (Sec. 278)• Petroleum Mining Act 1963• Emergency Penal Code 1998

Indonesia• Act No. 23 of 1997 on Environmental Management• Government Regulation (GR) No. 41 of 1999 on Air

Pollution Control• Minister of Environmental Decree No. 35 of 1993 on

Emission Standards on Motor Vehicles

• Minister of Environment Decree No. 13 of 1995 onEmission Standards on Stationary Sources

• Minister of Environment Decree No. 45 of 1997 on AirPollution Index

Malaysiaa

• Environmental Quality Act 1974• Environmental Quality (Licensing) Regulations 1977• Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations 1978• Environmental Quality (Control of Lead Concentration

in Motor Gasoline) Regulations 1985• Environmental Quality (Motor Vehicle Noise)

Regulations 1987• Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities)

(Environmental Impact Assessment) Order 1987• Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises)

(Scheduled Wastes Treatment and Disposal Facilities)Regulations 1989

• Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises)(Scheduled Wastes Treatment and Disposal Facilities)Order 1989

• Environmental Quality (Prohibition on the Use ofChlorofluorocarbons and Other Gases as Propellantsand Blowing Agents) Order 1993

• Environmental Quality (Control of Emission from DieselEngines) Regulations 1996

• Environmental Quality (Control of Emission from PetrolEngines) Regulations 1996

• Environmental Quality (Refrigerant Management)Regulations 1999

• Environmental Quality (Halon Management)Regulations 1999

• Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) (OpenBurning) Order 2000

• Environmental Quality (Clean Air) (Amendment)Regulations 2000

• Environmental Quality (Compounding of Offences)(Open Burning) Order 2000

• Environmental Quality (Delegation of Powers)(Investigation of Open Burning) Order 2000

• Environmental Quality (Control of Emission from DieselEngines) (Amendment) Rules 2000

• Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities)(Environmental Impact Assessment) (Amendment)Order 2000

• Environmental Quality (Delegation of Powers) (HalonManagement) Order 2000

• Environmental Quality (Declared Activities) (OpenBurning) Order 2003

• Environmental Quality (Control of Emission fromMotorcycles) Regulations 2003

• Environmental Quality (Dioxin and Furan) Regulations2004

• Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations2005

Myanmarb

• Pollution Control and Cleansing Rules (1999) on Air Pollution Control

Philippines• P.D. 984 – Pollution Control Law• Air Quality Management (P.D. 1152) Establishing Air

Quality to Protect Public Health and Damage to LivingThings and Property

• Air Pollution from Motor Vehicles (P.D. 1181) Prescribingfor Allowable Emission Levels for Motor Vehicles

• P.D. 1152 Establishing standards on Noise ProducingEquipment

• Memorandum circular No. 29 Prescribing Applicable AirQuality Standards for Thermal Power Plants

• DAO 14 and 14-A of 1993 on Air Quality Standardsthat Prescribes Allowable Emissions from DifferentSources

Singapore• Environmental Pollution Control Act• Environmental Pollution Control (Air Impurities)

Regulations• Environmental Pollution Control (Prohibition on the Use

of Open Fires) Order

• Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore (Port)Regulations

• The Environmental Public Health Act• Environmental Pollution Control (Vehicular Emissions)

Regulations• Environmental Pollution Control (Ozone Depletion

Substances) Regulations

Thailand• Factory Act of 1992• Public Health Act of 1992• The Enhancement and Conservation of the National

Environmental Quality act of 1992• Industrial Estate Authority of Thailand Act of 1979

• Land Transportation Act of 1979• Industrial Products Standards of 1968• The Petrol Act of 1978• Land Traffic act of 1992• Highway Act of 1992

Viet Nam • National Law on Environmental Protection (NLEP) of

1993• Decree 175/CP of 1994• Provincial Regulations

• Directive No 199/TTg of 1997• Law on People’s Health Protection of 1989• Ordinance on Radiation Safety and Control of 1996• Directive No – TT406 on Prohibition on Production,

Trading and Using of Firecrackers of 1994



Air Quality Standards andMonitoring

Air emission standards for both stationary andmobile sources are already in place in mostmember countries. In some countries, an AirQuality Index or Air Pollution Index is used todetermine overall air quality. Among the parametersmeasured and monitored include total suspendedparticulates (TSP), Particulate Matter10 (PM10),lead (Pb), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide(NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), and ground ozone(O3). In measuring these parameters, the regionfollows internationally accepted norms andprocedures. In most cases they are based ondurations of one hour, eight hours, one day, andone year. The maximum permissible values ofthese parameters do not differ significantly fromone country to another.2

Seven countries have installed nation-wide orcity-wide air quality monitoring networks to keeptrack of air quality in various places such asresidential areas, industrial areas, commercialareas, roadside areas, and reference areas. Theseinclude Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia,Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Viet Nam.3 InBrunei Darussalam, Ambient Air Quality MonitoringStations (AAQMS) are located in all Brunei Districts(Brunei Muara, Tutong, Temburong, and KualaBerait) which are placed in ideal residential areas.In Indonesia, 33 air quality monitoring stations andfour continuous stations are placed in strategicrecreational, industrial, and mixed use areas.National air quality monitoring in Malaysia iscontracted out by the government to a privatecompany, Alam Sekitar Malaysia Sdn. Bhd (ASMA).The company provides continuous ambient air andmanual air quality monitoring using 51 continuous

and 25 manual monitoring stations. In addition,Malaysia’s Department of Environment, withassistance from Germany, has designated 4“hotspots” in Kuala Lumpur where air quality ismeasured by a MiniVol Portable Air Sampler.4

In the Philippines, Air Quality MonitoringDisplay Boards (AIRBoards) can be seen in thecapital region of Metro Manila as well as in othercities such as Cebu, Cagayan de Oro, Davao,Naga, and Baguio to give the public real timeinformation on air quality.5 Thailand has 51continuous and 21 temporary monitoring stations(2005 data) – since they started installing them in1983.6 In Singapore, there are 16 island-wide AirQuality Monitoring Networks (AQMN) to measureambient and roadside air quality. In Viet Nam, 20continuous air quality monitoring stations havebeen set up in the major cities of Hanoi, Hai Phong,Danang, Ho Chi Minh City as well as in someselected provinces since 2000.7

To further ensure the protection of ambient air,most countries have taken steps to ensure thatfuels used in industries and motor vehicles do notproduce or only produce the minimum of harmful airpollutants that may adversely affect the health ofpeople and the quality of the environment.Accordingly, limits have been set on the maximumsulphur and lead contents of coal and petroleumfuels. In industrial fuel, sulphur content is limited toa maximum of 2% – 3% by weight, while inautomotive diesel, the maximum limit is 0.05% –0.5% by weight. In the Philippines, the sulphurcontent of coal is limited to 1% by weight while inThailand coal used for thermal power plants arerestricted to within 0.5% – 3% sulphur content byweight, depending on the sources.8

Box 7.3: Dedicated Busway System to Improve Traffic and Reduce Air Pollution in Jakarta

Motor vehicles are the main contributors of airpollution in big cities. In Jakarta, the number of motorvehicles in 2004 numbered over 6.5 million units,mostly passenger vehicles or buses. Traffic jams inJakarta are a daily occurrence particularly in the centralbusiness district of the city. Traffic jams result ininefficient use of fuel resulting in more emissions thatpollutes the environment. A well-managedtransportation system is needed to reduce traffic jams.This system includes limiting the number of vehicles,and improving public transportation planning making it

systematic and orderly to reduce traffic bottlenecks andreduce air pollution.

The improvement in traffic management has beenimplemented by the city government of Jakarta througha comprehensive programme called “MacroTransportation 2003 – 2010”, which includes the “three-in-one programme” in central Jakarta, the “TransJakarta” (“Busway” Programme), provision of areas forpedestrians, development of water transportation, and aplanned 27-kilometre monorail.




The Busway programme commencedimplementation in January 2004. It provides a lane(normally the inner lane) for the exclusive use ofpassenger buses in the main thoroughfares of the city.These busways not only minimise congestion butimprove the comfort and speed of travelling, thusconvincing private vehicle owners to use publictransportation. The significant reduction in traffic jams inJakarta was noticeable after the implementation of this

programme. It is planned to have a total of 14 corridorsof busway throughout Jakarta.

To support the implementation of the buswaysystem, a pedestrian lane along Sudirman-Thamrin, themain city roads leading to central Jakarta will beprovided. Every building will be required to provide anarea 6 m wide for pedestrians, without fences betweenthe building and the pedestrian lane.


Busway at “Karet Station”, Jakarta

Source: Adapted from the State of the Environment Report, Indonesia (2004)

Box 7.4: Air Quality Monitoring Programme in Malaysia

To date, the National Air Quality Monitoring Networkcomprises 76 sites with 51 continuous air monitoringstations and 25 manual air quality monitoring stations.These stations are operated continuously to detect anysignificant change in the air quality which may beharmful to human health and the environment. Most ofthe stations are located in residential areas to monitorexposure to air pollution, while others are located withinindustrial areas. The manual air quality monitoringstations measure air pollutants such as total suspendedsolids, particulate matter and several heavy metals (e.g.,

lead) once every six days. The air quality is reportedbased on the Air Pollution Index (API) computed fromfive criteria parameters, namely, PM10, carbonmonoxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone and sulphur dioxide.The main sources of air pollution identified werestationary sources (e.g., industries), mobile sources(e.g., motor vehicles) and open burning. Transboundaryhaze pollution isanother significantsource of airpollution.

Control of emissions Resulting in clear blue sky

Source: Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment, Malaysia (2006)

Air is continuously monitored



Seven countries have already completed theintroduction of unleaded gasoline. These are BruneiDarussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam. At the sametime, efforts are being made by several countries topromote the widespread use of ethanol-blendedgasoline to a level of 5% to 15% as well as dieselfuel blended with 1% to 2% coconut or palm methylester. Another recent development is the productionof microemulsified biodiesel fuel (BDF) from amixture of vegetable oil (palm oil or coconut oil) anddiesel fuel ranging from 30% to 60%. The use ofmicroemulsified BDF is currently being tested in thePhilippines by the private sector with promisingresults.

Transboundary Haze Pollution

Transboundary haze pollution is one of themost pressing environmental problems facingASEAN today. Transboundary haze pollution iscaused by uncontrolled land and forest fires, mostlyresulting from human activities such as clearing offorests by open burning for plantation crops, andagricultural activities by farmers and shiftingcultivators. The spread and intensity of fires iscompounded by natural causes such as the El NiñoSouthern Oscillation conditions or during inter-monsoon seasons which brings periods ofprolonged droughts. Widespread fires andtransboundary haze pollution therefore usuallyoccur during the months of February-March andJuly-October in the southern part of the region.

The smoke haze is made up mostly ofparticulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), carbon

monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogendioxide (NO2), ozone (O3), methane, hydrocarbons,methyl chloride, polycyclic and other chemicals.Major episodes of transboundary haze pollutionoccurred in 1982 – 1983, 1987, 1991, 1994, and1997 – 1998. The blaze of 1997 – 1998 was amongthe most damaging in recorded history. More than 9million hectares were burnt, 6.5 million of whichwas forest area. The 1997 – 1998 haze episodesaffected the southern part of the region, includingBrunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia,Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Plantation,aviation and tourism industries were affected. Otherlosses came from lower crop productivity and yieldsfrom plantation, which were greatly affected due tothe reduced sunlight. The fires resulted in manythousand cases of hospitalisation, over half amillion outpatients, and 2.95 – 27.9 millionworkdays lost9. Airports in Sumatra and Kalimantanwere closed for extended periods and a total of1,108 flights were cancelled in Indonesia,Singapore and Malaysia. In addition, it impactedsignificantly on tourism revenues. Over 3% ofchildren under 5 years of age living on or neardegraded peatlands in Central Kalimantan sufferedfrom respiratory diseases and inhibited growth as aresult of smoke haze, indicating a continued,serious and longer-term impact on public health.The estimated loss in this fire episode was morethan US$ 9 billion in economic and large-scaleenvironmental losses, including the release of anestimated 1 – 2 billion tonnes of carbon10.

Southeast Asia has more than 25 millionhectares of peatlands, comprising 60% of theglobal tropical peatland resource. The majority ofthe peatlands in Southeast Asia is in Indonesia,which has over 70% of total peatland areas.Peatlands are usually found in low altitude, sub-coastal areas extending inland for distances up to300 km. The depth of peat varies from 0.5m tomore than 10m. Due to its ecological nature (i.e.comprising non-fully decomposed soil), peatlandfires are the most difficult fire to suppress. Peatlandfires usually produce very thick smoke haze, occurunderneath the surface and release very highamount of carbon. The land and forest fires of 1997– 1998, 2002 and 2005 in Southeast Asia havedestroyed more than 3 million hectares ofpeatlands. Fires in peat soils were identified as themajor contributors (about 60% of particulates) tothe smoke haze that enveloped a major part of theregion.

Country Introduced Completed

Brunei 1993 2000Darussalam

Indonesia 1997/1998 ongoing

Malaysia 1991 1998

Philippines 1993 2001

Singapore 1991 1998

Thailand 1991 1996

Viet Nam 2000 2002

Table 7.2: Phase Out of Leaded Gasoline in MemberCountries (as of 2005)




However, peatlands are also a haven forbiodiversity conservation, and one of the bestresource for carbon sequestration or carbon sinks.Peatlands are also important for socio-economicdevelopment and provide support for the livelihoodsof local communities. Peatlands can support thesustainable harvesting of timber and non-timberforest products as well as provide other important

goods and services such as water supply, floodcontrol, fishery support, and offers great potentialfor tourism and recreation.

Transboundary haze pollution caused by landand forest fires is episodic. The latest incidence oftransboudary haze pollution affected the southernpart of the region in mid- August 2005.

Box 7.5: Transboundary Haze Episode in Malaysia (August 2005)

On 11 August 2005 the Air Pollution Index (API) insome areas in Malaysia reached dangerous level. TheAPI reading in the morning of 11 August 2005 wasrelatively high, but worsened in the afternoon. At 1700

hrs more than 6 stations in Peninsular Malaysiarecorded hazardous levels, whereas 7 other stationsrecorded unhealthy to very unhealthy condition of airpollution.

Kuala Selangor, SELANGOR 527 Country Heights, Kajang, SELANGOR 204

Pelabuhan Kelang, SELANGOR 486 Nilai, N.SEMBILAN 175

Shah Alam, SELANGOR 430 Seremban, N.SEMBILAN 140

Putrajaya, W.PERSEKUTUAN 354 Tanjung Malim, PERAK 127

Petaling Jaya, SELANGOR 326 Jerantut, PAHANG 116

Gombak, SELANGOR 305 Bukit Rambai, MELAKA 113

Kuala Lumpur, W.PERSEKUTUAN 295

Notes: 101 – 200: Unhealthy, 201 – 300;Very Unhealthy and >300: Hazardous

Source: Website of Department of Environment, Malaysia, http://www.doe.gov.my

Source: ASEAN Secretariat (2005), ASEAN Haze Action Online website



Hotspots have been used as one of theindicators to determine the occurrence of land andforest fires. Based on aerial surveillance, about 82%of hotspots were confirmed as fires. The ASEANSpecialised Meteorological Centre (ASMC) inSingapore has been monitoring hotspots sinceMarch 1998. Initially, ASMC monitored the areas ofSumatra and Peninsular Malaysia, and Borneo(comprising the provinces of Kalimantan inIndonesia, Sabah and Sarawak states of Malaysia,and Brunei Darussalam). In late 2003, ASMCextended the coverage to include Cambodia, LaoPDR, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam.

ASMC provides member countries with weatherand climate assessment, early warning on theoccurrence of land and forest fires and the potentialof transboundary haze pollution. Other elementsbeing monitored to predict the occurrence oftransboundary haze pollution include wind directionand speed, drought, and fuel conditions. Some ofthese are obtained by using satellite data from theNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA) satellites (NOAA-12 and NOAA-18), andthe National Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA) Earth Observing System (EOS) – AQUAand TERRA. When the number of hotspotsincreases significantly and other factors such aswind direction indicate the probability of a hazeepisode developing, the ASMC would notify themember countries and the ASEAN Secretariat forappropriate actions to be taken.

The years 2002 and 2005 had exceptionallyhigh number of hotspot counts due to the droughtscaused or aggravated by the El Niño Southern Oscillation(ENSO) and possibly globalwarming11 in those years. Thehotspot counts in Sumatra,Borneo and Peninsular Malaysiaranged from a low of just over11,000 in 2003 to a high of over70,000 in 2005.

Land and forest fires in thesouthern part of ASEAN regionusually appear from May toSeptember each year resulting inan increase in the number ofhotspots detected, normallyreaching the highest point duringthe months of August and

September. During the Southwest Monsoon seasonwhen traditionally dry season in the southern part ofthe ASEAN region occurs, land clearing activities areregularly being carried out. During active land andforest fire periods, the prevailing winds occasionallytransport the smoke haze to neighbouring countries.

However, in 2005 there were an exceptionallyhigh number of hotspots detected during themonths of January to April reaching a total of morethan 6,000 hotspot counts in Sumatra, Borneo andPeninsular Malaysia due to a prolonged dry spell.The number of hotspots detected in the northernpart of the region reached the highest pointsometime in February, with more than 16,000hotspots detected. Drought, agricultural losses, andfamine were reported in some ASEAN countriesincluding Thailand, Indonesia, Viet Nam and thePhilippines.

0

10,000

20,000

30,000

40,000

50,000

60,000

70,000

Hot

spot

Cou

nts

2002 2003 2004 2005

Year

Figure 7.3: Hotspot Counts

Source: ASMC (2005). Hotspot counts by NOAA-12 satellite

January

February

Marc

hApril

May

June

July

August

Septem

ber

October

Novem

ber

Decem

ber

2002

2003

2004

2005

22,000

20,000

18,000

16,000

14,000

12,000

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

–

Figure 7.4: Monthly Hotspot Counts in the ASEAN Region




The hotspot counts in Borneo are generallymuch higher than those of Peninsular Malaysia andSumatra. In 2002, for instance, the peak hotspotcounts in Borneo reached over 11,000 while that inSumatra and Peninsular Malaysia was just over2,400. The same general pattern was recorded in2003 to 2004. In 2005 the trend reversed, with thehotspot counts in Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatrahigher than that of Borneo.

With respect to the hotspot counts of otherareas in the region such as the Mekong region andthe Philippines, the 2005 data show that hotspotscount peaked during January to April, thetraditional dry season in the northern part of the

ASEAN region. Moreover, the maximum hotspotcounts in this sub-region even exceeded thehotspot counts in Sumatra and PeninsularMalaysia.

It is likely that the countries in the Mekongregion could also experience episodes oftransboundary haze pollution. In 2005, PM-10concentrations observed from the ambient airquality monitoring stations in the northern part ofThailand during January to April were found to berelatively higher than in other periods of the year. InMarch, the concentrations exceeded the NationalAmbient Air Quality standard of Thailand (120microgram per cubic metre) for several days.

-

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

January

FebruaryMarch April

MayJu

neJu

ly

August

September

October

November

December

2002

2003

2004

2005

Figure 7.5: Hotspot Counts in Borneo

January

February

Marc

hApril

May

June

July

August

Septem

ber

October

Novem

ber

Decem

ber

3,500

3,000

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

–

2002

2003

2004

2005

Figure 7.6: Hotspot Counts in Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia





There have been a number of activitiesundertaken at national as well as regional level toaddress land and forest fires and the resultingtransboundary haze pollution. At the end of 1997,the ASEAN Environment Ministers endorsed theRegional Haze Action Plan (RHAP) to undertakejoint efforts in monitoring, preventing and mitigatingtransboundary haze pollution resulting from landand forest fires. To further strengthen these efforts,

the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary HazePollution was signed in June 2002, and it enteredinto force in November 2003. In addition to ongoingactivities implemented under the RHAP, there havebeen substantive developments in theimplementation of the ASEAN Agreement onTransboundary Haze Pollution. Details on thesedevelopments are elaborated in Chapter 9.

January

February

Marc

hApril

May

June

July

August

Septem

ber

October

Novem

ber

Decem

ber

Indochina 2004

Indochina 2005

Myanmar 2004

Myanmar 2005

Philippines 2004

Philippines 2005

12,000

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

–

Figure 7.7: Hotspot Counts in the Mekong Region* and the Philippines (2005)


Note: * Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam

End Notes1 Unless otherwise indicated, this section was derived mostly from Pollution Control Department (2002), ASEAN

Achievements and Future Directions in Pollution Control (Bangkok, Thailand: Ministry of Science, Technology, andEnvironment), with updates from country annual reports and independent studies.

2 Ibid., p. 25. 3 Ibid.4 Document entitled “Proposed List/Types of Environmental Best Practices – Clean Air” obtained from

< http://www.aseansec.org/files/bestpractice_clean_air.doc > 7 Jan 2006. 5 Philippine Department of Environment and Natural Resources-Environmental Management Bureau (DENR-EMB)

(2002), 2002 National Air Quality Status Report (Philippines: DENR-EMB), p. 52. 6 Thailand Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment-Pollution Control Department (MNRE-PCD) (2005), “A

Partnership for Sustainable Air Quality Improvement in Bangkok,” <http://www.pcd.go.th/info_serv/en_air_diesel.html>7 Jan 2006.

7 Hanoi Urban Transport Project (2005), “Air quality monitoring in Ho ChiMinh City,” < http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTVIETNAM/Resources/AQMHCM.pdf > 7 Jan 2006.

8 Pollution Control Department (2002), p. 25. 9 Tacconi, L. 2003. Fires in Indonesia: causes, costs and policy implications. CIFOR Occasional Paper No.38. CIFOR,

Bogor. 24p. 10 Page S.E., Siegert, F., Rieley, J.O., Boehm, H.-D.V., Jaya, A. & Limin, S. 2002: The amount of carbon released from

peat and forest fires in Indonesia during 1997 – Nature 420: 61 – 6511 Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) (2005), “Climate Change Threatens Crop Losses, More Hungry People,”

< http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2005/102623/index.html > 11 Oct 2005.

Effectively address global environmental issues without impinging oncompetitiveness, or social and economic development based on the

principle of common but differentiated responsibility.


CHAPTER 8Global EnvironmentalIssues

Chapter 8: Global Environmental Issues


SEAN Member Countries continued to be actively engaged in addressing global environmentalissues in accordance with the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities. Although the

region is not the major source of these environmental problems, it is most vulnerable to their adverseeffects, particularly the effects of climate change due to global warming, dumping of toxic andhazardous chemicals, and loss of biodiversity. The countries of the region had been very responsive tomany of these issues and had, in fact, accomplished much to meet their commitments. They have highrates of participation (in terms of ratification/accession) to the multilateral environmental agreementscompared to the world average. In terms of reduction of ozone-depleting substances, the regionachieved reductions of about 50%, 10% and 50 % over the years 1995 – 98, 1998 – 2001, and 2001 –05 respectively. In terms of CO2 emissions, the most common of the greenhouse gases, the regioncontributed only 7% of that of Europe, 10% of Asia, and 12% of North America. However, the CO2

emissions increased at an average rate of 6% between 1995 and 2002. As a region rich in biodiversity,the conservation of this valuable heritage is high on the agenda of ASEAN, as evidenced by theestablishment of the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity, and the creation of regional network of nationalprotected areas through the ASEAN Heritage Parks Programme. The ASEAN Regional Action Plan onTrade in Wild Fauna and Flora (2005 – 2010) aims to significantly curb the lucrative illegal trade in theregion’s endangered species, among others, by coordinating enforcement among member countries.

A

Participation in Multilateral Environmental Agreements ASEAN World(ratified/acceded)

Vienna Convention 100% 97%Montreal Protocol 100% 97%CITES 100% 86%UNFCC 90% 96%Kyoto Protocol 90% 55%Convention on Biological Diversity 90% 96%Basel Convention 80% 86%World Heritage 80% 93%Ramsar 70% 78%Stockholm Convention 60% 67%Cartagena Protocol 60% 69%Rotterdam Convention 30% 56%

CFC consumption compared with other regions (2001) (ODP metric tonnes)ASEAN 12,750Developed regions 3,130Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) 1,415

CO2 Emissions of ASEAN vis-à-vis Other Regions (2001) (million metric tonnes)ASEAN 784.41Europe 10,771.22North America 6202.28Middle East & North Africa 1455.31



ASEAN continues to play an active role and topromote common position or understanding in theon-going negotiations and meetings of the variousmultilateral environmental agreements (MEAs).These include (i) the Vienna Convention for theProtection of the Ozone Layer and its MontrealProtocol on Substances That Deplete the OzoneLayer, (ii) the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change and its KyotoProtocol, (iii) the Basel Convention on the Controlof the Transboundary Movements of HazardousWastes and their Disposal, (iv) the RotterdamConvention on Prior Informed Consent Procedurefor Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides inInternational Trade, (v) the Stockholm Conventionon Persistent Organic Pollutants, and (vi)conservation and biodiversity related conventions.ASEAN also continues to promote capacity buildingactivities to fulfil national commitments under thevarious MEAs. In order to appropriately monitor thedevelopment and progress of the implementation ofMEAs, ASEAN had adopted the lead countrymechanism for each major MEA since 2003.Among the functions of the lead country are tomonitor developments and issues under therespective MEA, highlight issues of relevance forconsideration of ASEAN, and articulate ASEAN’sconcerns and common position/ understanding at

the relevant fora. The lead country mechanism isreviewed every three years for possible assignmentto other countries.

Ozone

All the member countrieshave ratified/acceded to theVienna Convention for theProtection of the Ozone Layerand its Montreal Protocol onSubstances That Deplete theOzone Layer. The Philippinesratified the CopenhagenAmendment in 2001. Malaysia,Thailand and Viet Nam ratifiedthe Montreal Amendment in2001, 2003 and 2004,respectively. Malaysia and VietNam were the first two ASEANcountries that ratified the BeijingAmendment to the MontrealProtocol, which entered into forceon 25 February 2005. Malaysiaratified it in 2001, followed threeyears later by Viet Nam.

Along with the rest of theworld, ASEAN have significantly

MEA Lead Country

Montreal Protocol on Substances ThailandThat Deplete the Ozone Layer

UN Framework Convention on MalaysiaClimate Change and Kyoto Protocol

Rotterdam Convention on the Prior SingaporeInformed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade

Basel Convention on the Control of IndonesiaTransboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal

Stockholm Convention on SingaporePersistent Organic Pollutants

Biodiversity-related Conventions Philippines(CBD, Cartagena Protocol, CITES, CMS, Ramsar Convention, and World Heritage Convention)

Table 8.1: Lead Countries for the MEAs (end of 2005)

(2,000)

-

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Year

OD

P to

nnes

BRUINDLAOMALMYAPHISINTHAVIE

Figure 8.1a: Consumption of Ozone-Depleting CFCs, (1995 – 2001) in

ODP metric tonnes

Source: UN-DESA (2005)

Note: (1) Data as of 23 April 2003. (2) Note that in 1997, Singapore had a net consumption of –179

ODP metric tonnes. According to UN-DESA, negative numbers occur where destruction

exceeds actual production, or if exports are from carry-over stock and exceed imports.

Singapore might have experienced one of these.



reduced the consumption ofozone-depleting substances(measured in terms of ozone-depleting potential or ODP).There was an overall decrease ofabout 50% between 1995 –1998, and about 10% thereafterup to 2001. Most of the countriesshowed a reduction of about 50%between 2001 – 2005. This waspartly the result of the individualand collective measures ofASEAN countries to combatillegal trade of ODS. Singaporeregistered the highest reductionin CFC emission with 97%,followed by Thailand (59%) andMalaysia (55%).

Climate Change

All member countries, except BruneiDarussalam, have ratified/acceded to the UnitedNations Framework Convention on Climate Changeand it Kyoto Protocol which aims to reduce theamount of greenhouse gases in order to addressglobal warming.

Although the total amount of carbon dioxideemission in the region is still very much lower thanmost developed countries and other regions, it ishowever increasing at an average annual rate of6%. In 1995 the region produced 641 million tonnesof carbon dioxide. In 2002 this rose to 903 millionmetric tonnes.

AMC's Consumption of Ozone-Depleting CFCs,2001- 2005

(1,000)

-

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Year

OD

P T

onne

s

BRU

Cam

IND

LAO

MAL

MYA

PHI

SIN

THA

VIE

Figure 8.1b: Consumption of Ozone-Depleting CFCs, (2001 – 2005) in

ODP metric tonnes

Source: The Secretariat of the Vienna Convention

(http://ozone.unep.org/Data_Access/index.shtml) last update 11/09/2006

Table 8.2: Participation in the Vienna Convention, Montreal Protocol, and Its Four Amendments (as of 22 July 2005)

Source: Compiled from UNEP Ozone Secretariat (2005).

Abbreviations: R – ratification; A – accession; EIF – Entry into force

Country Ratification/Accession

Vienna Montreal London Copenhagen Montreal Beijing Convention Protocol Amendment Amendment Amendment Amendment

EIF: EIF: EIF: EIF: EIF: EIF:22 Oct. 1988 1 Jan 1989 10 Aug 1992 14 Jun 1994 10 Nov 1999 25 Feb 2002

Brunei Darussalam 26/07/90 A 27/05/93 A – – – –

Cambodia 27/06/01 A 27/06/01 A – – – –

Indonesia 26/06/92 A 26/06/92 R 26/06/92 A 10/12/98 A – –

Lao PDR 21/08/98 A 21/08/98 A – – – –

Malaysia 29/08/89 A 29/08/89 A 16/06/93 A 05/08/93 A 26/10/01 R 26/10/01 R

Myanmar 24/11/93 A 24/11/93 A 24/11/93 A – – –

Philippines 17/07/91 A 17/07/91 R 09/08/93 R 15/06/01 R – –

Singapore 05/01/89 A 05/01/89 A 02/03/93 A 22/09/00 A 22/09/00 A –

Thailand 07/07/89 A 07/07/89 R 25/06/92 R 01/12/95 R 23/06/03 R –

Viet Nam 26/01/94 A 26/01/94 A 26/01/94 A 26/01/94 A 03/12/04 R 03/12/04 R



The amount, nevertheless, was still merely 7%of that of Europe, 12% of North America, and 53%of the combined emissions of Middle East andNorth Africa. It was also approximately a mere 10%of the total carbon dioxide generated in Asia(excluding the Middle East), which amounted to7,780 million tonnes (2000), 7,860 million tonnes(2001) and 8,329 million tonnes (2002).

The ASEAN Member Countries have undertakena number of measures to reduce greenhouse gasemissions such as by improving publictransportation and introducing cleaner fuels such asnatural gas and bio-fuels (see Chapter 7). Membercountries are also actively participating in the Clean

Development Mechanism (CDM)under the Kyoto Protocol. The CDMProjects enables investment fromdeveloped countries for greenhousegas reduction projects in developingcountries, where the developedcountries would acquire carboncredits, while enabling technologytransfer and promotion of sustainabledevelopment in developing countries.

The CDM is attractive to membercountries for the following reasons:

• All countries have programmestowards increasing renewableenergy share in their energymix for energy supply security,rural electrification, poverty alle-viation, and environmentalimpact mitigation;

• All countries have programmesto adopt low CO2 emissionmeasures and technologiessuch as replacing oil and coalwith natural gas and adoptingclean coal technologies;

• All countries will benefit from CDM by reductionin the cost of energy development throughGHG emission avoidance on voluntary basis;and

• The right to industrial development is notimpaired by the right to sell emission reductions.

-

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Year

CO

2 E

mis

sion

s (b

illio

n m

etri

c to

nnes

of C

O2)

ASEANSAARCEUG-8APPCDC

Figure 8.2: CO2 Emissions from Regional Organisations/Groups, 1995 – 2002

Source: UN-DESA (2005)

Note: (1) Data as of 22 April 2005. (2) Data were compiled by UN-DESA from the database of

the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Centre (CDIAC).

Acronyms: SAARC-South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation;

EU-European Commission; G=-8- Group of 8 countries; APPCDC-Asia-Pasific

Partnership for on Clean Development and Climate.

Country UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol

Brunei – –Darussalam

Cambodia 18/12/1995 (A) 22/08/2002 (A)

Indonesia 23/08/1994 (R) 03/12/2004 (R)

Lao PDR 14 Jan 1995 (A) 06/02/2003 (A)

Malaysia 13/07/1994 (R) 04/09/2002 (R)

Myanmar 25/11/1994 (R) 13/08/2003 (A)

Philippines 02/08/1994 (R) 20/11/2003 (R)

Singapore 29/05/1997(R) 12/04/2006 (A)

Thailand 28/12/1994 (R) 28/08/2002 (R)

Viet Nam 16/11/1994 (R) 25/09/2002 (R)

Table 8.3: Participation in UNFCCC and KyotoProtocol (as of 2005)

Sources: UNFCCC (2005a) and UNFCCC (2005b).

R – ratification, A – accession,

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

millio

n m

etr

ic t

on

nes C

O

ASEAN Europe North America Middle East & North Africa

Region

Figure 8.3: CO2 Emissions of ASEAN and other

Regions, 2001

Source: WRI (2005)



Box 8.1: Potential CDM Projects in ASEAN

Environmentally-Sound Energy InfrastructureDevelopment

• Trans-ASEAN Gas Pipeline Project • GHG Reduction Credits for natural gas substitution

of oil and coal for power and transport• ASEAN Power Grid• Credits for reduction of electricity demand through

transmission efficiency• Credits for reduction of spinning reserves• Credit for increase in power generation from grid-

connected renewable energy

Small-Scale Renewable Energy Systems

• Credits for hydro, solar, wind, biomass, geothermaland ocean energy systems

• Credits for increase of small-scale renewableenergy systems due to local manufacturing ofwhole systems and component parts resulting incost reduction and accessibility for commercialinstallation and maintenance in both urban andrural areas

Greening of Coal-Fired Power Plants

• Credits for immediate and large-scale emissionreduction by clean coal technologies in retrofitting oldcoal-fired power plants with clean coal technologies

• Credits for large-scale emission reduction byadapting clean coal technologies in new coal-firedpower plants

Natural Gas Substitution for Oil and Coal

• Credits for substitution of oil and coal use in power,transport and industry

Energy Efficiency and Conservation

• Credits for maximum recovery of energy inputssuch as mechanical, heat and chemical energies

• Credits for energy use reduction due to soundenergy efficiency management in buildings,industries, transport , households and other humanactivities

Promotion of Sustainable Energy Development inForestry, Livestock, and Agricultural Industries

• Credits for biomass and biogas to energy projects• Credits for use of cogeneration technologies in

biomass to energy conversion• Credits for production of bio-diesel, methanol,

ethanol, etc.

Sustainable Development of Hydro Resources

• Credits for development of small-scale run-of-riverhydropower stations due to avoidance of methaneand CO2 from large-scale hydro projects.

Source: ASEAN Centre for Energy, “Opportunities Toward Greening

the Energy Industry thru CDM Implementation in the ASEAN Region.

Box 8.2: Implementation of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) in Indonesia and Malaysia

CDM implementation in Indonesia

Up to the middle of 2006, 6 CDM Projects havebeen approved by the National Committee on CleanDevelopment Mechanism in Indonesia, namely:

• Indocement Alternative Fuels Project with apotential emission reduction of 2,469,337 tonnesCO2, within 21 years (2005 – 2025).

• Indocement Blended Cement Project with apotential emission reduction of 5,260,470 tonnesCO2, within 10 years (2005 – 2014).

• CDM Solar Cooker Project Aceh with a potentialemission reduction of 24,500 tonnes CO2, within 7years (2006 – 2012).

• Multimas Nabati Asahan Biomass 9.7 MweCondensing Steam Turbine with a potential missionreduction of 611,800 tonnes CO2, within 10 years(2006 – 2016).

• Murini Sam Sam Biomass 9.7 Mwe CondensingSteam Turbine with a potential emission reduction of611,800 tonnes CO2, within 10 years (2006 – 2012).

• Methane Capture and Combustion from SwineManure Treatment Project at PT Indotirta SuakaBulan Farm in Indonesia with a potential emissionreduction of 1,660,518 tonnes CO2, within 10 years.

Among these six projects, the CDM Solar CookerProject and the Murini Sam Sam Biomass 9.7 MweCondensing Steam Turbine have been registered at theCDM Executive Board. The Indocement alternativefuels and Methane Capture and Combustion fromSwine Manure Treatment Project are awaitingregistration by the CDM Executive Board.

Indocement CDM Project Implementation

PT Indocement Tunggal Prakarsa Tbk (Indocement)was recorded as the first Indonesian industry and thefirst cement industry in the world to apply for the CleanDevelopment Mechanism. The CDM project wasvalidated on November 2005 by Det Norske Veritas(DNV) and approved by the National Committee forClean Development Mechanism in December 2005.




The project consists of two programmes

1. Alternative fuel application using biomass such asrice husk, palm kernel shell and sawdust to replacefossil fuel.

2. Alternative raw material application using naturalpozzolan, volcanic ash and fly ash.

Clean Development Mechanism in Malaysia

A National Committee on CDM was established on31 May 2002. Sectors relevant to CDM investment areenergy (fuel combustion & fugitive emissions fromfuels), industrial processes, solvent & other productuse, agriculture and waste. In terms percentage, theenergy sector contributes the highest (86.7 %).

Malaysia has taken advantage of the provisions ofthe Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under theKyoto Protocol to increase its renewable energysources.

Currently, in Malaysia there are some fiscalincentives available to encourage the use of renewableenergy and to improve energy efficiency. Companiesproviding energy conservation services can apply forpioneer status with tax exemption of 70 per cent ofstatutory income for a period of five years or aninvestment tax allowance (ITA) of 60 per cent on thequalifying capital expenditure incurred within a period offive years. In addition, they will be given import duty andsales tax exemption for equipment used in relatedprojects, which are not produced locally. Equipmentpurchased from local manufacturers is given sales taxexemption.

For companies which incur capital expenditure forconserving energy for their own consumption, theincentives provided are accelerated capital allowanceon related equipment that can be fully written offwithin a period of one year and import duty and salestax exemption for equipment used in energyconservation.

To encourage the generation of energy usingbiomass that is renewable and environmentally friendly,companies that undertake such activities are eligiblefor pioneer status or ITA. For the purpose of thisincentive, “biomass sources” refer to palm oilmill/estate waste, rice mile waste, sugar cane millwaste, timber/sawmill waste, paper recycling millwaste, municipal waste and biogas (from landfill, palmoil mill effluent [POME], animal waste, and others),while energy forms refer to electricity, steam, chilledwater, and heat. To further promote the use ofrenewable energy, the above incentives are alsoextended to the use of hydropower (not exceeding 10MW) and solar power.

From 2002 to 2005 a total of 39 CDM applicationswere received. To date, ten projects have beenregistered with the CDM Executive Board Malaysia. Outof these, nine involved energy generation through theuse of biomass (empty fruit bunches) while one projectdealt with fuel switching. The estimated emissionreductions from these registered projects are 1,615,972tCO2-equivalent/year.

A biomass project in Sabah and a landfill gasproject in Malacca were given Final Host Countryapproval in 2005.

The biomass project is a Kunak Bioenergy projectwhich utilises palm oil residues such as empty fruitbunches (EFB), fibres and shells. The project will installa highly efficient 14 MW bio energy plant, where theenergy generated will be used for own consumption andthe surplus exported to the grid. The project is the first-of-its-kind in Malaysia utilising a high pressure boilerfired with shells, fibres and EFB from the palm oil mill.The boiler will be manufactured through a joint venturebetween a local and a Danish company. The project willresult in technology transfer and increase themanufacturing capacity of more efficient and highpressure boilers in Malaysia.

The landfill gas project in Malacca is designed as a2 MW Grid Connected Gas Power Plant project fuelledby land fill gas recovered from the landfill. The projectclaims to abate methane emissions by installingequipment for landfill gas collection and energyrecovery equipment unit. The technology involves adirect gas collection engine installed in the landfill sitewith a production well to collect the LFG. The gasturbine installed to generate electricity is claimed to behighly efficient with little environmental impact.

Landfill Gas Project in Malacca

Source: State of the Environment Report Indonesia (2004)

Malaysia Energy Centre – Achieving the Millennium

Development Goals: Success and Challenges (2006)




Conservation and BiodiversityRelated Agreements

The major conventions under this category arethe following:

• 1971 Convention on Wetlands of InternationalImportance (Ramsar Convention);

• 1972 Convention Concerning the WorldCultural and Natural Heritage (World HeritageConvention);

• 1975 Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora(CITES);

• 1983 Convention on the Conservation ofMigratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS orBonn Convention); and.

• 1993 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)and the 2000 Cartegena Protocol on Biodiversity;

Wetlands. Since 1971 the Ramsar Conventionhas listed 1,229 wetland sites covering 106 million

hectares for protection against largely man-madedestruction. The list has grown with the increase inmember states to 146 in 2004.1 A total of 26wetlands in the list are found in the region spanninga total area of 811,000 hectares.

Migratory Species. In November 2004,BirdLife International, a listing authority of Birds forthe IUCN Red List,2 declared that the firstcomprehensive inventory of Asia’s most importantplaces for birds and biodiversity had shown thatmore than half of them did not have legaldesignations, or were only partially protected bylaw. This was alarming because Important BirdAreas (IBAs) in Asia were being threatened by lossor degradation of habitat, pollution, introducedspecies and wild bird trade. Bird experts werewarning of the imminent extinction of Milky StorkMycteria cinerea and Gurney’s Pitta Pitta gurneyi(both from Malaysia) and Grey-crowned CrociasCrociasCrocias lanbianis (Viet Nam).3

Box 8.3: Important Bird Areas in the ASEAN Region

The most important site for bird conservation inAsia (Indonesia). Pegunungan Sahendaruman, a tinypatch of forest on the small island of Sangihe in easternIndonesia, is the single most outstanding site for birdconservation in Asia. This important bird area (IBA)supports three critically endangered species that arefound nowhere else – Caerulean Paradise-flycatcherEutrichomyias rowleyi, Sangihe Shrike-thrushColluricincla sanghirensis and Sangihe White-eyeZosterops nehrkorni. In addition, two endangeredspecies are also confined to the island – SangiheHanging-parrot Loriculus catamene and ElegantSunbird Aethopyga duyvenbodei. BirdLife Indonesiahas a project to work with local communities to improvethe conservation prospects of this site.

Best hope for Mindoro’s lowland endemics(Philippines). Sablayan is the largest tract of lowlandforest on the Philippine island of Mindoro, and is thebest hope for the survival of three lowland speciesthat are unique to the island, Mindoro Bleeding-heartGallicolumba platenae and Black-hooded CoucalCentropus steerii (both Critically Endangered) andMindoro Tarictic Penelopides mindorensis(Endangered). The Haribon Foundation (BirdLife inthe Philippines) has a project to plan forest and land-use in the area, and build support from localcommunities and other stakeholders including a localpenal colony.

Tawi-Tawi, bleeding heart of Sulu Archipelago(Philippines). Tawi-Tawi island is in the SuluArchipelago in southern Philippines, and supports threecritically endangered species (Sulu Bleeding-heartGallicolumba menagei, Tawitawi Brown-dovePhapitreron cinereiceps and Sulu Hornbill Anthracocerosmontani) and one endangered specie (Blue-wingedRacquet-tail Prioniturus verticalis) that are unique to theSulu Archipelago, as well as an important population ofthe critically endangered Philippine Cockatoo Cacatuahaematuropygia. The Haribon Foundation has a projectto work on with the local university and government tofind alternative sustainable ways to promote forestconservation.

Sablayan, Philippines. The Haribon Foundation(BirdLife in the Philippines) has established apartnership that brings together the local governmentunit, local community organisations, and an open prison(penal farm) to work together to conserve one of thelast remaining areas of lowland forest on the island ofMindoro. The site has been identified as one of themost outstanding IBAs in the Philippines, on account ofits importance for a number of threatened bird species.The forest area falls under the jurisdiction of the penalfarm, which has embarked upon a staff and inmateeducation programme, forest and wildlife protectionpatrols, and reforestation with native tree species. Thelocal government unit has prepared forest protection




CITES. Roughly 5,000 species of animals and28,000 species of plants have been included in theCITES lists against over-exploitation throughinternational trade. Many species in the region havealso found their way either in the trade ban list orthe restricted trade list.4

At the 13th COP of CITES in 2004 in Thailand,the ASEAN Ministers responsible for theimplementation of CITES issued an ASEAN

Statement on CITES. The Ministers agreed todevelop an ASEAN Regional Action Plan onTrade in Wild Fauna and Flora (2005 – 2010). Atthe same meeting, Indonesia’s proposal to uplistthe Ramin tree (from Appendix III to II) wasgranted. Uplisting was also made for Irrawaddydolphin (from Appendix II to I). Indonesia’sproposal to list the Agarwood tree in Appendix IIwas sent to a working group for further study anddeliberation.

ordinances and management plans, and allocatedbudgets and staff, and Haribon has led in forestmapping, biodiversity surveys, and technical support tothe local partners.

Red River Delta, Vietnam. The BirdLife VietnamProgramme has facilitated the establishment of a SiteSupport Group (SSG) at a key wetland in the RedRiver Delta. The SSG involves representatives of thelocal community, local authorities and privateaquaculture businesses. Awareness-raising materialshave been prepared, a local decree has been passedprohibiting the hunting of water birds and itsenforcement has been supported and monitored bythe SSG members.

Manupeu-Tanahdaru National Park(Indonesia). BirdLife Indonesia, recently establishedas an independent national NGO, has collaborated

with local communities, local NGOs, and local andprovincial government staff to determine theboundaries and zoning for the new Manupeu-Tanahdaru National Park on the island of Sumba.Community groups have been established, and arecurrently working for forest and wildlife protection,restoration of degraded land, and communitydevelopment initiatives. Limited national governmentbudgets at this time mean that the national park iswithout any management unit, or designated staff,hence the SSG's activities are vital for thesustainability of the park.

Source: BirdLife International (2004), “Important Bird Areas in Asia,”

<http://www.birdlife.org/news/pr/2004/11/asia_ibas.html> 16 Otober 2005


Table 8.4: Number of CITES-Listed Species in Member Countries (as of 2006)

Source: CITES website (http://www.cites.org/eng/resources/species.html) (accessed on 29 Sept 2006)

CountryAnimals Plants

App. I App. II App. III App. I App. II App. III

Brunei Darussalam 18 117 21 0 29 11

Cambodia 48 133 29 3 41 1

Indonesia 76 1,349 40 30 1.027 32

Lao PDR 44 135 238 6 50 1

Malaysia 58 568 44 23 903 31

Myanmar 74 311 52 10 190 3

Philippines 31 832 19 17 205 3

Singapore 21 296 27 0 220 2

Thailand 69 464 46 16 284 2

Viet Nam 69 677 52 15 149 2



Box 8.4: ASEAN Statement on CITES on the Occasion of the Thirteenth Meeting of the Conference of theParties to CITES, Bangkok, 11 October 2004

We, the ASEAN Ministers responsible for theimplementation of CITES, hereby acknowledge theneed:

1. to enhance awareness of and to ensure furthercooperation and coordination among all nationalagencies involved in wild fauna and flora trade lawenforcement including the sharing of intelligenceinformation and, where appropriate, theestablishment of inter-agency committees, taskforce or coordination groups;

2. to further promote regional cooperation through theestablishment of bilateral and multilateralarrangements between enforcement agenciesresponsible for common boundaries to achievemore effective control of illegal international trade inwild fauna and flora and their products;

3. to strengthen enforcement efforts along key borderregions, including further building of capacity andcapability;

4. to consider undertaking the review of theirrespective national legislation to facilitate theimplementation of CITES, if deemed necessary;

5. to encourage wider scientific research, wildpopulation assessment and trade monitoring toensure that sufficient and accurate biological andtrade information is available on key wild species intrade so as to ensure that the trade is notdetrimental to the wild population;

6. to urge countries, donors and organisations to provideurgent sufficient financial and technical support toASEAN countries to strengthen the above efforts, inparticular related to provision of scientific informationon the key species in trade and building capacity andcapability for CITES enforcement; and under theauspices of the ASEAN Senior Officials on Forestry(ASOF) through the ASEAN Experts Group on CITES(AEG-CITES), to develop an ASEAN Regional ActionPlan on Trade in Wild Fauna and Flora to implementthe above commitments and actions.

Box 8.5: ASEAN Regional Action Plan on Trade in Wild Fauna and Flora (2005 – 2010)

Objective 1To assist ASEAN Member Countries in adopting

effective and enforceable legislation for CITESimplementation by:

• encouraging all ASEAN countries to enactCategory 1 CITES-implementing legislation in orderto have the ability to meet evolving CITESrequirements, and to address any policy loopholesthat may be identified after enactment;

• incorporating in national legislation, wherenecessary, social and economic incentives topromote and regulate sustainable management aswell as responsible trade of wild fauna and flora,and effective implementation and enforcement ofCITES;

• promoting awareness programmes for the judiciaryand other law enforcement agencies to enableadequate and timely responses to offences.

Objective 2To promote networking amongst relevant law

enforcement authorities in ASEAN countries to curbillegal trade in wild fauna and flora by:

• establishing inter-agency committees at nationallevels, to ensure co-ordination and collaborationbetween law enforcement officials on trade in wild

fauna and flora (e.g. Customs, police, quarantine,wildlife departments, port/airport authorities, CITESauthorities)

• establishing an ASEAN CITES Enforcement TaskForce for exchange of law enforcement informationregarding trade in wild fauna and flora, and tocoordinate regional participation in the InterpolWildlife Crime Working Group;

• promoting collaborative capacity-building efforts forimproved law enforcement.

Objective 3To promote research, monitoring and information

exchange on CITES-related issues by:

• exchanging information on permit issuance,regional market dynamics and trade flows toimprove understanding of producer-consumerrelationships, including re-exports, in the region;

• encouraging research activities to ensure thatsufficient biological and population dynamicsinformation is available on species in trade in orderto undertake non-detriment findings (NDFs) and toestablish export quotas;

• establishing a mechanism by which informationabout CITES-listed species may be shared, with aparticular focus on illegally traded species found inmore than one country.




World Heritage. There are currently 830 siteson the World Heritage List (644 are cultural sites,162 natural sites and 24 mixed sites) located in 138countries. Of these, 27 are found in the ASEANregion.

Despite vigorous efforts, many heritage sites inthe region had fallen victim to natural and man-

made destructions. The State of World Heritage inthe Asia-Pacific Region 2003 of the UNESCOWorld Heritage Centre identifies some of thesedestructive forces to include: poaching, theft andvandalism, illegal encroachment, intrusivecommercial development, insensitive private andpublic construction works, deforestation, andatmospheric pollution.

Biosafety. The Biosafety Protocol entered intoforce on 11 September, 2003. The Protocol aims tocontribute to ensuring an adequate level ofprotection in the field of the safe transfer, handlingand use of living modified organisms resulting frommodern biotechnology that may have adverseeffects on the conservation and sustainable use ofbiological diversity, taking also into account risks tohuman health, and specifically focusing ontransboundary movements.

The protection of the region’s biodiversity ishigh on the agenda of ASEAN. Among themeasures outlined in the Vientiane ActionProgramme 2004 – 2010, include efforts to reducesignificantly the rate of biodiversity loss by 2010;promote the listing and coordinated management ofASEAN Heritage Parks; approve and implement anASEAN Framework Agreement on Access to, andEquitable Sharing of Genetic and Biological

Objective 4To encourage industry groups, trade associations/

traders and local communities to comply with legalityand sustainability requirements of CITES and nationalregulations on trade in wild fauna and flora, and tosupport research and capacity building on sustainablemanagement of trade in wild fauna and flora by:

• increasing awareness of relevant industry groupsabout trade in wild fauna and flora and CITES;

• collaborating with industry groups as a source ofinformation about aspects of trade in wild faunaand flora, inter alia harvest management, captivebreeding/ranching, artificial propagation, andmarket demand; and

• promoting the re-investment of revenue derivedfrom trade in wild fauna and flora into conservationand associated research of species in trade.

Objective 5 To encourage greater regional cooperation on

specific issues by:

• reviewing the current status of the relationshipbetween CITES implementation and otherbiodiversity related conventions.

• establishing bilateral and multilateral taskforces toaddress shared concerns within ASEAN, related tothe conservation and trade in particular species.

Objective 6To seek sufficient technical and financial assistance

through collaborative initiatives by:

• identifying key partners and engaging internationaland regional donor agencies, non-governmentalorganisations and scientific institutions in anadvisory and a supporting role in theimplementation of projects and activities arisingfrom the action plan;

• engaging international and regional donor agenciesand non-governmental organisations to aid insecuring adequate funds to implement projects andactivities arising from the action plan.


Country Cultural Natural

Cambodia 1 0

Indonesia 3 4

Lao PDR 2 0

Malaysia 0 2

Myanmar 0 0

Philippines 3 2

Thailand 3 2

Viet Nam 2 3

Total 14 13

Table 8.5: Number of World Heritage Sites in MemberCountries

Source: UNESCO World Heritage Centre website

(http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/).

Note: Brunei Darussalam and Singapore have yet to ratify the World

Heritage Convention.



Resources; establish measures to minimise theimpacts of GMOs with the use of the ASEANGuidelines on Risk Assessment of AgriculturalGMOs; promote national and regional cooperationfor CBD, CITES, and Ramsar Convetion; establisha functional regional database or network ofnational databases containing inventory of thebiological resources of the region; and to establishthe ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity.

Chemicals and Hazardous Wastes

Three major MEAs related to the chemicals andhazardous wastes are the:

1. 1989 Convention on the Control ofTransboundary Movements of HazardousWastes and Their Disposal (the BaselConvention);

2. 1998 Convention on the Prior InformedConsent Procedure for Certain HazardousChemicals and Pesticides in International Trade(the Rotterdam Convention or PIC); and

3. 2001 Convention on Persistent OrganicPollutants (the Stockholm Convention or POPs).

Under the chemical and hazardous wastescluster of MEAs, various framework proposals havebeen identified as relevant to regional cooperation. At

the national level member countries have been activein implementing the chemical and hazard wastesrelated conventions. In Cambodia, for example, thegovernment has asked various ministries to getinvolved in the management of POPs. In Singapore,the government has banned the use of the 10 POPsand limited the emissions of dioxins and furansthrough its Environmental Pollution Control Act and itsRegulations even before Singapore acceded to theStockholm Convention in 2005.5

As of end 2005, eight ASEAN countries haveratified the Basel Convention. However, almost halfof the ten ASEAN countries have yet to ratify theRotterdam and Stockholm Conventions. Cambodia,Indonesia and Lao PDR are yet to be parties ofboth conventions; Malaysia has yet to ratify theStockholm Convention, while Viet Nam has yet toaccede to the Rotterdam Convention.

ASEAN welcomed the establishment of theBasel Convention Regional Centre for Training andTechnology Transfer for Southeast Asia (BCRC-SEA) in 2005, which is located in Jakarta,Indonesia. The Centre’s main function is tocoordinate the implementation of the conventionbetween the Basel Convention Secretariat and theten ASEAN Member Countries, in particular interms of capacity building and training.

Table 8.6: Participation in Conservation and Biodiversity related MEAs

Source: UNESCO (2005), World Heritage

IUCN (2005), Contracting Parties to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

UNEP (2005), UNEP Activities in Biodiversity

Acronyms & Abbreviations: R – Ratification; A – Accession;

CountryRamsar World

CITES CBD CartagenaConvention Heritage

Brunei – – 04/05/90 (A) – –Darussalam

Cambodia 23/10/99 28/11/91 (A) 04/07/97 (R) 09/02/95 (A) 17/09/03 (A)

Indonesia 08/08/92 06/07/89 (A) 28/12/78 (A) 23/08/94 (R) 03/12/04 (R)

Lao PDR – 20/03/87 (R) 01/03/04 (A) 20/09/96 (A) 03/08/04 (A)

Malaysia 10/03/95 07/12/88 (R) 20/10/77 (A) 24/06/94 (R) 03/09/03 (R)

Myanmar 17/03/05 29/04/94 (A) 13/06/97 (A) 25/11/94 (R) –

Philippines 08/11/94 19/09/85 (R) 18/08/81 (R) 08/10/93 (R) –

Singapore – – 30/11/86 (A) 21/12/95 (R) –

Thailand 13/09/98 17/09/87 (A) 21/01/83 (R) 29/01/04 (R) 10/11/05 (A)

Viet Nam 20/01/89 19/10/87 (A) 20/01/94 (A) 16/11/94 (R) 21/01/04 (A)



Table 8.7: Participation in Chemical and Hazardous Waste related Conventions

Source: Compiled from Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Convention Secretariats (2006).

Country Basel Convention Rotterdam Convention Stockholm Convention

Brunei Darussalam 16/12/02 (A) – 21/05/02 (A)

Cambodia 02/03/01 (A) – –

Indonesia 20/09/93 (A) – –

Lao PDR – – –

Malaysia 08/10/93 (A) 04/09/02 (A) –

Myanmar – – 19/04/04 (A)

Philippines 21/10/93 (R) – 27/02/04 (R)

Singapore 02/01/96 (A) 24/05/05 (A) 24/05/05 (R)

Thailand 24/11/97 (R) 19/02/02 (A) 31/01/05 (R)

Viet Nam 13/03/95 (A) – 22/07/02 (R)

End Notes1 Earth Negotiations Bulletin (2002), “Summary of the Eighth Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties to

Ramsar Convention on Wetlands: 18 – 26 November 2002,” 29 Nov 2002.2 The IUCN Red List is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of plants and

animals. It uses a set of criteria to evaluate the extinction risk of thousands of species and subspecies. These criteriaare relevant to all species and all regions of the world. There are nine Categories of Threat in the IUCN Red Listsystem: Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, Near Threatened, Least Concern,Data Deficient, and Not Evaluated. A species is listed as threatened if it falls in the Critically Endangered, Endangeredor Vulnerable categories. From the World Conservation Union (IUCN) (2005a), “The IUCN Red List of ThreatenedSpecies,” < http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/redlists/rlindex.htm > 12 Oct 2005.

3 BirdLife International (2004), “Over Half of Asia’s Most Important Wildlife Sites Inadequately Protected,”< http://www.birdlife.org/news/pr/2004/11/asia_ibas.html > 14 Oct 2005.

4 Appendix I lists species that are the most endangered among CITES-listed animals and plants. These are threatenedwith extinction and CITES generally prohibits commercial international trade in specimens of these species. AppendixII lists species that are not necessarily now threatened with extinction but may become so unless trade is closelycontrolled. Appendix III is a list of species included at the request of a Party that already regulates trade in the speciesand that needs the cooperation of other countries to prevent unsustainable or illegal exploitation. Definitions fromCITES (2005), “The CITES Appendices,” < http://www.cites.org > 12 Oct 2005.

5 Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources, Singapore (2006)

We shall strengthen further ASEAN’s institutional framework both interms of its structure and process to ensure that it is responsive

to the challenges and needs of moving towards an ASEAN Community, including in terms of coordination and

efficiency as well as in strengthening its ability to shape events in Southeast Asia and beyond.


CHAPTER 9ASEAN EnvironmentalManagement Framework


Chapter 9: ASEAN Environmental Management Framework

he Vientiane Action Programme 2004 – 2010, the second in the series of medium-term plans ofaction to achieve ASEAN Vision 2020, aims to achieve a clean and green ASEAN, with fully

developed mechanisms for environmental governance, as a shared goal and responsibility of ASEANMember Countries. This goal and ASEAN’s commitments to the numerous international environmentalagreements/conventions/fora have shaped the region’s environmental agenda which is now focussedprimarily on ten priority areas of interest. The previous chapters described in detail the conditions andstatus of the environment and natural resources in the region, including the socio-economic settings andexternal pressures that impinge on the environment. While it falls upon national governments to takeactions to address and manage environmental problems, ASEAN has long recognised the synergisticbenefits in addressing common and transboundary environmental issues on a regional basis. ASEANcooperation on environment dates back to 1977, that is over three decades. ASEAN has in place aformal institutional structure, from the expert/technical level to the Ministerial and Summit levels toaddress environmental issues of concern of the region. The regional environmental policy, strategicthrusts and programme areas are situated within the context of achieving environmental sustainability inan ASEAN Community comprising three pillars, namely political and security community, economiccommunity, and socio-cultural community that are closely intertwined and mutually reinforcing for thepurpose of ensuring durable peace, stability and shared prosperity in the region. Collaboration withvarious relevant parties, particularly with the international organisations, private sector and civil society,is a key aspect of ASEAN’s outward-looking, inclusive mode of collaboration to enable us to learn and toshare our experiences for mutual benefit.

T

Policy Framework for Environmental ASEAN Vision 2020 (1999)Cooperation in ASEAN (derived from) ASEAN Concord II (October 2003)

Environmental Objectives and Strategic ASEAN Socio-Cultural Plan of Action Thrusts (Enhancing Environmental Sustainability)

Environmental Programme Areas and Measures Vientiane Action Programme (2004 – 2010)

Most Recent Ministerial Declaration/Agreement • Yangon Resolution on Sustainable Development related to environment (December 2003)

• ASEAN Declaration on Heritage Parks (December 2003)• Agreement on the Establishment of the ASEAN Centre

for Biodiversity (September 2005)

Policy Framework

Recognising the benefits of collective action toaddress environmental issues, particularly those ofa transboundary nature or has region-wideinterest, ASEAN has, since 1977, cooperatedclosely in promoting environmental cooperationamong its member countries. In 1997, the Headsof State/Government of ASEAN Member Countriesreaffirmed their commitment to the aims andpurposes of ASEAN and articulated a long termvision, ASEAN Vision 2020, which reflects thedesire of ASEAN to pursue a more sustainablepath to development. Among others, the Visioncalls for:

“A clean and green ASEAN with fullyestablished mechanisms for sustainabledevelopment to ensure the protection of theregion’s environment, the sustainability of naturalresources and the high quality of life of its people.”

The ASEAN Leaders further elevated ASEAN’scollaborative endeavour by announcing therealisation of an ASEAN Community by the year2020. The ASEAN Community shall be based onthree mutually supporting pillars namely: theASEAN Security Community, the ASEAN EconomicCommunity and the ASEAN Sociol-CulturalCommunity. While environmental cooperationessentially falls under the ASEAN Socio-Cultural



Community, there are strong linkages to ensuremutually coordinated development with the othertwo pillars.

The Leaders in adopting Vision 2020 decidedthat its goals shall be achieved through a series ofmedium-term action plans, which will set strategiesand specific activities with measurable targets andoutputs, including means of implementation andmid-term review mechanisms. The first of suchaction plans, known as the Ha Noi Plan of Actionwas implemented from 1999 – 2004. The secondaction plan, known the Vientiane Action Programme(VAP) is currently being implemented covering theperiod 2004 – 2010.

ASEAN shares and strongly believes in theglobal movement towards sustainable developmenti.e. coordinated and mutually supportive integrationof economic growth, social development andenvironmental protection. ASEAN Vision 2020 andits medium-term plans of action form thesustainable development framework for ASEAN. Itreflects ASEAN’s responsive integrated policyframework, which weaves together demographicdynamics, social development, economic growth,natural resource conservation and environmental

protection, including narrowing the developmentgap of member countries.

The ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC)as elaborated in the Vientiane Action Programmeaims to “nurture human, cultural and naturalresources for sustained development in aharmonious and people-centred ASEAN”. TheASCC represents ASEAN’s aspirations to lift thequality of life of its people, sustainably use naturalresources and strengthen its cultural identitytowards a people-centred ASEAN. The roadmap forthe Community focuses on four strategic thrusts tosupport other ASEAN community goals: strong andfunctional systems of economic growth; promotingenvironmental sustainability and sustainable naturalresources management that meets current andfuture needs; social governance that managesimpacts of economic integration; and thepreservation and promotion of the region’s culturalheritage and cultural identity.

The VAP has elaborated 12 strategies and 55programme areas and measures in order toachieve the twin objective of promotingenvironmental sustainability and sustainable naturalresource management.

Box 9.1: Strategies to Achieve Environmental Sustainability

1. Effectively address global environmental issues

without impinging on competitiveness, or social and

economic development based on the principle of

common but differentiated responsibility;

2. Prevent transboundary haze pollution as a result of

land and/or forest fires through concerted national

cooperation, pursued in the context of sustainable

development and in accordance with the provisions

of the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze

Pollution;

3. Establish a clean and green ASEAN, rich in cultural

traditions (where the values and practices of the

people are in accord with the rhythm and harmony

of nature), with citizens who are environmentally

literate, imbued with environmental ethics, and

willing and capable to ensure the sustainable

development of the region through environmental

education and public participation efforts;

4. Aim for zero waste and minimal impact on the

environment, and promote business opportunities

in environmental goods and services, through

relevant environmental education and public

participation efforts;

5. Ensure cities/urban areas in ASEAN are

environmentally sustainable, while meeting the

social and economic needs of the people; and

6. Strive for harmonisation of environmental policies,

legislation, regulations, standards and databases,

taking into account the national circumstances of

Member Countries, to support the integration of the

environmental, social and economic goals of the

region.

Natural Resources Management

1. Ensure ASEAN's coastal and marine environment

are sustainably managed; representative

ecosystems, pristine areas and species are

protected; economic activities are sustainably

managed, and public awareness of the coastal and

marine environment instilled;

2. Ensure ASEAN's rich biological diversity is

conserved, and sustainably managed, and the




The environmental strategies and measures inthe VAP are the product of the wisdom gained andlessons learned from over three decades ofenvironmental protection efforts in ASEAN. Theybasically articulate the priority needs and interestsof the region, taking into consideration theobligation to respond collectively and effectively to

global environmental issues outlined in numerousconventions/agreements/fora. Since 1981 ASEANhas promulgated 14 environmental agreements/declarations beginning with the Manila Declarationon the ASEAN Environment to the more recentAgreement for the Establishment of the ASEANCentre for Biodiversity in 2005.

benefits arising from these biological and genetic

resources are fairly and equitably shared toward

enhancing social, economic and environmental

well-being;

3. Promote sustainability of water resources to ensure

sufficient water quantity of acceptable quality to

meet the needs of the people of ASEAN in terms of

health, food security, the economy and the

environment, taking into consideration the strong

linkage between water, health and poverty;

4. Ensure sustainable management of land-based

resources while enhancing optimum agricultural

production;

5. Promote the sustainable management of the forest

resources and critical ecosystems through the

eradication of unsustainable practices as well as

strengthening the preservation and management of

the ASEAN Heritage Parks; and

6. Promote environmentally sound and socially

responsible mineral development practices in the

sustainable management and optimum utilisation of

mineral resources.


Box 9.2: Assessment of Accomplishments of Ha Noi Plan of Action 1999 – 2004

Tangible progress has been attained in achieving

closer environmental cooperation in the region within

the six-year Ha Noi Plan of Action (HPA) time frame.

Environmental consideration has been incorporated into

development plans. Concerted effort has been made to

coordinate activities with relevant bodies. The ASEAN

Secretariat has played a coordinating and enabling role

in supporting the achievement of the HPA measures,

and in integrating environment into other sectors and

development activities. Four out of the 15 HPA

initiatives have been fully accomplished, three

substantially achieved, and the rest partially achieved.

The four pertain to transboundary haze and biodiversity

related issues.

Key Achievements

• Closer Cooperation to Address Land and Forest

Fires and Transboundary Haze. The ASEAN

Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution was

signed in 2002 and entered into force in 2003

following ratification by six countries. It provides for

the establishment of a Coordinating Centre for

Transboundary Haze Pollution Control to forge

closer cooperation in operational activities.

• Organised Efforts for Nature Conservation and

Biodiversity. The ASEAN Regional Centre for

Biodiversity Conservation Project has successfully

accomplished its tasks, and paved the way for the

establishment of the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity

in 2005.

• Integrated Protection of the Coastal and Marine

Environment. ASEAN has adopted the Marine

Water Quality Criteria for the ASEAN Region, the

ASEAN Criteria for National Marine Protected Areas,

and the ASEAN Criteria for Marine Heritage Areas.

• Prominence in Global Environment Initiatives.

ASEAN played an active role in addressing its

concerns in the negotiations of multilateral

environment agreements.

• Efforts in Integrated Water Resources

Management. ASEAN established a Working

Group on Water Resources Management and has

adopted the ASEAN Long Term Strategic Plan for

Water Resource Management in 2003. This was

further translated into the ASEAN Strategic Plan of

Action on Water Resources Management which

was endorsed in 2005.

• Public Awareness: The ASEAN Environmental

Education Action Plan 2000 – 2005 was

implemented, and 2003 was designated as the

ASEAN Environment Year with the theme:

"Together Towards Sustainable Development."

• Resources Mobilised. The environment and

sustainable development initiatives used a total of

US$ 16.5 million during the 6-year time frame of

the HPA, the bulk for biodiversity conservation

(72%), followed by transboundary pollution (15%).



Box 9.3: ASEAN Environmental Agreements, 1981 – 2005

Agreement for the Establishment of the ASEANCentre for Biodiversity created the ASEAN Centre forBiodiversity (ACB) to continue the work of the ASEANRegional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation(ARCBC). The ACB, located at Los Banos, thePhilippines is mandated to facilitate ASEAN cooperationand coordination on the conservation and sustainableuse of biological diversity and the fair and equitablesharing of benefits arising from the use of suchbiodiversity. Signed 27 September 2005.

ASEAN Declaration on Heritage Parks listed 27ASEAN Heritage Parks at the time of the signing. Itsuperseded the 1984 ASEAN Declaration on HeritageParks and Reserves. Signed 18 December 2003.

Yangon Resolution on SustainableDevelopment, among others, tasked the ASEANSenior Officials on the Environment to contributeactively in formulating the Vientiane Action Plan with aview to achieving the ASEAN Socio-CulturalCommunity, and reaffirmed ASEAN commitment to theWorld Summit on Sustainable Development and theMillennium Development Goals. Adopted 18 December2003.

ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary HazePollution aims to prevent and monitor transboundaryhaze pollution through concerted national efforts andintensified regional and international cooperation.Signed 10 July 2002. Entered into force 25 November2003.

Jakarta Declaration on Environment andDevelopment recognised sustainable development asthe framework that integrates economic, environmentaland social goals. Adopted 18 September 1997.

Bandar Seri Begawan Resolution onEnvironment and Development adopted for

implementation of the ASEAN Strategic Plan of Actionon the Environment. Adopted 26 April 1994.

Singapore Resolution on Environment andDevelopment called for the intensification ofcooperation in environmental management andprotection in their common pursuit of sustainabledevelopment. Adopted 18 February 1992.

Kuala Lumpur Accord on Environment andDevelopment called for the formulation of an ASEANstrategy for sustainable development and a correspondingaction programme. Adopted 19 June 1990.

Jakarta Resolution on SustainableDevelopment adopted the principle of sustainabledevelopment to serve as an integrating factor inASEAN’s common efforts. Adopted 30 October 1987.

Agreement on the Conservation of Nature andNatural Resources enjoined member countries toadopt measures necessary to maintain essentialecological process and life-support systems, topreserve genetic diversity, and to ensure thesustainable utilisation of natural resources. Signed 9July 1985.

Bangkok Declaration on the ASEANEnvironment adopted for implementation of the revisedASEAN Environment Programme II (ASEP II). Adopted29 November 1984.

ASEAN Declaration on Heritage Parks andReserves declared 11 national heritage sites and parksas ASEAN National Heritage Parks and Reserves.Adopted 29 November 1984.

Manila Declaration on the ASEAN Environmentrecommended the establishment of an ASEANCommittee on Environment. Adopted 13 April 1981.

Box 9.4: ASEAN Action Plans related to Environment, 1995 – 2005

The ASEAN Environmental Education Action

Plan (AEEAP) 2000 – 2005 was adopted by the

Environment Ministers in October 2000. The Plan

outlines strategies and actions at the national and

regional level in four target areas: (a) formal education;

(b) non-formal education; (c) manpower capability

building; and (d) networking, collaboration and

communication. A successor Action Plan for the period

2006 – 2010 is being formulated.

The ASEAN Regional Haze Action Plan (RHAP)

was adopted in December 1997 in response to

transboundary haze pollution caused by land and forest

fires which hit the region in 1997 – 1998 The primary

objectives of the Plan are: to prevent land and forest fires

through better management policies and enforcement; to

establish operational mechanisms to monitor land and

forest fires; and to strengthen regional land and forest fire-

fighting capability and other mitigating measures.




Institutional Framework

A formally instituted inter-governmentalstructure exists in ASEAN where environmentalissues are considered at various levels up to theASEAN Heads of State/Government. At theseSummit Meetings, the ASEAN Leaders provide thevision and broad thrust for cooperation in varioussectors, including cooperation on environment. TheASEAN Ministers for Environment are primarilyresponsible for policy matters related to theenvironment. The Environment Ministers meet onceevery three years on a formal basis, and since1994 have met on an informal basis annually inbetween these formal meetings. Deliberations ofthe Environment Ministers are also considered bythe Foreign Ministers at the ASEAN MinisterialMeeting (AMM), in particular to enhancecoordination and synergy among the various othersectors of cooperation.

The ASEAN Senior Officials on theEnvironment (ASOEN) meet annually and areresponsible for formulation, implementation andmonitoring of regional programmes and activitieson the environment. ASOEN comprises heads ofenvironmental ministries/departments/agencieswho are responsible for environmental matters intheir respective countries. ASOEN members alsoserve as the national ASOEN focal points forpromoting ASEAN’s activities in their respectivecountries. ASOEN is assisted by six subsidiary

bodies, namely the Working Group on Coastal andMarine Environment, the Working Group onEnvironmentally Sustainable Cities, the WorkingGroup on Multilateral Environmental Agreements,the Working Group on Nature Conservation andBiodiversity, the Working Group on WaterResources Management, and the Haze TechnicalTask Force. The ASEAN Secretariat coordinatesand reports to ASOEN on all other activities that donot fall within the purview of the respective workinggroups.

The ASEAN Secretariat provides support for allof these institutional bodies (Figure 9.1). Inparticular, the ASEAN Secretariat acts as aresource base, providing advice and information.The ASEAN Secretariat also coordinates theimplementation of regional activities andprogrammes, in addition to servicing the meetingsof the ASEAN bodies. The ASEAN Secretariatensures proper coordination between activities ofvarious other sectoral areas so as to promotesynergy and avoid duplication. Another importantrole played by the ASEAN Secretariat is thecoordination between ASEAN bodies and itsprogrammes with those of dialogue partners andother international organisations in terms ofresource mobilisation, programme implementationand in general enhancing institutional linkage. TheBureau for Resources Development, in particularthe Environment and Disaster Management Unit, ismanaging all matters related to environment.

The Strategic Plan of Action on the

Environment (SPAE) was adopted by the Environment

Ministrers in April 1994 to: (a) respond to specific

recommendations of Agenda 21 requiring priority action

in ASEAN; (b) introduce policy measures and promote

institutional development that encourage the integration

of environmental factors in all developmental processes

both at the national and regional level; (c) establish

long-term goals on environmental quality and work

towards harmonised environmental quality standards

for the ASEAN region; (d) harmonise policy directions

and enhance operational and technical cooperation on

environmental matters, and undertake joint actions to

address common environmental problems; and (e)

study the implications of ASEAN Free Trade Area

(AFTA) on the environment and take steps to integrate

sound trade policies with sound environmental policies.

The ASEAN Cooperation Plan on

Transboundary Pollution was adopted in June 1995 in

view of the increasing periodicity and worsening impact

of transboundary pollution in the region. The Plan

addresses the following three programme areas: (a)

transboundary atmospheric pollution; (b) transboundary

movement of hazardous wastes; and (c) transboundary

ship borne pollution. The ASEAN Senior Officials on the

Environment-Haze Technical Task Force (ASOEN-

HTTF) was established in 1995. The ASOEN-HTTF

subsequently developed the RHAP, and initiated the

development of the ASEAN Agreement on

Transboundary Haze Pollution.




ASEAN Summit(ASEAN Heads of

State/Government)

AMME: ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on the EnvironmentIAMME: Informal ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on the EnvironmentAMMH: ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on HazeAWGNCB: ASEAN Working Group on Nature Conservation and BiodiversityAWGCME: ASEAN Working Group on Coastal and Marine Environment

ASEAN Ministerial Meeting (AMM)

(ASEAN Foreign Ministers)

ASEAN Environment Ministerial Meetings

(AMME, IAMME, AMMH)

Secretary – Generalof ASEAN

ASEAN Secretariat(Bureau of Resouces

Development)

ASEAN Senior Officialson the Environment

(ASOEN)

ASEAN Standing Committee(ASC)

AWGNCB AWGCME AWGMEA AWGESC AWGWRM HTTF Other EnvironmentalActivities

AWGMEA: ASEAN Working Group on Multilateral Environmental AgreementsAWGESC: ASEAN Working Group on Environmentally Sustainable Cities AWGWRM: ASEAN Working Group on Water Resources ManagementHTTF: Haze Technical Task Force

Figure 9.1: ASEAN Institutional Framework for Environmental Cooperation

Table 9.1: Lead Countries for the Ten Priority Areas for Cooperation

Priority Areas for Regional Cooperation Lead CountrySubsidiary Body

of ASOEN

Global environmental issues (focus on MEAs) Indonesia AWGMEA

Land and forest fires and transboundary haze pollution Indonesia ASOEN-HTTF

Coastal and marine environment Viet Nam AWGCME

Sustainable forest managementPhilippines AWGNCB

Sustainable management of protected areas

Freshwater resources Thailand AWGWRM

Urban environmental management and governance Singapore AWGESC

Promotion of environmentally sound technologies and cleaner production Malaysia

Public awareness and environmental education Myanmar

Sustainable development monitoring and reporting, database harmonisation Viet Nam

In order to achieve meaningful and focusedcooperation, the ASEAN Environment Ministers attheir 7th informal meeting in 2002 in Vientiane, LaoPDR prioritised environmental cooperation in tenareas and agreed that the idea of each countryspearheading programmes in one specific area ofinterest would help to create better platforms for

further cooperation on the environment. Followingthese decisions, ASOEN at their 14th meeting inYogyakarta, Indonesia (2003) noted the expressionof interest from member countries to take the leadon specifics area of cooperation and agreed on thefollowing lead country arrangement.



Major Regional Programmesand Activities

Transboundary Haze Pollution

The ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary HazePollution (AATHP) was signed by the ASEANEnvironment Ministers on behalf of their governmentsin Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia on 10 June 2002. UNEPhailed the AATHP as the first regional arrangement inthe world that binds a group of contiguous states totackle haze pollution resulting from land and forestfires.1 It entered into force on 25 November 2003,sixty days after the submission of sixth instrument ofratification by Thailand. As of December 2005, sevenmember countries, namely Brunei Darussalam, LaoPDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand andViet Nam, have ratified the Agreement.

The AATHP seeks to prevent and monitortransboundary haze pollution as a result of landand/or forest fires which should be mitigated, throughconcerted national efforts and intensified regional andinternational cooperation in the overall context ofsustainable development and in accordance with theother provisions of the Agreement. The AATHPprovides for the establishment of the ASEANCoordinating Centre for Transboundary HazePollution Control (ACC), which will facilitatecooperation and coordination among membercountries. To support the implementation of the

AATHP, an ASEAN Transboundary Haze PollutionControl Fund will be created.

In addition to ongoing activities implementedunder the Regional Haze Action Plan, there havebeen substantive developments in theimplementation of the ASEAN Agreement onTransboundary Haze Pollution. These includecontinuous monitoring of land and forest fires andassociated haze by the ASMC; development andoperationalisation of the regional standardoperating procedures (SOP) to guide monitoringand assessment efforts and joint emergencyresponse; simulation exercises to familiarisemember countries with the regional SOP andenhance coordination and communicationmechanisms in joint emergency response;development of a website (ASEAN Haze ActionOnline website) to facilitate information sharing anddissemination; development of an online inventoryof available fire fighting resources in membercountries that could be made available in case ofemergency; development of guidelines for zeroburning and controlled burning practices; dialoguesessions with plantation companies to promotezero burning practices; establishment of communityfire brigades at the village level; development of aregional strategy on sustainable use of peatlands;and various capacity building, training programmes,and on-the-ground activities to promoterehabilitation and sustainable use of peatlands.

Figure 9.2: ASEAN Haze Action Online Website (www.haze-online.or.id)



Table 9.2: Guidelines to Control Land and Forest Fires under the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary HazePollution

ItemGuidelines for the Implementation Guidelines for the Implementation of of the ASEAN Zero Burning Policy Controlled Burning Practices

Definition A method of land clearing whereby the treestand, either logged over secondary forests or anold area of plantation crops such as oil palm arefelled, stacked, and left in situ to decomposenaturally.

Beneficiaries Large-scale plantation companies

Techniques Various techniques and steps for the replanting ofplantation crops to oil palm involve pulverisation,windrowing without shredding of palms, orplanting to young palms on residue piles. Thereare also zero burning techniques for replantingrubber to oil palm, and replanting cocoa-coconutareas. For the development of new oil palmplantations, there are also various techniquesand steps for various types of land features likesecondary/logged over-forests on flat toundulating terrain, on hilly terrain, or on peat. Thegeneral steps for planting oil palm fromsecondary forest on flat to undulating terraininvolve the following: planning for new planting;under-brushing; lining and construction of roadsand drains; felling; stacking of residual woodbiomass; legume cover establishment; planting ofoil palm seedlings; post-planting management.

Benefits Does not cause air pollution; reducesgreenhouse gases emission; improves soilorganic matter; agronomic benefits can beenhanced; less dependent on weatherconditions; has shorter fallow period thanclearing by burning; would result in additionalrevenue from continued harvesting of the palmsuntil they are felled; would ensure economic andecological sustainability

Potential • Pests such as the rhinoceros beetle and the problems Basal Stem Rot caused by Ganoderma

boninense can cause serious losses to thenew oil palm stand

• Logged-over forests and peat swamps,susceptible to attacks by termites

• Could provide breeding ground for rats• More expensive to implement for forest

clearing, particularly in areas with a highvolume of biomass

• During prolonged dry weather, decomposingbiomass could dry out and become sources ofaccidental fires

• May not be acceptable to those who areunfamiliar with the new technique

The controlled application of fire to fuels in eithera natural or modified state, under specifiedenvironmental conditions that allow the fire to beconfined to a pre-determined area and at thesame time produce the intensity required toachieve pre-determined management objectives.

Farmers, smallholders and shifting cultivators

• Heading fire – moves with the wind; mostintense; faster spread rate, wider flamingzone; longer flames; burns cooler at theground surface; containment is critical whenwind speed and fuel quantity increases

• Backing fire – against the wind; the leastintense; slow spread rate; has narrow flamingzone; short flames; the easiest way to burn;takes longer time to complete the burn; burnshotter at the ground surface

• Flanking fire – at right angles, perpendicular tothe wind; intermediate intensity; has moderateflame heights and speed; the slope of the landhas an effect on rate of spread similar to thatof the wind

• Other techniques: Strip-heading fire; Spot fire;Centre fire

• More economical and efficient compared toother land clearing methods

• Could improve soil fertility• Clears away debris• Could control the growth of weeds and

competing vegetation• Minimises smoke production• Could help in controlling pests and diseases

• Could produce smoke that may affect thesurrounding areas

• May cause damage on ecosystem• Could produce large amount of smoke• Most soil biological properties damaged at 100

°C. Heating between 220 °C and 460 °C willdestroy soil structure.

• Fire may spread to other areas• Weak government handling will hinder

effective coordination and cooperationbetween the government and farmers

• Burning applied to a large area will produce alot of smoke



To ensure speedy and timely response duringcritical periods of fire and haze, the ASEANEnvironment Ministers have established a Panel ofASEAN Experts on Fire-and-Haze Assessment andCoordination to provide rapid independentassessment of the situation on the ground, andprovide recommendations to facilitate immediateresponse and effective mobilisation of resources inthe region. The Panel consists of experts frommember countries with various technical expertiseand background. They will be mobilised duringpotential or impending critical periods to gatherlatest information on fire-and-haze situation on theground, and recommend the type and scope ofresources that need to be mobilised to mitigate thefires and haze. Member countries are committed toallocate resources and provide full support toensure expeditious mobilisation of the Panel ofASEAN Experts.

At the 11th ASEAN Summit in December 2005,the ASEAN Leaders expressed their seriousconcern over the impact of land and forest fires andthe resulting transboundary haze pollution thataffects the region almost annually. While variousmeasures have been undertaken at the nationallevel over the years, and at the regional level asguided by the ASEAN Agreement onTransboundary Haze Pollution, the Leadersrecognised the need to further intensify andundertake coordinated action, particularly toaddress underlying causes of land and forest fires.Swift and more effective inter-agency collaborationand coordination at the national and regional levelsis necessary to deal comprehensively withtransboundary haze pollution and its widespreadimpact.

Box 9.5: The ASEAN Peatland Management Initiative (APMI)

Southeast Asia has more than 25 million hectaresof peatlands, comprising 60% of the world’s tropicalpeatlands and roughly one tenth of the entire extent ofglobal peatland resource. The majority of the peatlandsin Southeast Asia is in Indonesia, which has over 70%of total peatland areas. Other major peatland areas arefound in Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia, the Philippines,Thailand, and Viet Nam. These peatlands havesignificant importance for socio-economic developmentand livelihoods of local communities. Peatlands play animportant role in the hydrological cycle, carbon storeand sink functions; serve as habitat for unique biologicaldiversity; and provide food supply (especially freshwaterfish and other natural products), timber and non-timberforest products (e.q. rattan and honey). However,increased development, land conversion, anddegradation caused by land and forest fires havereduced peatland resources significantly over the pastfew years.

The most important management issue of regionalimportance is transboundary haze pollution arising frompeatland fires. Peat fires in Southeast Asia almostalways occur as a result of human intervention.Undrained peat rarely burns. Therefore, drainage ofpeatland for agriculture, forestry and other purposes isthe main root cause of peatland fires. In 1997 – 1998widespread fires destroyed or degraded 2 million ha ofpeatlands. Peatlands of the region are thought to storeup to 5% of all carbon stored on the world’s landsurface. The clearance, drainage and burning ofpeatlands in the region is now leading to significantcarbon emissions.

The ASEAN Peatland Management Initiative(APMI) aims to promote sustainable management ofpeatlands in the ASEAN region through collective actionand enhanced cooperation to support and sustain locallivelihoods, reduce risk of fire and associatedtransboundary haze pollution, and contribute to globalenvironmental management. The APMI is envisaged asa long-term initiative that will work through the existingASEAN structure and will be coordinated by the ASEANSecretariat and the ASOEN-HTTF. The specificobjectives under APMI are to: (a) enhanceunderstanding and build capacity on peatlandmanagement issues in the region; (b) reduce theincidence of peatland fires and associated haze; (c)support national and local level implementationactivities on peatland management and fire prevention;and (d) develop a regional strategy and cooperationmechanisms to promote sustainable peatlandmanagement. The APMI and its initial work plan for2003 – 2005 were endorsed by the ASOEN-HTTF inFebruary 2003, and subsequently noted by the ASEANEnvironment Ministers in March 2003. During this initialperiod, the ASEAN Peatland Management Strategycovering the period of 2006 – 2020 have beendeveloped through regional workshops and nationalconsultations to guide Member Countries into takingconcrete actions to support sustainable management ofpeatlands and reduce peat fires and associatedtransboundary haze pollution within the framework ofthe ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary HazePollution. Plans are underway to operationalise theregional strategy.



Table 9.3: Completed and On-Going Programmes and Activities to Control Transboundary Haze Pollution

Project Title Description

1. Regional Response for Land Objective: Create a practice field for member countries and other relevantand Forest Fire and organisations/agencies for learning and strengthening existing institutional Transboundary Haze structures responsible for coordination, preparedness and response aspects of Pollution: SRFA Fire and land and forest fire disaster.Haze Disaster Simulation Current status: Two table-top exercises conducted in July 2003 and April 2004,Exercises respectively. Simulation exercise being planned in 2007.

2. IFAD/ GEF Project on the Objectives: Strengthen capacity for sustainable peatland management, minimiseRehabilitation and the degradation of peatlands in relevant Southeast Asian countries, rehabilitate Sustainable Use of Peatlands and sustainably manage targeted peatlands, and enhance the livelihood of local in Southeast Asia (PDF-B) communities through sustainable peatland management

Current status: Project development phase (PDF-B) ongoing

3. Publication and Objectives: Communicate ASEAN’s efforts and initiatives on land and forest Dissemination of Information fires and transboundary haze pollution to showcase ASEAN’s efforts, project a Materials on the positive image and correct the misperception of the international media regarding Implementation of ASEAN the haze issues in the regionAgreement on Current status: OngoingTransboundary Haze Pollution

4. Inventory of Fire Fighting Objective: Provide online information on fire fighting resources available in Resources member countries that could be shared in situations where such need arises. The

information is available on the ASEAN Haze Action Online website (www.haze-online.or.id)Current status: Ongoing

5. Rainfall Estimation for Objective: Develop a technique to detect rain areas and estimate rain amounts Monitoring of High Risk Fire in the ASEAN region using data from the Japanese GMS-5/MTSTATAreas in Southeast Asia (Geostationary Meteorological Satellite/Multi-functional Transport Satellite).

Current status: Ongoing

6. Development of a Objective: Develop a comprehensive regional early warning system to support Comprehensive Regional the successful implementation of the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Early Warning System to Pollution through (i) advancing the development and operationalisation of the Support the Successful regional fire Danger Rating System: (ii) utilising/ optimising the use of hotspot Implementation of the data; (iii) developing comprehensive and adequate air quality data in fire-prone ASEAN Agreement on areas; (iv) calibrating existing haze dispersion model; (v) improving climate Transboundary Haze outlook dissemination; (vi) developing and updating risk maps; (vii) harmonising Pollution terminology; and (viii) developing a sustainable and quality (better accuracy and

higher resolution) GIS database.Current status: Proposal under formulation

7. Second Workshop on Zero Objective: Promote the use of the Guidelines on the ASEAN policy on Zero Burning Burning to plantation companies, timber concessionaires, and fire experts in

ASEANCurrent status: Activity under preparation

8. Conference on Promoting Objectives: Provide a forum for exchange of inputs and ideas with regard to the Partnerships for the implementation of the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution; Implementation of the provide an opportunity for ASEAN to share the progress and needs for the ASEAN Agreement implementation of the Agreement; promote and strengthen partnership between on Transboundary relevant regional and international organisations and donor communities to Haze Pollution support the implementation of the Agreement; and explore areas for possible

cooperation and partnership with them to meet future challenges of land andforest fire and transboundary haze pollutionCurrent status: Activity under preparation

9. Operationalisation of the Objective: Develop the deployment, operational mechanisms, and reporting Panel of ASEAN Experts on procedures; and discuss future activities of the Panel of ASEAN Experts.Fire and Haze Assessment Current status: Activity under preparationand Coordination



Nature Conservation and Biodiversity

The successful completion of the EU fundedASEAN Regional Centre for BiodiversityConservation (ARCBC) Project from 1999 to 2004convinced ASEAN to establish a legally constitutedpermanent organisation known as the ASEANCentre for Biodiversity through an agreementamong member countries signed on 27 September,2005. The main role of the Centre is “to facilitatecooperation and coordination among the membersof ASEAN, and with relevant national governments,regional and international organisations, on theconservation and sustainable use of biologicaldiversity and the fair and equitable sharing ofbenefits arising from the use of such biodiversity inthe ASEAN region.” The European Union willcontinue to financially support the first three-and-a-half years of operation of the Centre.

In December 2003, 27 national protected areaswere designated as ASEAN Heritage Parks whenthe ASEAN Declaration on Heritage Parks wasadopted by the ASEAN Environment Ministers. TheASEAN Heritage Parks Programme provides ameans for member countries to learn and benefitfrom available best practices in park management.In September 2004, the first Conference on ASEANHeritage Parks was held in Khao Yai National Park,an ASEAN Heritage site in Thailand. Theconference served as a venue for the managers ofASEAN Heritage Parks to share experiences, andwill be a regular initiative of the ASEAN HeritageProgramme.

ASEAN is also in the process of concluding adraft ASEAN Framework Agreement on Access to,and Fair and Equitable Sharing Benefits Arisingfrom the Utilisation of, Biological and GeneticResources. The Framework Agreement principallyaims to set minimum standards with a view toharmonising national laws, regulations and policieson access and benefit sharing in view of thecommon and shared resources in the region.

Coastal and Marine Environment

To help protect the shared marine waters in theregion, ASEAN has adopted the Marine Water QualityCriteria for the ASEAN Region, the ASEAN Criteriafor National Marine Protected Areas, and the ASEANCriteria for Marine Heritage Areas. The Marine WaterQuality Criteria sets values for an initial set of 17parameters for the protection of aquatic life and

human health, while the Criteria for National MarineProtected Areas and ASEAN Marine Heritage Areascontain criteria for designation and management ofexisting and new protected areas. It also establishedan information exchange mechanism on sevensubject areas: coral reef, sea grass, and mangroves;tanker sludge and ballast water; solid, liquid, andhazardous waste management; coastal erosion; eco-tourism; and coastal wetlands.

Integrated Water Resources Management

ASEAN has formulated the ASEAN Long TermStrategic Plan for Water Resources Management(2003) and the ASEAN Strategic Plan of Action on

For Aquatic Life Protection

Parameter Criteria Values

Ammonia (NH3-N) 70 µmg /L

Cadmium 10 µmg /L

Chromium (VI) 50 µmg /L

Copper 8 µmg /L

Temperature Increase not more than 2 °Cabove the maximumambient temperature

Cyanide 7 µmg /L

Dissolved oxygen 4 mg/L

Lead 8.5 µmg /L

Mercury 0.16 µmg /L

Nitrate (NO3-N) 60 µmg /L

Nitrite (NO2-N) 55 µmg /L

Oil and grease 0.14 mg/L

Total phenol 0.12 mg/L

Phosphate (PO43––P) 15 µmg /L (Coastal)

45 µmg /L (Estuarine)

Tributyltin 10 mg/L

Total suspended solids Permissible 10% maximumincrease over seasonalaverage concentration

For Human Health Protection

Parameter Criteria Values

Bacteria 100 faecal coliform/100 mL35 enterococci/100 mL

Table 9.4: Marine Water Quality Criteria For TheASEAN Region



Water Resources Management (2005) to providea programmatic implementation framework anddevelop regional project proposals based onassessment of needs and priorities in the region.The ASEAN Working Group on Water ResourcesManagement (AWGWRM) agreed to have leadcountry/ies coordinate the further developmentand implementation of the individual projectconcepts.

Environmentally Sustainable Cities

In June 2003 the ASEAN Working Group onEnvironmentally Sustainable Cities (AWGESC) wascreated to implement the Regional EnvironmentallySustainable Cities Programme (RESCP). The

Framework for Environmentally Sustainable Citiesin ASEAN was developed in December 2003, withthe vision “Towards Environmentally SustainableCities in ASEAN.” Member countries have sincethen nominated 24 cities to participate in theimplementation of the Framework. In 2005, theASEAN Environment Ministers endorsed theASEAN Initiative on Environmentally SustainableCities (AIESC), which replaces the RESCP andserves as an overarching mechanism for ASEANcities to pursue environmental sustainability andgoes beyond the scope of Clean Air, Clean Waterand Clean Land, to include green and blue issuesin the future.

A Conference on Environmentally SustainableCities in ASEAN was held in Singapore in October2004 to provide city officials in-depth understandingof the Framework for Environmentally SustainableCities in ASEAN; share best practices on Clean Air,Clean Water, and Clean Land; cluster cities withsimilar priorities and capacity development needs;and facilitate possible collaboration between citiesand international organisations.

Capacity building activities like workshops andtraining courses will be organised and conducted ineach thematic area. They are aimed at providingtechnical assistance to city officials to implementthe Framework and incorporate relevant bestpractices to address their respective areas ofconcern, and to develop performance andquantitative indicators for environmentalsustainability.

Project Concepts Lead Country/ies

1. Demand Management Singapore and Learning Forums Thailand

2. ASEAN IWRM Country MalaysiaStrategy Guidelines

3. River Classification Systems Viet Nam

4. ASEAN Water Data MalaysiaManagement and Reporting System Design

5. Risks and Impacts from Indonesia and Extreme Events in ASEAN ThailandCountries

6. Knowledge Sharing and PhilippinesExchange

7. Exchanging Information and PhilippinesCreating Awareness in a Structured Basis Among Relevant Agencies

8. Integrated Land Use –Planning

9. Increasing Long Term IndonesiaAwareness, Knowledge and Community Participationin Integrated Water

Resource Management

10. Education on Sanitation –and Pollution Management

Table 9.5: Regional Project Proposals on WaterResources Management and its LeadCountry/ies

Country City

Brunei Bandar Seri Begawan

Cambodia Phnom Penh, Siem Reap

Indonesia Balikpapan, Medan, Sidoarjo

Lao PDR Luang Prabang, Vientiane, Xayabouri

Malaysia Kuantan, Putrajaya

Myanmar Mandalay, Yangon

Philippines Cagayan de Oro, Iloilo, Quezon

Singapore Singapore

Thailand Bangkok, Chiangmai, Krabi, Phuket

Vietnam Da Nang, Ha Long, Hanoi

Table 9.6: Participating Cities in the AIESC



Global Environmental Issues

ASEAN Member Countries actively participatein various global environmental fora and continue topromote common points of understanding on issuesof common or regional interest. Lead countries havebeen assigned to analyse the ramifications of MEAsto ASEAN so that all member countries could reacheither common point of understanding or commonposition as appropriate. Through sharing ofexperiences in implementing MEAs, membercountries are encouraged to cooperate inaddressing common issues, and to provideguidance to those that are preparing to ratify oraccede to the MEAs. ASEAN has established theASEAN Working Group on MultilateralEnvironmental Agreements to provide a forum formember countries to exchange on a regular basisinformation and experiences, and to design andimplement capacity building programmes.

Various capacity building activities related to theClean Development Mechanism of the KyotoProtocol to the UN Framework Convention onClimate Change were carried out. ASEAN

collaborated with the United Nations University andUNEP in coordinating the implementation of theMEAs. A workshop was held to identify issues andmodalities for synergies among MEAs and anASEAN case study highlighted opportunities andmeans for overcoming constraints in the effectiveimplementation of MEAs at the national and regionallevels. The First UNEP Workshop on EffectiveImplementation of Chemicals and HazardousWastes Conventions held in Malaysia in 2001identified gaps, constraints, and capacity needsincluding a regional approach in the implementationof these conventions. Framework proposals havebeen developed to address these concerns, whichare being used by member countries to design theirown capacity building programmes.

ASEAN Environmental Education Action Plan

In October 2000, the ASEAN Ministersresponsible for environment adopted the ASEANEnvironmental Education Action Plan (AEEAP 2000 –2005). It provided a framework for the developmentand implementation of environmental education (EE)

Table 9.7: Goals and Objectives of Clean Air, Clean Land, and Clean Water of AIESC

Clean Air Clean Land Clean Water

Objectives

• Data availability and data qualityand analysis

• Emission control from mobilesources

• Emission control from stationarysources

• Emission control from areasources

• Zoning/land use planning• Transport and traffic

management• Cleaner fuels• Energy efficiency• Institutional arrangements and

capacity building• Awareness and participation

• To manage, and dispose of solidwaste and safeguard publichealth

• To manage, minimise, anddispose of toxic and hazardouswastes to safeguard publichealth

• To reduce waste generation anddisposal

• To develop and safeguard greenareas in cities

• To enhance environmentalresponsibility and ownership

• To achieve good accessibilityand quality of water supply forASEAN cities

• To protect water resources,safeguard ecosystems, andpublic health, so as to achieveASEAN water quality standards

• To move towards sustainablesupply and use of water

• To inculcate environmentalresponsibility and ownership

Goal: To achieve and maintaingood air quality to safeguard goodpublic health (Pollutant StandardsIndex < 100)

Goal: To achieve minimal landdisposal of waste and move towardssustainable production andconsumption patterns

Goal: Achieve ASEAN long-termgoals for water quality intended forvarious uses by 2010 and movetowards sustainable supply and useof water



activities; enhance manpower capability and initiatemass-based action in managing the environmentthrough information, education, and communicationscampaign. The Plan focussed on four target areas,namely, formal education, informal education,manpower capacity building, and networking,collaboration, and communication. Thirty-six actionsat both the national and regional levels were outlinedfor each of the target areas. Under Target Area 4:Networking, Collaboration and Communication,ASEAN has developed the ASEAN EnvironmentalEducation Inventory Database providing an on-lineinventory of environmental education resources in allmember countries.

During the mid-term review of the AEEAP inDecember 2002, member countries sought toconsolidate national initiatives that would havegreater impact if implemented on a regional scaleand to accelerate the achievements of the AEEAP.Six regional proposals were proposed namely: (a)Education for Sustainable Development, (b)Integration of Environmental Education into PrimarySchools, (c) ASEAN Environmental Camp, (d)Teacher Training on Environmental Education forBasic Education Schools in the BIMP-EAGACountries, (e) Environmental Education Training forUniversity Teachers, and (f) Establishment of anASEAN Environmental Education Centre and Fund.

Box 9.6: ASEAN Environmental Education Inventory Database (AEEID)

The ASEAN Ministers responsible for the

Environment on 18 December 2003 formally launched

the ASEAN Environmental Education Inventory

Database (AEEID). AEEID

(http://www.aeeid.aseansec.org) is an interactive on-line

database of materials, experiences, and best practices

on environmental education in the ASEAN Region. The

Database provides an opportunity for greater sharing of

environmental education resources and networking

within the region and beyond; and also presents

limitless opportunities for further publicising activities,

sharing ideas and resources, and to undertake

networking and partnership activities to enhance

environmental education in the region.

Features of AEEID include: information on

programmes; courses; resource materials, resource

persons; implementing organisations and partners;

related web links; and calendar of events. Interested

parties can easily locate environmental education

initiatives in the region such as activities, programmes

and courses offered, organisations and persons

involved, or electronically upload their environmental

education activities through the template provided.



ASEAN Environment Year 2003

The ASEAN Environment Year 2003 (AEY)regional launch was hosted by the Royal Kingdomof Cambodia with the theme “Together TowardsSustainable Development.” The year-long activitieshighlighted national and regional environmentalissues and cooperation programmes which servedto broaden the participatory process of allstakeholders in environmental management and tostimulate regional environmental activities. It helpedto achieve the following objectives:

• To promote environmental awareness at alllevels of societies within ASEAN;

• To highlight ASEAN achievements in the field ofenvironment;

• To create better informed and environmentallysensitive societies in order to enhancecapacities to achieve the ASEAN Vision 2020;

• To enhance partnership among governments,private sectors, civil societies, and NGOs toparticipate in environmental protection andsustainable resource management;

• To promote and strengthen cooperation andsolidarity among ASEAN countries, ASEANPlus Three, and other countries; and

• To stimulate regional activities in theenvironmental area to achieve sustainabledevelopment.

ASEAN celebrates AEY every three years and2006 has been designated another ASEANEnvironment Year with Indonesia as the host.

Publications related to environment

An important component of environmentaleducation and awareness raising is the regularpublication by the ASEAN Secretariat of variousreports, books and other information materials fordissemination to numerous institutions andindividuals in the region. Many of these publicationsare outputs of environmental programmes andprojects implemented by member countries andcoordinated by the ASEAN Secretariat. Thesepublications serve as valuable reference materialsfor government officials, researchers, civil societyorganisations and the general public.

Box 9.7: Sekolah Lestari – Environment Award Programme

On 27 January 2005, Malaysia launched the SekolahLestari – Anugerah Alam Sekitar (Environment Award)Programme, a cooperative activity between theDepartment of Environment, Ministry of NaturalResources and the Environment, the Ministry ofEducation and Institute for Environment and Development(LESTARI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM).

The Programme aims to support and enhance theimplementation of the National Policy on theEnvironment, containing 8 principles and 7 strategies.The first strategy is focused on education and awarenessthat provides an understanding of the concept ofenvironmental well-being and sustainable development,

in line with Rio Agenda 21. The concept of SekolahLestari hinges on an integrated approach, involving theschool community as a whole, their families, localcommunities, government, private sector and non-governmental organisations. This concept encompassesthe integrated approach in management, curriculum, co-curriculum and greening activities. Sekolah Lestari shallencapsulate current and planned environmental activitiesand also serve as a centre of learning and education thatcan influence both the school community and societytowards a way of life that is sustainable.

Source: Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment, Malaysia

(2005)



State of the Environment Reports

The First ASEAN State of the EnvironmentReport was published in 1997, and the SecondASEAN State of the Environment Report in 2000. In2002, ASEAN published the ASEAN Report to theWorld Summit on Sustainable Development held inJohannesburg, South Africa. The Report showcasedASEAN’s achievements on sustainable developmentand emphasised the use of regional governancemechanisms, and regional goals and plans as avehicle to implement these efforts at the national andregional levels. The major recommendations of theASEAN report to the WSSD were: encouragesustainable economic growth; reform of theinternational financial structure; adherence to

mutually supportive trade and environment policies;reduce/eliminate poverty; access to better healthservices; sustainable management of naturalresources and environmental protection; call forglobal support for MEAs; streamline sustainabledevelopment governance framework at theinternational level; provision of adequate andpredictable financing to ensure the effectiveimplementation of sustainable developmentinitiatives; facilitate access to technology and buildthe capacity of developing countries to absorb andadapt scientific knowledge and technological skills;and support for initiatives on partnerships.

All member countries publish periodically theirstate of environment report as detailed out below.

Table 9.8: State of the Environment Reports of Member Countries

Country Latest SoER Published Frequency Website

Brunei Brunei Darussalam State of Environment Report 2006 Every 5 years http://www.env.gov.bnDarussalam

Cambodia State of the Environment Report 2004 Periodic

Indonesia State of the Environment in Indonesia 2004 Annual http://www.menlh.go.id

Lao PDR Lao PDR Environment Monitoring Report 2004 (LEM) Periodic

MalaysiaMalaysia Environmental Quality Report 2004 Annual

http://www.doe.gov.myDepartment of Environment Annual Report 2004 Annual

Myanmar National Environment Performance Assessment Report 2006 Periodic

Philippine Environmental Quality Report 1990 – 1995 Every 5 years

Philippines National Air Quality Status Report 2003 – 2004 Every 2 yearshttp://www.emb.gov.ph

Department of Environment and Natural Resources Annual AnnualReport 2004

Singapore State of the Environment Report 2005 Periodic http://www.mewr.gov.sg

ThailandState of the Environment Report 2005 Annual http://www.onep.go.th

Thailand’s State of Pollution Report 2004 Annual http://www.pcd.go.th

Viet NamState of the Environment Report 2005 Annual

http://www.nea.gov.vnViet Nam’s Environmental Monitor 2005 Annual



Environmental Cooperation withASEAN Dialogue Partners/International Organisations

ASEAN has formal dialogue relations withAustralia, Canada, China, European Union, India,Japan, Pakistan, Republic of Korea, New Zealand,Russia Federation, United States of America andthe United Nations Development Programme(UNDP). Various environmental cooperative

activities have been developed through thischannel which forms a major source of support forASEAN’s environmental cooperative activities.ASEAN has also promoted cooperation with anumber of international organisations which includethe United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP), The United Nations University (UNU),United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),United Nations Educational Scientific and CulturalOrganisation (UNESCO), Asia Development Bank(ADB), and the Hanns Seidel Foundation (HSF).

Table 9.9: Major Cooperative Activities with ASEAN Dialogue Partners

Country Programme Activities

Australia ASEAN-Australia Development • Development of the ASEAN Strategic Plan of Action on Water Cooperation Programme Resources ManagementRegionalPartnership Scheme • Capacity Building for the Implementation of the ASEAN Marine

Water Quality Criteria

Canada Fire Danger Rating System • Canadian Forest Service worked with agencies in Indonesia and (FDRS) Malaysia on a 5-year initiative to develop and operate the FDRS

• Attachment from January to August 2004 of an FDRS specialist tothe ASEAN Secretariat

China ASEAN-China Cooperation • China-ASEAN Environmental Policy Dialogue held in HainanProvince, China in August 2004

• ASEAN-China Workshop on Botanical Garden and Plant Conservation,15–19 May 2006

European ASEAN-EU Cooperation • ASEAN Regional Programme for Regional Integration Support on the Union link between trade and environment and implications of international

environmental agreements; and development of common approach todeal with transnational environmental problems

• Five-year support for the ASEAN Regional Centre for BiodiversityConservation Project (1999 – 2004)

• Support for the first three-and-half years operations of the ASEANCentre for Biodiversity

Japan Japan-ASEAN General • An Assessment for the Establishment of an ASEAN Regional Exchange Fund (JAGEF) Network to Promote Environmentally Sound Technologies Japan-ASEAN Exchange • A Study for the Establishment and Operationalisation of an Projects (JAEP) Emergency Response and Strategic Planning Institute for

Environmental Disasters • ASEAN-Japan Consultation Visit, April 2004 • Seminar on Framework for Environmentally Sustainable Cities in

ASEAN (also known as Conference on ESC), 14 – 15 October 2004• Workshop on the Development of Key Indicators for Clean Air, Clean

Water and Clean Land; and Award/s to Promote EnvironmentalSustainability in ASEAN Cities, 6 – 8 December 2005

Republic ASEAN-Republic of Korea • Flagship Project on “Restoration of the Degraded Forest of Korea Cooperation Ecosystem in the Southeast Asian Tropical Region (2000 – 2005)

• Flagship Project on “Restoration of the Degraded Forest Ecosystemin the Southeast Asian Tropical Region (Phase II) (2005 – 2008)

• Consultation Visit by ASEAN Senior Officials on the Environment toROK 2005

United ASEAN Cooperation Plan • Workshop on transboundary aquatic invasive alien species States associated with aquaculture in Southeast Asia, July 2004 in Penang,

Malaysia• Development of national biosafety networks consisting of training

workshops and technical support for ASEAN countries, 2004



Environmental Cooperationwith Civil Society Organisations(CSOs)

ASEAN has welcomed and encouraged theparticipation of CSOs in its regional programmesand activities. In the area of environment andsustainable development, CSOs have beenconsulted on specific issues of interest, mainly on aproject basis. In 1986 ASEAN adopted theGuidelines for ASEAN Relations with Non-Governmental Organisations to draw them into themainstream of ASEAN activities and to ensure

meaningful interaction and fruitful relationship withASEAN bodies. In recognition of the important roleof CSOs, their participation has becomeincreasingly institutionalised in ASEAN with a viewto make more effective their contribution at theregional and national level. To ensure regular andstructured collaboration with CSOs, the ASEANSenior Officials on the Environment have endorseda proposal on “ASEAN Civil Society Organisations(CSOs) Consultative Forum on EnvironmentalProtection and Sustainable Development”. TheCSOs are being consulted to realise this Forum.

End Note1 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2003), “UNEP Congratulates ASEAN on Fire Haze Agreement:

Thailand’s ratification brings ground breaking legal initiative into force,”

< http://www.unep.org/Documents.multilingual/?DocumentID=354&ArticleID=4309&l=en > 2 Nov 2005.

Nurturing human, cultural and natural resources for sustaineddevelopment in a harmonious and people-centred ASEAN

ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community Plan of Action

CHAPTER 10Towards An EnvironmentallySustainable ASEANCommunity

Chapter 10: Towards An Environmentally Sustainable ASEAN Community


The global community has generally acceptedthe concept of ‘sustainable development’ as theguiding principle to ensure mother earth willcontinue to sustain life for the foreseable future.The 1987 Bruntland Commission definedsustainable development as “development thatmeets the needs of the present withoutcompromising the ability of future generations tomeet their own needs”. However, differences ininterpretation, and more so, in implementation ofthis concept abounds. The International Institute forSustainable Development characterises it as a“fluid concept that will continue to evolve over time,but common characteristics underlie its manystreams of thought. Sustainable developmentemphasises the need for:

(i) concern for equity and fairness – ensuring therights of the poor and of future generations;

(ii) a long term view – applying the precautionaryprinciple; and

(iii) systems thinking – understanding theinterconnections between the environment,economy and society.

Accordingly, sustainable development willnever be a fixed plan of action agreed to by allparties, for example solutions will differ amongdifferent countries based on their capacities andaspirations for the future. The global communityhas generally accepted the principle of common butdifferentiated responsibility, embodying the conceptthat all countries share a common concern for the

environment, but each group (typically thedeveloped and developing countries) hasdifferentiated responsibility based on theircontribution (historical and current) to globalenvironmental problems, and the financial andtechnical capacity to ameliorate them.

Sustainable development generally involvesintegrated development of three sectors; namelyeconomic development, social development andenvironmental protection. This concept is succintlycaptured in the attainment of an environmentallysustainable ASEAN Community through theASEAN Socio-Cultural Community pillar.

“Social inequities can threaten economicdevelopment and in turn undermine politicalregimes. Economic instability can exacerbatepoverty, unemployment, hunger, illness anddisease. Social instability can emerge fromenvironmental scarcity or the inequitabledistribution among stakeholders of the use ofenvironmental assets. Failure to address thesecritical and persistent social issues can furthercause both economic and political dislocations”

Accordingly this Report has attempted tohighlight key developments in each of these sectorsin the region. Chapter 2 described the geo-physicalconditions, climate and demographics of the regionand how these factors determine the characteristicenvironmental issues of the region. Chapter 3noted that high population density, rapid

s ASEAN pursues broader and deeper integration, it must ensure that the end goal of an ASEANCommunity is environmentally sustainable. This is succintly captured in the VAP as follows: “Social

inequities can threaten economic development and in turn undermine political regimes. Economicinstability can exacerbate poverty, unemployment, hunger, illness and disease. Social instability canemerge from environmental scarcity or the inequitable distribution among stakeholders of the use ofenvironmental assets. Failure to address these critical and persistent social issues can further causeboth economic and political dislocations”. Progress towards an environmentally sustainable ASEANCommunity should be quantitatively monitored. Based on data from reputable sources, the ASEANMember Countries have generally performed better than most countries of the world in terms ofenvironmental sustainablity. Furthermore the difference among member countries is small indicatingthat countries generally have similar level of environmental sustainability. In terms of ecologicalfootprint measures, the member countries also performed better than the world average. This chapteralso highlights some of the critical and emerging issues that can lead to environmental insecurity andtherefore impact adversely on the other pillars of the ASEAN Community building efforts. The chapterconcludes by summarising the various measures being undertaken in the region situated within theconcept of sustainable development to achieve an environmentally sustainable ASEAN Community.

A



urbanisation, and poverty places stresses on theenvironment. Chapter 4 showed how the strengthand vitality of economic growth in the region placesenvironmental stresses on the natural resourcebase, while at the sametime the increased incomelevel and change of industrial structure could helpaddress some of these problems. Chapters 5 – 7documented the richness and vitality of the aquaticand terrestrial ecosystems, and the quality of air inthe region. Chapter 8 demonstrated ASEAN’scommitments to address global environmentalissues, although the region is not the source ofmany of these problems, it is significantly affectedby them. Chapter 9 highlights the ASEAN policyand institutional framework and the many regionalprogrammes and intiatives to assist membercountries in effectively addressing a broad range ofenvironmental issues, particularly those oftransboundary nature.

However, progress in each of these sectorsdoes not necessarily indicate overall progress interms of sustainable development or environmentalsustainability. Embarking on such a compositemeasure is not easy; for instance there are limits todetermining the basket of parameters, itsrespective contribution and the interaction amongthem. Nature is never easy to comprehend noramenable to measurement. However, it isnecessary that some form of measure, howevercrude it may be, need to be attempted if we were totruly claim that we are making progress towardssustainable development or environmentalsustainability.

This chapter will highlight some credible studiesand parameters that are commonly used tobenchmark the region’s progress as a wholetowards environmental sustainability and with othercountries or regions of the world.

Environmental Sustainability

Environmental sustainability means enabling theenvironment to continue to provide the material,energy and other resources needed to support agrowing economy and maintain a decent quality oflife for all people while preserving the integrity of thevery same environment. Millennium DevelopmentGoal 7 emphasises environmental sustainability. Itstargets are to integrate the principles of sustainabledevelopment into country policies and programmesand to reverse the loss of environmental resources;halve by 2015 the proportion of people withoutsustainable access to safe drinking water andsanitation; and by 2020 achieve a significantimprovement in the lives of at least 100 million slumdwellers. It is not enough that the principles ofsustainable development are integrated into nationalpolicies and programmes. It is equally important thatmeasurable indicators such as the proportion ofland area covered with forest, intensity of the use ofenergy, carbon dioxide emissions per capita and thelike are monitored to guarantee that environmentalsustainability is attained.

There have been a number of attempts toquantify environmental sustainability. One sucheffort is the Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI)developed by Yale University and ColumbiaUniversity. The ESI aims to concretise the conceptof environmental sustainability, which is defined as“the long-term maintenance of valued environmentalresources in an evolving human context.”1 It buildson 76 datasets and 21 key indicators classified into5 components: state of environmental systems,anthropogenic stresses on the environment, aspectsof human vulnerability to environmental stresses,social and institutional capacity to affectenvironmental change, and global leadershiptowards greater environmental sustainability.

Box 10.1: The Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI)

Core components and logic

• A country is more likely to be environmentallysustainable to the extent that its vitalenvironmental systems are maintained at healthylevels, and to the extent to which levels areimproving rather than deteriorating (i.e.Environmental Systems);

• A country is more likely to be environmentallysustainable if the levels of anthropogenic stress are

low enough to engender no demonstrable harm to itsenvironmental systems (i.e. Reduce EnvironmentalStresses);

• A country is more likely to be environmentallysustainable to the extent that people and socialsystems are not vulnerable to environmentaldisturbances that affect basic human well-being;becoming less vulnerable is a sign that a society ison a tract of greater sustainability (i.e., ReduceHuman Vulnerability);




The ESI scores of eight countries in the region(except Singapore and Brunei Darussalam whichwere not assessed) indicated that environmentaland ecological systems were deteriorating due toproblems related to air pollution, habitatdestruction and declining water quality. Malaysiahad the best sustainability index with an ESI scoreof 54.0 and the Philippines and Viet Nam thelowest with scores of 42.3. However, the rangebetween the scores for these countries were notlarge, indicating that countries in the regiongenerally have similar level of environmentalsustainability. Malaysia scored well in three of thefive ESI components, namely, environmentalsystems, human vulnerability to environmentalstresses, and social and institutional capacity torespond to environmental stresses.

Having comparatively matured economic andsocial systems such as those of the Philippines,Thailand and Indonesia did not ensure high scoreson environmental sustainability. In contrast, thelesser developed countries such as Myanmar, LaoPDR, and Cambodia benefited from small“ecological footprints” in the past and negligiblecontributions to global emissions of greenhousegases. The cluster containing Cambodia, Myanmarand Laos was characterised by moderateenvironmental systems and ecological stressscores and above average global stewardship. The

group of countries including the other five ASEANnations performed rather poorly on all but thehuman vulnerability and capacity components.

As a comparision with the ESI scores of othercountries of the world, the 2005 ESI score rangedfrom a high of 75 to a low of 29 among 116countries assessed. Therefore the ESI scores ofASEAN Member Countries are generally aboveaverage compared to the world average.

• A country is more likely to be environmentallysustainable to the extent that it has in placeinstitutions and underlying social patterns of skills,attitudes and networks that foster effectiveresponses to environmental challenges (i.e., Socialand Institutional Capacity); and

• A country is more likely to be environmentallysustainable if it cooperates with other countries tomanage common environmental problems, and if itreduces negative transboundary environmentalimpacts on other countries to levels that cause noserious harm (i.e., Global Stewardship).


Constructing the ESI score

Source: Etsy, D.C., et.al. (2005), 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index: Benchmarking National Environmental Stewardship, New Haven: Yale

Centre for Environmental Law and Policy.

ESI Score

5 Components

21 Indicators

76 Variables

The ESI is the equally

weighted average of

these 21 indicators.

The components

summarise

the indicator values

in 5 thematic categories.

Country ESI Score

Cambodia 50.1

Indonesia 48.8

Lao PDR 52.4

Malaysia 54.0

Myanmar 52.8

Philippines 42.3

Thailand 49.7

Viet Nam 42.3

Table 10.1: Environmental Sustainable Index ofselected ASEAN Member Countries, 2005

Source: Tanja Srebotnjak (2005), “The Performance of the ASEAN

Member States in the 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index

(ESI),” a paper written for the Third ASEAN State of the

Environment Report 2005.



Related to environmental sustainability is theconcept of Ecological Footprint, which is “aresource management tool that measures howmuch land and water area a human populationrequires to produce the resources it consumes andto absorb its wastes under prevailing technology.”2

The Ecological Footprint supports environmentalsustainability by advocating that society’s demandon nature should be in balance with nature’scapacity to meet that demand.3

Malaysia’s ecological footprint (including food,fiber, timber and energy footrprints) was thehighest among the eight countries in the regionwhere data were available. Malaysia needed 2.4global hectares/person (ghp) of itself per year to

meet its resource requirements. Its footprint in2002 was higher than the average of the wholeworld, middle income countries, and Asia Pacificcountries. Malaysia’s total biocapacity (orresource supply) was higher than its ecologicalfootprint (or resource demand) resulting in areserve of 0.9 ghp, the biggest among the eightcountries. In contrast, Cambodia needed less thanitself to be able to meet its resource requirements.Indonesia, Philippines and Thailand encountereddeficits in 2002 because their total biocapacitieswere not enough for their ecological footprints.Lao PDR and Myanmar still have substantialecological reserve and resource supplyaccompanied by modest ecological footprint andresource demand.

Table 10.2: Ecological Footprints of Selected Member Countries, World and Regional Income Groups, 2002

Source: Global Footprint Network (2006).

Note: No data for Brunei Darussalam and Singapore

Region/ PopulationTotal Footprint (global ha/person)

Country (million) Ecological Food, FiberEnergy

Bio capacityEcological Deficit (–)

and Timber or Reserve

World 6,220 2.2 0.9 1.2 1.8 –0.4

High Income 926 6.4 2.1 4.1 3.4 –3.0

Middle Income 2,990 1.9 0.9 0.9 2.1 0.2

Low Income 2,280 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.7 –0.1

Asia Pacific 3,450 1.3 0.6 0.6 0.7 –0.6

Cambodia 13.8 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.7 0.2

Indonesia 217 1.0 0.6 0.4 1.0 –0.1

Lao PDR 5.5 0.8 0.5 0.2 1.4 0.5

Malaysia 24.0 2.4 1.0 1.3 3.3 0.9

Myanmar 48.9 0.9 0.6 0.2 1.3 0.4

Philippines 78.6 1.0 0.6 0.4 0.6 –0.4

Thailand 62.2 1.4 0.6 0.7 1.0 –0.4

Viet Nam 80.3 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.8 0.0

Box 10.2: Philippine Ecological Footprint, 1961 – 2002

The Philippine demand on ecological resourcesincreased from less than its own biocapacity in 1961 tomore than double its domestically available biocapacityin 2002. The ecological deficit that exists whenecological demand exceeds supply can be financed byimporting biocapacity, liquidating existing stocks ofecological capital, or allowing wastes to accumulate andecosystems to degrade.

Figure a illustrates, for each year, how many“Philippines” were required to meet the resourcerequirements of the Philippines. Resource demand(Ecological Footprint) for the country as a whole is theproduct of population and per capita consumption.Resource supply (biocapacity) varies each year withecosystem management, agricultural practices (such asfertiliser use and irrigation), ecosystem degradation,




and weather. Expressed in terms of “number ofPhilippines” the biocapacity is always 1 (represented bythe horizontal blue line). The figure shows the ratiobetween the country’s demand and the country’sbiocapacity in each year, and how this ratio has changedover time.

Figure b tracks, in absolute terms, the average perperson Ecological Footprint and per person biocapacity inthe Philippines over a 40-year period. Figure c shows thecomponents of average per person Ecological Footprintin the Philippines.


Figure b

Domestic Biocapacity

Glo

bal h

ecat

ares

per

per

son

Demand

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.01961 1971 1981 1991 2001

Demand vs. BiocapacityFigure a

Domestic Biocapacity Demand

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.01961 1971 1981 1991 2001

Demand vs. Biocapacity

Foot

prin

t (#

of c

ount

ries

)

Figure c

Glo

bal h

ecat

ares

per

per

son Built Land

CO2 Absorption

Nuclear

Wood Fuel

Timber

Fisheries

Pasture

Cropland

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

Footprint by component

Source: Global Footprint Network (2006).

Environmental Security

Another concept related to and complementaryto environmental sustainability and ecologicalfootprint is environmental security. As with the two,the concern for the increasing global environmentalchanges and decreasing resources to feed thegrowing human population has led to the concept ofenvironmental security. It is generally defined as“the freedom from social instability due toenvironmental degradation. It means the relativepublic safety from environmental dangers causedby natural or human processes due to ignorance,accident, mismanagement or design and originatingwithin or across national borders.”

In the ASEAN region, environmental securitycan be threatened by the growing scarcity ofresources, quantitatively and qualitatively. Thesources of environmental security are classified intofive categories, namely, environmental degradation

which affects terrestrial ecosystems, atmosphericpollution and degradation, water resources, themaritime environment, and energy resources.

Environmental security has several dimensions.For example, in the controversy involving the“hydro-industrialisation” of the Mekong River Basinwith its six riparian states (China and the fiveASEAN Member Countries, namely, Myanmar, LaoPDR, Thailand, Cambodia, and Viet Nam), threedimensions of “environmental security” have beenidentified that may cause possible conflict. Theseare: (a) national resource security in the form ofwater allocation conflicts; (b) economic security inthe case of hydropower development; and (c)human security as hydropower developmentimpacts on local communities and the implicationsfor domestic political stability.4

Resource security conflicts may arise fromcompeting claims of contiguous countries for a fair



share of international waters. Fortunately, in thecase of the Mekong River Basin, this kind of conflicthas been prevented so far through dialogue, byrespecting the various rules for water utilisation andabstraction in the lower basin, and through theintegrated development and management of theupper and lower basins. The economic securitydimension involves the “resource exploitation andits implication for economic relations and economicsecurity.”5 When there is increased asymmetrical

dependency relationship among the riparian statesthis may cause more possible points of conflict forthem. Lastly, the human security dimension isbased on emphasising the primary importance ofprotecting individuals from both violent and non-violent threats to their safety, rights, and socialsystems – threats that include environmentaldegradation.”6 Other human security threats includethe deforestation of upper watershed areasresulting in serious land degradation.

Table 10.3: Potential Sources of Environmental Insecurity in the ASEAN Region

Source: Adapted from Elliott (2001), pp 440–442

CategorySpecific Environmental

Affected Area/Country ThreatsProblems

Terrestrial Environment

AtmosphericPollution

Water Resources

Marine Environment

Energy

Deforestation,desertification, landdegradation, and loss ofarable land

Urban air pollution

Transboundary hazepollution

Global climate change

Scarcity and pollution or“water stress”

Pollution and over fishing

Growth in demand butdecreasing supply, pollution,and production ofhazardous wastes

Whole region especially inMalaysia, Indonesia,Philippines, Cambodia, Viet Nam and Myanmar

Bangkok, Manila andJakarta, etc.

Brunei Darussalam,Indonesia, Malaysia,Singapore, Thailand andViet Nam

Whole Region

Whole region, notably inJakarta, Bangkok and MetroManila

Gulf of Thailand, JakartaBay, Manila Bay, MekongDelta region and SouthChina Sea

Whole region

Soil loss, siltation, changes in waterretention and runoff patterns, and foodinsecurity

Chronic health problem (example:respiratory ailments), ecological damage

Chronic health problem (example:respiratory ailments), economic loss,ecological damage

Rising sea levels, changes in weatherpatterns, increase in extreme weatherand natural disasters, changes inseasons, loss of agricultural production,and variations in freshwater availability

Death of aquatic species and loss oflivelihood from fishing

Destruction of mangrove habitats andshrimp aquaculture, decline of fishstocks, etc.

Economic meltdown if there is shortage,and pollution (air, water and soil) if notdisposed of properly

ASEAN Community Building andEnvironmental Sustainability

The concept of an ASEAN Community isdefined in the Declaration of ASEAN Concord IIadopted by the Leaders of ASEAN in October 2003.It states that “an ASEAN Community shall be

established comprising three pillars, namely,political and security cooperation, economiccooperation, and socio-cultural cooperation that areclosely intertwined and mutually reinforcing for thepurpose of ensuring durable peace, stability andshared prosperity in the region.”



It is evident that an overarching goal of theASEAN Community is promoting sustainedeconomic growth to reduce poverty and socio-economic disparities among and within countries ofthe region. The ASEAN Community is to beestablished for the purpose, among others, ofensuring a durable shared prosperity in the region.For this purpose, the Vientiane Action Programmeserves as the current road-map for the period 2004– 2010 to achieve this goal.

The Vientiane Action Programme contains anumber of strategic thrusts and measures that mayimpact on environmental sustainability, namely:

• Free flow of goods, services, investment and afreer flow of capital, equitable economicdevelopment and reduced poverty and socio-economic disparities

• A single market and production base• Cooperation to address the development divide

and accelerate economic integration• Raising the standard of living of disadvantaged

groups and the rural population• Active involvement of all sectors of society, in

particular, women, youth and local communities• Investing more resources for basic and higher

education, training, science and technologydevelopment, job creation and social protection

• Employment generation, alleviating poverty andsocio-economic disparities, and ensuringeconomic growth with equity

• Regional mobility• Prevention and control of infectious diseases

such as HIV/AIDS and SARS

• Cooperation in addressing problems associatedwith population growth, unemployment,environmental degradation and transboundarypollution as well as disaster management

It is evident from the features of the ASEANCommunity that as the region becomes a singlemarket and production base, it will have to shifttowards economic growth patterns that do notcompromise environmental sustainability. Theexpected growth in the region’s GDP resulting fromregional integration and mobility must maintain orrestore environmental quality and ecological integrity.The ASEAN Community must decouple negativeenvironmental impacts from economic growthprocesses by adopting, as a first principle, theconcept that ecosystem goods and services arecritical to long-term economic and social viability. TheCommunity’s economy must focus on creating wealthand at the same time minimise or achieve zero-waste. This means that cleaner production, new andrenewable sources of energy, waste minimisation andresource recovery must be given primary importance.National environmental regulations and standardsmust be progressively harmonised as tariffs aredismantled to ensure environmental issues does notemerge as non-tariff measures.

As envisioned, the ASEAN Community will becommitted to promoting environmentalsustainability. Indeed it is a major thrust of theVientianne Action Programme, which aims topromote a “clean and green ASEAN with fullyestablished mechanisms for sustainabledevelopment to ensure the protection of theregion’s environment, the sustainability of its naturalresources and the high quality of life of its people.”Various programmes and measures will beimplemented in order to ensure that theCommunity’s economic development will, at thesame time, result in social equity andenvironmental sustainability.

The road towards an environmentallysustainable ASEAN Community will be full ofchallenges. This report opens with a presentation ofthe seven most important and urgent challengesconfronting the region. In closing it is fitting that wereemphasise these challenges viewed from theperspective of the Vientiane Action Programme –the current ASEAN’s roadmap “towards sharedprosperity and destiny in an integrated, peacefuland caring ASEAN Community.”



First, the ASEAN Community must narrow thesocio-economic divide among and within countriesof the region while ensuring a proper balancebetween economic development and environmentalprotection.

In the Preamble of the Vientiane ActionProgramme, the ASEAN Leaders recognise that“deepening and broadening the integration ofASEAN must be accompanied by technical anddevelopment cooperation to address thedevelopment gap among the Member Countries”and reiterate their “commitment to strengthenefforts to narrow the development gap in ASEAN.”To this end, one of the five goals and strategiestowards realising the ASEAN Community dealsspecifically with narrowing the development gap.Here the Leaders state clearly and emphaticallythat “the gap must be narrowed as an end in itself ifthe principle, that development is a fundamentalhuman right, is to be followed. It must also benarrowed, as a necessary condition for realising theend goal of economic integration. Indeed, efforts tonarrow the development gap would be self-reinforcing.”

Second, the ASEAN Community must preventor reduce the occurrences of natural and man-made disasters and minimise the damage andalleviate the human suffering caused by them.

The ASEAN Leaders recognise the importanceof natural disaster prevention, monitoring andmitigation to attain sustained development in aharmonious and people-centred region. Indeedamong the regional interventions identified to builda “community of caring societies” is “ensuringdisaster-resilient nations by minimising the adverseeffects of disasters in pursuit of safer communitiesand sustainable development.” To attain the goal ofa clean and green ASEAN, the Leaders furtheridentify, as one of the medium-term strategies andmilestones in pursuit of this goal, the prevention of“transboundary haze pollution as a result of landand/or forest fires through concerted national effortsand intensified regional action and internationalcooperation.”

Third, the ASEAN Community must addressadequately the worsening air pollution, noise andcongestion, lack of adequate infrastructures andwaste disposal and management in the urbanareas of most countries of the region resulting from,

among others, increasing energy and materialsconsumption, worsening traffic conditions, rapidindustrialisation, and uncontrolled rural-to-urbanmigration.

In pursuit of the goal of environmentalsustainability, the Vientiane Action Programme aimsto attain “zero waste and minimal impact on theenvironment, and promote business opportunitiesin environmental goods and services, throughrelevant environmentally sound technologies” aswell as ensure that “cities/urban areas in ASEANare environmentally sustainable, while meeting thesocial and economic needs of the people.” Indeedmuch of the environmental concerns related to theurban areas can be mitigated through the use andapplication of cleaner production technologies,sustainable transport systems, and environmentallysound energy systems.

Fourth, the ASEAN Community must reversethe trend of land degradation, deforestation,depletion of natural resources and loss ofbiodiversity in many countries of the region andpromote the conservation and sustainable use ofbiological and genetic resources.

The Leaders address this challenge extensivelyin their blueprint of the ASEAN Community. TheVientiane Action Programme lists the followingmedium-term strategies and milestones forpromoting environmental sustainability: (a) ensureASEAN’s rich biological diversity is conserved, andsustainably managed, and the benefits arising fromthese biological and genetic resources are fairlyand equitably shared toward enhancing social,economic and environmental well-being; (b) ensuresustainable management of land-based resourceswhile enhancing optimum agricultural production;and (c) promote the sustainable management offorest resources and critical ecosystems throughthe eradication of unsustainable practices as wellas strengthening the preservation and managementof the ASEAN Heritage Parks.

Fifth, the ASEAN Community must effectivelyprotect the region’s freshwater resources andmarine and coastal ecosystems.

To the same extent that the ASEAN Leadersare concerned with the integrity of the region’sterrestrial ecosystems, so are they concernedwith the quality and supply of the region’s



freshwater and the protection of its marine andcoastal resources. Accordingly, the Leadersdeclare in the Vientiane Action Programme theneed to: (a) promote sustainability of waterresources to ensure sufficient water quantity ofacceptable quality to meet the needs of thepeople of ASEAN in terms of health, food security,the economy and the environment, taking intoconsideration the strong linkage between water,health and poverty; and (b) ensure ASEAN’scoastal and marine environment are sustainablymanaged; representative ecosystems, pristineareas and species are protected; economicactivities are sustainably managed; and publicawareness of the coastal and marine environmentinstilled.

Sixth, the ASEAN Community must addressglobal environmental issues while at the same timeaddressing the immediate and pressing economic,social and environmental issues that confront eachcountry in unique and multifarious ways.

The ASEAN Leaders, in the Preamble of theVientiane Action Programme, acknowledge thatASEAN has to work within a new strategic contextsince the “global and regional economicenvironment has changed and is continuouslychallenged by new developments.” Consequently,in order to promote a clean and green ASEAN withfully established mechanisms for sustainabledevelopment, it is essential to “effectively addressglobal environmental issues without impinging oncompetitiveness, or social and economicdevelopment based on the principle of common butdifferentiated responsibility.”

Seventh, the ASEAN Community must furtherstrengthen regional institutional arrangements tomake them more effective in promotingenvironmental sustainability.

The Leaders of ASEAN have declared that “weshall strengthen further ASEAN’s institutionalframework both in terms of its structure and processto ensure that it is responsive to the challenges andneeds of moving towards an ASEAN Community,including in terms of coordination and efficiency aswell as in strengthening its ability to shape events inSoutheast Asia and beyond.” Accordingly, as part ofthe implementation mechanism of the VientianeAction Programme, the Leaders call for“strengthening existing institutions and, asnecessary, the establishment of appropriateinstitutional arrangements to facilitate coordinationamong the various implementing bodies and withexternal partners.”

The region faces many other challenges butthese seven are the most urgent if the envisionedASEAN Community is to promote environmentalsustainability. As the economic integration of theregion broadens and deepens resulting insustained economic growth, there will be need toreduce the resource intensities of both productionand consumption. The pressure on naturalresources deriving from these production andconsumption processes will have to be mitigatedand managed to ensure that they remain within thecarrying capacity of the natural environment. To thisend, the Vientiane Action Programme providesadequate answers.

And so the ASEAN Leaders have spoken. Theyare committed to a clean and green ASEANCommunity. Through the Vientiane ActionProgramme, they are determined to build acommunity of caring societies, manage the socialimpacts of economic integration, and – mostessential of all – promote environmentalsustainability. They have elaborated the neededmeasures and actions. The rest is up to the peopleof the region. Are we determined to do our share?

End Notes1 Daniel C. Esty et al. (2005), 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index: Benchmarking National Environmental

Stewardship (New Haven: Yale Centre for Environmental Law and Policy), p. 11. 2 Global Footprint Network (2006), “Ecological Footprint: Overview,”

< http://www.footprintnetwork.org/gfn _sub.php?content=footprint_overview > 22 Feb 2006. 3 Ibid.4 Evelyn Goh (2001), “The Hydro-Politics of the Mekong Rover Basin: Regional Cooperation and Environmental

Security,” in Non-Traditional Security Issues in Southeast Asia, eds. Andrew T.H. Tan and J.D. Kenneth Bautin(Singapore: Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies-Nanyang Technological University), p. 470.

5 Ibid., p. 483. 6 Ibid., p. 487.

Appendix

Appendix 1


ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

A

AAQMS Ambient Air Quality Monitoring StationsAATHP ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze PollutionACB ASEAN Centre for BiodiversityACC ASEAN Coordinating Centre for Transboundary Haze Pollution ControlACE ASEAN Centre for EnergyADB Asian Development BankAEC ASEAN Economic CommunityAEEAP ASEAN Environmental Education Action Plan AEEID ASEAN Environmental Education Inventory DatabaseAEG-CITES ASEAN Experts Group on CITESAEGE ASEAN Experts Group on the Environment AEY ASEAN Environment YearAFTA ASEAN Free Trade AreaAFP Asia Forest PartnershipAHP ASEAN Heritage ParksAIESC ASEAN Initiative on Environmentally Sustainable CitiesAIRBoards Air Quality Monitoring Display BoardsAKECOP ASEAN-Korea Environmental Cooperation ProjectAMC ASEAN Member CountryAMM ASEAN Ministerial MeetingAMDC ASEAN Millennium Development CompactAMME ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on the EnvironmentAMMH ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on HazeAMWQC ASEAN Marine Water Quality CriteriaAMRDPE ASEAN Ministers on Rural Development and Poverty EradicationAPFC Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission API Air Pollution IndexAPMI ASEAN Peatland Management InitiativeAQMN Air Quality Monitoring NetworkARCBC ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation ASC ASEAN Security CommunityASC ASEAN Standing CommitteeASCC ASEAN Socio-Cultural CommunityASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASEAN-WEN ASEAN Wildlife Enforcement NetworkASEP ASEAN Sub-regional Environmental ProgrammeASMA Alam Sekitar Malaysia Sdn. Bhd. ASMC ASEAN Specialised Meteorological CentreASOEN ASEAN Senior Officials on the EnvironmentASOEN-HTTF ASEAN Senior Officials on the Environment-Haze Technical Task ForceASOF ASEAN Senior Officials on ForestryAusAID Australian Agency for International DevelopmentAWGCME ASEAN Working Group on Coastal and Marine EnvironmentAWGESC ASEAN Working Group on Environmentally Sustainable CitiesAWGMEA ASEAN Working Group on Multilateral Environmental AgreementsAWGNCB ASEAN Working Group on Nature Conservation and BiodiversityAWGWRM ASEAN Working Group on Water Resources Management


Appendix I

B

BAN Basel Action NetworkBCRC-SEA Basel Convention Regional Centre for Training and Technology Transfer for Southeast

AsiaBDF Biodiesel FuelBIMP-EAGA Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines - East ASEAN Growth AreaBOD Biological Oxygen Demand

C

CBD Convention on Biological DiversityCBFM Community-based Forest ManagementCDM Clean Development MechanismCFC chlorofluorocarbonsCI Conservation InternationalCIFOR Centre for International Forestry ResearchCIS Commonwealth of Independent StatesCITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CMAC Cambodian Mine Action CentreCMAA Cambodian Mine Action and Victim Assistance AuthorityCMS Convention on Migratory SpeciesCOD Chemical Oxygen DemandCOP Conferences of the PartiesCSOs Civil Society OrganisationsCZERMP Coastal Zone Environmental and Resource Management Project CZM Coastal Zone Management

D

DDT dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethaneDIW Department of Industrial Works of ThailandDENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources of the PhilippinesDOE Department of Environment of MalaysiaDPT Diphteria, Pertussis and TetanusDTTS Deep Tunnel Sewerage SystemDWNP Department of Wildlife and National Parks of Malaysia

E

EDMU Environment and Disaster Management Unit of the ASEAN SecretariatEEZ Exclusive Economic ZoneEFB Empty Fruit BunchesEIA Environmental Impact AssessmentELS Energy Labelling SystemEMB Environmental Management Bureau of the PhilippinesEMRED Emission ReductionENB Earth Negotiations Bulletin ENCON Energy ConservationENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation EOS Earth Observing SystemESI Environmental Sustainability Index

Appendix I


F

FAO Food and Agricultural OrganizationFDI Foreign Direct InvestmentFDRS Fire Danger Rating SystemFSC Forest Stewardship Council

G

GDP Gross Domestic ProductGEC Global Environment CentreGEF Global Environment FacilityGHG Greenhouse Gas(es)GIS Geographic Information SystemGMOs Genetically-modified OrganismsGMS Geostationary Meteorological SatelliteGNP Gross National ProductGPS Global Positioning System

H

HDI Human Development IndexHDU Human Development Unit of the ASEAN SecretariatHIV/AIDS Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency SyndromeHPA Ha Noi Plan of ActionHSF Hanns Seidel FoundationHTTF Haze Technical Task Force

I

IAMME Informal ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on the EnvironmentIBA Important Bird AreaICM Integrated Coastal and Marine ManagementICZM Integrated Coastal Zone ManagementIFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IFF International Forest ForumIISD International Institute for Sustainable DevelopmentIMF International Monetary FundINBAR International Network on Bamboo and RattanIPF Inter-governmental Panel on ForestsIPCC Inter-governmental Panel on Climate ChangeITA Investment Tax AllowanceITTA International Tropical Timber AgreementITTO International Tropical Timber OrganizationIUCN World Conservation Union

J

JAEP Japan-ASEAN Exchange FundJAGEF Japan-ASEAN General Exchange Fund


Appendix I

M

MA Millennium Ecosystem AssessmentMAG Mine Advisory GroupMC&I Malaysian Criteria, Indicators, Activities and Standards of PerformanceMDG Millennium Development GoalsMEAs Multilateral Environmental AgreementsMEWR Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources of SingaporeMOE Ministry of the EnvironmentMONRE Ministry of Natural Resources and the EnvironmentMPA Marine Protected AreaMRT Mass Rapid TransitMSW Municipal Solid WasteMTOE Metric Tonnes of Oil EquivalentMTSTAT Multifunctional Transport SatelliteMTTC Malaysian Timber Certification CouncilMVA Manufacturing Value Added

N

NASA National Aeronautic and Space AdministrationNCE National Committee on Environment of Brunei DarussalamNDF Non-detriment Findings NEA National Environment Agency of SingaporeNEB National Environment Board of ThailandNEEC National Energy Efficiency CommitteeNFP National Forest ProgrammeNGO Non-Governmental OrganisationNICEM National Instrumentation Centre for Environmental ManagementNOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationNRES New and Renewable SourcesNRSE-SSN New and Renewable Sources of Energy - Subsector NetworkNRU Natural Resources Unit of the ASEAN Secretariat

O

ODS Ozone Depleting SubstancesOECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development ONEP Office of the National Environment Board of Thailand

P

PAs Protected AreasPCBs polychlorinated biphenylsPDF Project Development Facility PEMSEA Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East AsiaPHVA Population and Habitat Viability AnalysisPIC Prior Informed ConsentPM Particulate MatterPOME Palm Oil Mill EffluentPOPs Persistent Organic PollutantsPPP Purchasing Power Parity

Appendix I


PRB Population Reference Bureau PRESSEA Promotion of Renewable Energy Sources in Southeast AsiaPSI Pollutant Standards IndexPUB Public Utilities Board of Singapore

R

R&D Research and DevelopmentReFOP Regional Forest Programme for Southeast AsiaRE Renewable EnergyRECOFTC Regional Community Forestry Training Centre for Asia and the PacificRESCP Regional Environmentally Sustainable Cities ProgrammeRFA Regional Firefighting ArrangementRHAP Regional Haze Action Plan (ASEAN)RIA Roadmap for the Integration of ASEAN ROK Republic of Korea

S

SARS Severe Acute Respiratory SyndromeSBSTTA Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological AdviceSEC Singapore Environment CouncilSFM Sustainable Forest ManagementSGP Singapore Green PlanSoER State of the Environment ReportSOP Standard Operating ProcedureSPAE Strategic Plan of Action on the Environment of ASEANSPM Suspended Particulate MatterSSG Site Support GroupSSME Sulu-Sulawesi Marine EcoregionSTP Sewage Treatment Plant

T

TBCA Transboundary Conservation AreaTRIPs Trade-Related Intellectual Property RightsTSP Total Suspended Particulates

U

UN United NationsUNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and DevelopmentUNDESA United Nations Department for Economic and Social AffairsUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNEP/DTIE/IETC United Nations Environment Programme/Division of Technology, Industry and

Economics/International Environmental Technology CentreUNEP/GRID United Nations Environment Programme /Global Resource Information DatabaseUN-ESA United Nations Economic and Social Affairs UNESCAP United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the PacificUNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change


Appendix I

UNICEF United Nations Children’s FundUNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization UNU United Nations UniversityUS United StatesUSAID US Agency for International DevelopmentUXO Unexploded Ordnance

V

VAP Vientiane Action ProgrammeVOC Volatile Organic Compound

W

WB World BankWGABS Working Group on Access and Benefit SharingWHO World Health OrganizationWRI World Resources InstituteWRM Water Resources ManagementWRP Water Reclamation PlantWSSD World Summit on Sustainable DevelopmentWTO World Tourism OrganizationWTO World Trade OrganizationWWF World Wild Fund for Nature

Appendix II


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ARCBC (2004) ASEAN’s Greatest Parks: ASEAN Heritage Parks Programme. Edited by M. T.Uriarte and E. M. Lopez. Los Baños, Philippines: ASEAN Regional Centre forBiodiversity Conservation.

ASEAN, 1997 First ASEAN State of the Environment Report. Jakarta: the ASEAN Secretariat.

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ASEAN, 2002a ASEAN Report to the World Summit on Sustainable Development. Jakarta: theASEAN Secretariat.

ASEAN, 2002b ASEAN Achievements and Future Directions in Pollution Control. Bangkok,Thailand: Ministry of Science, Technology, and Environment.

ASEAN, 2003 Proceedings of Workshop on The ASEAN Peatland Management Initiative, Bogor,Indonesia, 16-17 October 2003. Jakarta: the ASEAN Secretariat

ASEAN, 2004 Vientiane Action Programme (VAP) 2004-2010. Jakarta: the ASEAN Secretariat

ASEAN, 2005a Proceedings of Second Workshop on the ASEAN Peatland Management Initiative,Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 24-26 May 2005. Jakarta: the ASEAN Secretariat

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Appendix II

Malaysia, 2006 Updated Data for Third SoER (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment: 5 October)

Myanmar, 2006 Updated Data for Third SoER (National Commission for Environmental Affairs: 25 August)

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B. Others

ADB, 2002 Southeast Asia Subregional Report for the World Summit on SustainableDevelopment. Manila: ADB

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ADB, 2005a Air and Noise Pollution from Tricycles: A Strategic Plan for Quezon City andPuerto Princesa City, Philippines. Manila: ADB.

ADB, 2005b Asian Development Outlook 2005. (downloaded from ADB)

Basel Convention Basel Convention: Global Trends in Generation and Transboundary Movements Secretariat, 2002 of Hazardous Wastes and Other Wastes. Châtelaine, Switzerland: Secretariat of

the Basel Convention.

Basel Convention, 2005 Ratification Status (downloaded from Basel Convention)

BirdLife International, Important Bird Areas in Asia (downloaded from Birdlife)2004a

BirdLife International, “Over Half of Asia’s Most Important Wildlife Sites Inadequately Protected” 2004b (downloaded from Birdlife)

Burke, Lauretta, et al., Reefs at Risk in Southeast Asia. Cambridge, UK: UNEP-WCMC. 2002

Appendix II


CITES, 2005 The CITES Appendices (downloaded from CITES)

ENB, 2002 “Summary of the Eighth Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties toRamsar Convention on Wetland: 18-26 November 2002,” (29 November 2002)

Elliott, Lorraine, 2001 “Regional Environmental Security: Pursuing a Non-Traditional Approach.” In Non-Traditional Security Issues in Southeast Asia. Edited by Andrew T. H. Tan and J.D. Kenneth Boutin. Singapore: Select Publishing Pte Ltd.

Esty, Daniel C. et al., 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index: Benchmarking National Environmental 2005 Stewardship. New Haven: Yale Centre for Environmental Law and Policy.

FAO, 2001, 2003, 2005b State of the World’s Forests. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of theUnited Nations

FAO, 2005a FAOSTAT Statistical Databases (downloaded from FAO)

FAO, 2005b “Environment, Women and Population: Interrelated Issues in Rural Developmentin Southeast Asia”, 4 Oct 2005. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of theUnited Nations

FAO, 2005c “Climate Change Threatens Crop Losses, More Hungry People” (downloadedfrom FAO)

FAO, 2006 Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005. Rome: Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations

FAO & CIFOR, 2005 Forest and Floods: Drowning in Fiction or Thriving on Facts? Bogor: CIFOR

Global Footprint Ecological Footprint: Overview (downloaded from Global Footprint Network)Network, 2006

Habito, Cielito F., et al., “An Assessment Study on the Progress of ASEAN Regional Integration: The Ha 2004 Noi Plan of Action toward ASEAN Vision 2020” (Final Report). REPSF Project No.

03/006b.

Goh, Evelyn, 2001 “The Hydro-Politics of the Mekong River Basin: Regional Cooperation andEnvironmental Security,” In Non-Traditional Security Issues in Southeast Asia.Edited by Andrew T. H. Tan and J. D. Kenneth Boutin. Singapore: SelectPublishing Pte Ltd.

Kyuma, Kazutake, 2003 “Soil Degradation in the Coastal Lowlands of Southeast Asia” (downloaded fromhttp://www.fftc.agnet.org/library/article/eb537.html#0)

Tacconi, L., 2003 Fires in Indonesia: causes, costs and policy implications. CIFOR occasional paperno. 38. Bogor: CIFOR

PRB, 2005 2004 World Population Data Sheet. Washington DC: Population ReferenceBureau

Ramsar Convention, The Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance (downloaded from2005a Ramsar Convention)

Ramsar Convention, Contracting Parties to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (downloaded from2005b Ramsar Convention)

Rotterdam Convention, Ratification Status (downloaded from Rotterdam Convention)2005c

Siegert, S.E., et.al., 2002 “The Amount of Carbon Released from Peat and Forest Fires in Indonesia during1997”. Nature 420: 61-65

Sodhi, N.S., et.al., 2004 “Southeast Asian Biodiversity: An Impending Disaster,” Trends in Ecology &Evolution, 19 December 2004: 654-660


Appendix ÎI

Srebotnjak, Tanja, 2005 The Performance of the ASEAN Member States in the 2005 EnvironmentalSustainability Index (ESI). A paper written for the Third SoER.

Stockholm Convention, Ratification Status (downloaded from Stockholm Convention)2005

UNAIDS, 2006 Overview of the Global AIDS Epidemic: 2006 Report on the Global AIDSEpidemic. (downloaded from UNAIDS)

UN-DESA, 2005a World Population Prospects: The 2004 Revision Population Database. August-September 2005. (Downloaded from UN-DESA)

UN-DESA, 2005b Millennium Indicators Database (Downloaded from UN-DESA)

UNDP, 2001-2005 Human Development Report, New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.

UNEP, 2003 “UNEP Congratulates ASEAN on Fire Haze Agreement: Thailand’s ratificationbrings ground breaking legal initiative into force” (downloaded from UNEP)

UNEP/EAP-AP, undated “Needs for Environmental Data Standards in State of the Environment Reporting”(downloaded from < www.grida.no/soe/iea/Purna/PDF-file/Data-standard-paper-Draft.pdf >)

UNEP-DTIE-IETC, 2004 State of Waste Management in South East Asia. Japan: United NationsEnvironment Programme-Division of Technology, Industry and Economics-International Environmental Technology Centre

UNEP-Ozone New Ozone-Depleting Substances That Have Been Reported by Parties Secretariat, 2003 (downloaded from UNEP-Ozone Secretariat)

UNESCAP, 2005 Economic and Social Survey of Asia and the Pacific 2005. New York: UNESCAP

UNESCAP et. al., 2005 A Future Within Reach: Reshaping Institutions in a Region of Disparities to Meetthe Millennium Development Goals in Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok: UnitedNations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific

UNESCO World State of World Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region 2003. Paris, France: UNESCOHeritage Centre, 2004 World Heritage Centre

UNESCO, 2005 World Heritage: list of parties (downloaded from UNESCO)

UNFCCC, 2005a UNFCCC: Status of Ratification (downloaded from UNFCCC)

UNFCCC, 2005b Kyoto Protocol: Status of Ratification (downloaded from UNFCCC)

World Bank, 2005 2005 World Development Indicators. Washington, DC: The WorldBank/International Bank for Reconstruction and Development

World Conservation The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (downloaded from IUCN)Union (IUCN), 2005

WHO, 2005 Global Environmental Change (downloaded from WHO)

WRI, 2005 Earthtrends: The Environmental Information Portal (downloaded from WorldResources Institute)

WTO, 2004 Tourism Highlights: Edition 2004. Madrid: World Tourism Organization

WWF, 2005 Heart of Borneo: Three Countries One Conservation Vision. (Brunei Darussalam,Indonesia and Malaysia)

Appendix II


C. A NOTE ON INTERNET WEBSITES USED

During the preparation of this Third ASEAN State of the Environment Report, a considerable amount ofinformation was downloaded from the following websites:

Organisation/Website Internet Address Information downloaded

ASEAN Centre for Energy www.aseanenergy.org energy data

ASEAN Environmental Education http://aeeid.aseansec.org environmental educationInventory Database

ASEAN Haze Action Online www.haze-online.or.id haze

ASEAN Regional Centre for www.arcbc.org.ph terrestrial ecosystemsBiodiversity Conservation (ARCBC)

ASEAN Specialised Meteorological http://app.nea.gov.sg hotspot countsCentre

ASEAN Secretariat www.aseansec.org various topics

Asian Development Bank (ADB) www.adb.org social development, economicdevelopment

BirdLife International www.birdlife.org bird areas

Conservation International (CI) www.conservation.org biodiversity

Convention on International Trade in www.cites.org species of animalsEndangered Species

Department of Environment, Malaysia www.doe.gov.my various topics of Malaysia

Food and Agriculture Organization www.fao.org fisheries, forestry, water resources

Global Footprint Network www.footprintnetwork.org ecological footprints

IUCN cat Specialist Group http://lynx.uio.no terrestrial ecosystem

Ramsar Convention website www.ramsar.org wetlands

Secretariat of the Vienna Convention http://ozone.unep.org ozone depleting cfc

United Nations – Economic and Social www.un.org/esa various dataDevelopment

United Nations Development www.undp.org human development, social Programme (UNDP) development

United Nations Economic and Social www.unescap.org social developmentCommission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP)

United Nations Educational and www.unesco.org/whc world heritageCultural Organisation (UNESCO)

United Nations Environment www.unep.org various topicsProgramme (UNEP)

World Bank (WB) www.worldbank.org various topics

World Resources Institute – http://earthtrends.wri.org Environmental data and trendsEarthTrends


Appendix III

Members

1. Brunei DarussalamH.E. Pehin Dato Haji Abdullah BakarMinister of Development

H.E. Dato Seri Setia Dr. Awang Haji Ahmad binHaji JumatMinister of Development(until 9th AMME, 11th AMMH and 1st COP)

H.E. Pg. Indera Wijaya Pg. Dr. Hj. Ismail binPg. Hj. DamitMinister of Development(until 6th IAMME)

2. CambodiaH.E. Dr. Mok MarethSenior Minister, Minister for the Environment

3. IndonesiaH.E. Rachmat WitoelarMinister for Environment

H.E. Nabiel Makarim, MPAMinister for Environment(until 8th IAMME, 11th AMMH and 1st COP)

H.E. Sonny KerafMinister for Environment(until 6th IAMME)

4. Lao PDRH.E. Prof. Dr. Bountiem PhissamayMinister to Prime Minister’s Office andPresident of Science, Technology and theEnvironment Agency

H.E. Prof. Dr. Souli NanthavongMinister of Science, Technology and Environment(until 6th IAMME)

5. MalaysiaH.E. Dato’ Seri Adenan SatemMinister of Natural Resources and theEnvironment

H.E. Dato’ Seri Law Hieng DingMinister of Science, Technology and Environment(until 7th IAMME and 9th AMMH)

6. MyanmarH.E. Win AungChairman of National Commission forEnvironmental Affairs and Ministry of ForeignAffairs

Scheduled ASEAN Meetings on the Environment: 2001 – 2005

1. ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on the Environment

2. ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Haze

3. Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution

27 September 2005 9th Informal ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Environment Philippines

13 October 2004 8th Informal ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Environment Singapore

16 – 18 December 2003 9th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Environment Myanmar

20 – 21 November 2002 7th Informal ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Environment Lao PDR

15 – 16 May 2001 6th Informal ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Environment Cambodia

10 November 2004 11th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Haze Viet Nam

04 March 2003 10th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Haze Cambodia

11 June 2002 9th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Haze Kuala Lumpur

11 November 2004 1st Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the ASEAN Viet NamAgreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution

Appendix III


7. PhilippinesH.E. Michael T. DefensorSecretary, Department of Environment andNatural Resources

H.E. Elisea G. GozunSecretary, Department of Environment andNatural Resources (until 9th AMME and 10th AMMH)

H.E. Heherson T. AlvarezSecretary, Department of Environment andNatural Resources (until 6th IAMME)

8. SingaporeH.E. Dr. Yaacob IbrahimMinister for the Environment and WaterResources

H.E. Lim Swee SayMinister for the Environment (until 9th AMME, and 10th AMMH)

9. ThailandH.E. Yongyut TiyapairatMinister of Natural Resources and Environment

H.E. Suwit KhunkittiMinister of Natural Resources and Environment(until 8th IAMME, 11th AMMH and 1st COP)

H.E. Prapat PanyachatiraksaMinister of Natural Resources and Environment(until 9th AMME and 10th AMMH)

H.E. Sontaya KunplomeMinister of Science, Technology and theEnvironment(until 6th IAMME)

10. Viet NamH.E. Mai Ai TrucMinister of Natural Resources and Environment

H.E. Prof. Chu Tuan NhaMinister of Science, Technology and theEnvironment(until 6th IAMME)

11. ASEAN SecretariatH.E. Ong Keng YongSecretary-General of ASEAN

H.E. Rodolfo C. SeverinoSecretary-General of ASEAN(until 7th IAMME and 9th AMMH)

4. Plus Three Environment Ministers Meeting

28 September 2005 4th ASEAN Plus Three Environment Ministers Manila

14 October 2004 3rd ASEAN Plus Three Environment Ministers Singapore

19 December 2003 2nd ASEAN Plus Three Environment Ministers Myanmar

21 November 2002 1st ASEAN Plus Three Environment Ministers Lao PDR

Members

People’s Republic of ChinaH.E. Xie ZhenhuaMinister of State for Environmental ProtectionAdministration

JapanH.E. Ms. Yuriko KoikeMinister for Environment

Republic of KoreaH.E. Kyul-Ho KwakMinister of Environment

5. ASEAN Senior Officials on the Environment (ASOEN)

16 – 18 August 2005 16th ASEAN Senior Officials on the Environment Malaysia

03 – 05 August 2004 15th ASEAN Senior Officials on the Environment Lao PDR

07 – 09 July 2003 14th ASEAN Senior Officials on the Environment Indonesia

17 – 19 July 2002 13th ASEAN Senior Officials on the Environment Cambodia

03 – 04 August 2001 12th ASEAN Senior Officials on the Environment Bandar Seri Begawan


Appendix III

Members

1. ASOEN ChairmanMr. Hj. Mohd. Said bin Pehin Dato Hj. HashimPermanent Secretary, Ministry of DevelopmentBrunei Darussalam

Dr. Tran Hong HaDirector-General, Viet Nam EnvironmentalProtection AgencyMinistry of Natural Resources and Environment Viet Nam (until 16th ASOEN)

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc SinhDirector-General, National EnvironmentAgency, Ministry of Science, Technology andEnvironment, Viet Nam (until 14th ASOEN)

Mr. Sunthad SomchevitaPermanent-Secretary Ministry of Science, Technology andEnvironment(until 13th ASOEN)

2. Brunei DarussalamMr. Hj. Mohd. Said bin Pehin Dato Hj. HashimPermanent Secretary, Ministry of Development

Mr. Hj. Mohd. Jumin MarsalPermanent Secretary, Ministry of Development(until 15th ASOEN)

Mr. Pg. Hj. Kamarulzaman bin PPSDSB Pg. Haji AliActing Permanent Secretary, Ministry ofDevelopment (until 13th ASOEN)

Dato’ Hj. Zakaria bin Hj. NoordinPermanent Secretary, Ministry of Development(until 12th ASOEN)

3. CambodiaDr. Lonh HealTechnical Director-General, Ministry ofEnvironment

Mr. Khieu MuthDirector-General, Ministry of Environment(until 14th ASOEN)

4. Indonesia Ms. Liana BratasidaAssistant to the Minister for GlobalEnvironmental Affairs and InternationalCooperation, Ministry of the Environment

Mr. Aboejoewono AboeprajitnoAssistant Minister for Global Environment Affairs, Ministry of the Environment(until 14th ASOEN)

Mr. Effendy A. SoemardjaAssistant Minister for Global Environment Affairs, Ministry of the Environment(until 12th ASOEN)

5. Lao PDRMr. Soukata Vichit Director-General, Department of Environment, Science Technology and Environment Agency

6. MalaysiaDato’ Dr. Isahak Yeop bin Mohamad Shar Secretary General Ministry of Natural Resources and theEnvironment

Dato’ Leong Ah HinSecretary General, Ministry of Science,Technology and the Environment(until 14th ASOEN)

7. MyanmarU Than SweSecretary, National Commission forEnvironmental Affairs Director-General, Ministry of Forestry

U Thaung TunSecretary, National Commission forEnvironmental Affairs Director-General, Ministry of Forestry(until 15th ASOEN)

U Aung BwaSecretary, National Commission forEnvironmental Affairs(until 14th ASOEN)

U Thane MyintSecretary, National Commission forEnvironmental Affairs(until 13th ASOEN)

U Kyaw Tint SweSecretary, National Commission forEnvironmental Affairs(until 12th ASOEN)

8. PhilippinesMr. Demetrio L. Ignacio, Jr.Undersecretary for Planning and Policy, Department of Environment and NaturalResources (DENR)

9. SingaporeMr. Tan Yong SoonPermanent Secretary, Ministry of theEnvironment and Water Resources

Appendix III


Mr. Lam Chuan LeongPermanent Secretary, Ministry of theEnvironment (until 14th ASOEN)

Mr. Tan Gee PawPermanent Secretary, Ministry of theEnvironment (until 12th ASOEN)

10. ThailandMr. Petipong Pungbun Na AyudhyaPermanent Secretary, Ministry of NaturalResources and Environment

Mr. Plodprasop SuraswadiPermanent Secretary, Ministry of NaturalResources and Environment(Until 14th ASOEN)

Mr. Sunthad SomchevitaPermanent-Secretar Ministry of Science,Technology and Environment(until 13th ASOEN)

11. Viet NamDr. Tran Hong HaDirector-General, Viet Nam Environmental Protection Agency, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc SinhDirector-General, National EnvironmentAgency, Ministry of Science, Technology andEnvironment, Viet Nam (until 14th ASOEN)

12. ASEAN SecretariatDr. Raman LetchumananHead, Environment and Disaster ManagementUnit Bureau for Resources Development

6. Plus Three Senior Officials on the Environment

19 August 2005 2nd ASEAN Plus Three Senior Officials on the Environment Malaysia

06 August 2004 1st ASEAN Plus Three Senior Officials on the Environment Lao PDR

Members

People’s Republic of ChinaMs. Fang LiDirectorRegional Environment Cooperation Division,International Cooperation Department, StateEnvironmental Protection Administration (SEPA)

Mr. Qinghua XuDirector General State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA)(until 1st Plus Three SOME)

JapanMr. Naohisa OkudaSenior Policy Coordinator, Global EnvironmentBureau, Ministry of Environment

Mr. Taku OhmuraDeputy DirectorPolicy and Coordination DivisionGlobal Environment BureauMinistry of the Environment(until 1st Plus Three SOME)

Republic of KoreaDr. Lee Minho, Director of International Affairs Division,International Cooperation Bureau, Ministry ofEnvironment

Mr. Young-Woo ParkDirector GeneralInternational Coordination BureauMinistry of Environment(until 1st Plus Three SOME)

7. ASOEN-Haze Technical Task Force

16 November 2005 22nd ASOEN Haze Technical Task Force Brunei Darussalam

8 – 9 November 2004 21st ASOEN Haze Technical Task Force Viet Nam

27 – 28 February 2003 20th ASOEN Haze Technical Task Force Philippines

10 June 2002 19th ASOEN Haze Technical Task Force Malaysia

14 May 2001 18th ASOEN Haze Technical Task Force Cambodia

Appendix III

Members

1. Chairperson ASOEN-HTTFMs. Liana BratasidaAssistant to the Minister for GlobalEnvironmental Affairs and InternationalCooperation, Ministry of the Environment, Indonesia

Mr. Effendy A. SoemardjaAssistant Minister for Global Environment Affairs, Ministry of the Environment, Indonesia(until 18th HTTF)

2. Brunei DarussalamHj. Mohd. Said bin Pehin Dato Hj. HashimPermanent Secretary Ministry of Development

3. CambodiaDr. Lonh HealTechnical Director-GeneralMinistry of Environment

4. Lao PDRMr. Soukata VichitDirector GeneralDepartment of Environment Science Technology and Environment Agency

5. MalaysiaDato’ Dr. Isahak Yeop bin Mohamad Shar Secretary General Ministry of NaturalResources and the Environment

6. MyanmarU Thaung TunSecretaryNational Commission for Environmental Affairs, Director-General, Political DepartmentMinistry of Foreign Affairs

7. PhilippinesMr. Demetrio L. Ignacio, Jr.Undersecretary for Planning and PolicyDepartment of Environment and NaturalResources (DENR)

8. SingaporeMr. Tan Yong SoonPermanent SecretaryMinistry of the Environment and WaterResources

9. ThailandMr. Petipong Pungbun Na AyudhyaPermanent SecretaryMinistry of Natural Resources and Environment

10. Viet NamDr. Tran Hong HaActing Director-GeneralViet Nam Environmental Protection AgencyMinistry of Natural Resources and Environment

11. ASEAN SecretariatDr. Raman LetchumananHead, Environment and Disaster Management UnitBureau for Resources Development


8. Working Group on Coastal and Marine Environment (AWGCME)

11 – 12 July 2005 7th ASEAN Working Group on Coastal and Marine Environment Malaysia

22 – 23 June 2004 6th ASEAN Working Group on Coastal and Marine Environment Indonesia

11 – 12 June 2003 5th ASEAN Working Group on Coastal and Marine Environment Cambodia

09 – 10 July 2002 4th ASEAN Working Group on Coastal and Marine Environment Viet Nam

10 – 11 July 2001 3rd ASEAN Working Group on Coastal and Marine Environment Brunei Darussalam

Members

1. Chairman of AWGCMEProf. Dr. Nguyen Chu HoiInstitute of Fisheries Economics and PlanningMinistry of Fisheries, Viet Nam

Mr. Jarupong Boon-LongDeputy Director-GeneralPollution Control DepartmentThailand(until 3rd AWGCME)

2. Brunei DarussalamMr. Hj Mohd Zakaria bin Hj SarudinDirectorDepartment of Environment, Parks & RecreationMinistry of Development

3. CambodiaMr. Vann MonyneathDeputy DirectorDepartment of Nature Resource Assessmentand Environment Data ManagementMinistry of Environment

Appendix III


4. IndonesiaMs. Liana BratasidaAssistant to the Minister for GlobalEnvironmental Affairs and InternationalCooperation, Ministry of the Environment

Mr. Aboejoewono AboeprajitnoAssistant Minister for Global Environment Affairs, Ministry of the Environment(until 6th AWGCME)

Mr. SudariyonoDeputy Assistant Minister for Marine Resources Ministry of the Environment(until 3rd AWGCME)

5. Lao PDRMr. Soukata VichitDepartment of Environment Science Technology and Environment Agency

6. MalaysiaDato’ Dr. Isahak Yeop Mohamad SharSecretary GeneralMinistry of Natural Resources and theEnvironment

Dato’ Leong Ah HinSecretary-GeneralDepartment of Environment(until 6th AWGCME)

Mr. Ng. Kam CiuSecretary-GeneralMinistry of Science, Technology and theEnvironment(until 3rd AWGCME)

7. MyanmarDr. Swe ThwinProfessor, Department of Marine ScienceUniversity of MawlamyineMinistry of Education, Mawlamyine

8. PhilippinesMr. Lorendo BaranganDirector, Coastal and Environment ProgramDepartment of Environmental and NaturalResources

Dr. Ramon J.P. PajeUndersecretary for Policy and TechnicalServices, Department of Environmental andNatural Resources(until 3rd AWGCME)

9. SingaporeMr. Koh Kim HockDeputy DirectorInternational Relations DepartmentMinistry of the Environment

Mr. Chua Yew PengDeputy DirectorInternational Relations DepartmentMinistry of the Environment(until 6th AWGCME)

Mr. Khoo Seow PohHead, International Environment and PolicyDepartmentMinistry of the Environment(until 3rd AWGCME)

10. ThailandDr. Pornsook ChongprasithMarine Environment Division DirectorPollution Control Department

Dr. Supat WangwongwatanaDeputy DirectorPollution Control Department(until 6th AWGCME)

Mr. Jarupong Boon-LongDeputy Director-GeneralPollution Control Department(until 4th AWGCME)

11. Viet NamProf. Dr. Nguyen Chu HoiInstitute of Fisheries Economics and PlanningMinistry of Fisheries


9. Working Group on Multilateral Environmental Agreements (AWGMEA)

18 – 19 May 2005 9th ASEAN Working Group on Multilateral Environmental Agreements Cambodia

04 – 06 May 2004 8th ASEAN Working Group on Multilateral Environmental Agreements Brunei Darussalam

24 – 28 March 2003 7th ASEAN Working Group on Multilateral Environmental Agreements Malaysia

27 – 28 June 2002 6th ASEAN Working Group on Multilateral Environmental Agreements Viet Nam

02 – 03 October 2002 5th ASEAN Working Group on Multilateral Environmental Agreements Singapore

27 – 28 March 2001 4th ASEAN Working Group on Multilateral Environmental Agreements Thailand


Appendix III

Members

1. Chairperson of AWGMEAMs. Liana BratasidaAssistant to the Minister for GlobalEnvironmental Affairs and InternationalCooperation, Ministry of the Environment

Mr. Loh Ah TuanDirector General (Environmental Protection)National Environment Agency,Singapore(until 8th AWGMEA)

Ms. Hj. Rosnani IbarahimDirector GeneralDepartment of Environment, Malaysia(until 5th AWGMEA)

2. Brunei DarussalamMr. Hj Mohd. Zakaria Bin Hj SarudinDirector, Department of Environment, Parksand Recreation, Ministry of Development

3. CambodiaMr. Ma Chan SetheaChief of ASEAN OfficeMinistry of Environment

Mr. Pao SophalAssistant to the Minister for Planning,Cooperation and ASEAN AffairsMinistry of Environment(until 8th AWGMEA)


Mr. Aboejoewono AboeprajitnoAssistant Minister for Global Environment Affairs, Ministry of the Environment, (until 7th AWGMEA)

Mr. Effendy A. SumardjaAssistant Minister for Global Environment Affairs, Ministry of the Environment, (until 5th AWGMEA)

5. Lao PDRMd. Keobang A. KeolaDeputy Director GeneralDepartment of Environment Science, Technology and Environment Agency

Mr. Soukata VichitDirector GeneralDepartment of EnvironmentScience, Technology and Environment Agency(until 6th AWGMEA)

6. MalaysiaMs. Hj. Rosnani IbarahimDirector GeneralDepartment of EnvironmentMalaysia

7. MyanmarMrs. Yin Yin LayJoint Secretary/ DirectorNational Commission for Environmental AffairsMinistry of Forestry

8. PhilippinesMr. Demetrio L. IgnacioUndersecretary for Policy and PlanningDepartment of Environment and NaturalResources (DENR)

Dr. Ramon J.P. PajeUndersecretary for Policy and PlanningDepartment of Environment and NaturalResources (DENR)(until 5th AWGMEA)

9. SingaporeMr. Loh Ah TuanDirector General (Environmental Protection)National Environment Agency, Singapore

Mr. Khoo Seow PohHeadInternational Environment and PolicyDepartment Ministry of the Environment(until 5th AWGMEA)

10. ThailandMrs. Wantanee PetchampaiEnvironmental Specialist, Office of International Cooperation on NaturalResources and Environment

Mr. Chalermsak WanichsombatDeputy Permanent SecretaryMinistry of Natural Resources and Environment(until 8th AWGMEA)

Dr. Wanee SamphantharakDeputy Secretary GeneralOffice of Environmental Policy and Planning(until 6th AWGMEA)

11. Viet NamMr. Nguyen Minh CuongOfficer, Vietnam Environmental Protection Agency(VEPA)Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

Mr. Nguyen Thi ThoDeputy Head,National Environment AgencyMinistry of Science, Technology and Environment(until 8th AWGMEA)

Appendix III


Dr. Nguyen Ngoc SinhDirector-General,National Environment AgencyMinistry of Science, Technology andEnvironment(until 6th AWGMEA)


10. Working Group on Nature Conservation and Biodiversity (AWGNCB)

21 – 23 June 2005 15th ASEAN Working Group on Nature Conservation and Biodiversity Thailand

16 – 18 June 2004 14th ASEAN Working Group on Nature Conservation and Biodiversity Philippines

13 – 15 Aug 2003 13th ASEAN Working Group on Nature Conservation and Biodiversity Singapore

17 – 18 July 2001 11th ASEAN Working Group on Nature Conservation and Biodiversity Malaysia

Members

1. Chairperson of AWGNCB Dr. Theresa Mundita S. LimDirector, Protected Areas and Wildlife BureauDepartment of Environment and NaturalResources, Philippines

Mr. Wilfrido S. PolliscoDirector, Protected Areas and Wildlife BureauDepartment of Environment and NaturalResources, Philippines(until 13th AWGNCB)

Dr. Reynaldo C. BayabosDirectorProtected Areas and Wildlife BureauDepartment of Environment and NaturalResources, Philippines(until 11th AWGNCB)

2. Brunei DarussalamMs. Martinah Haji TamitSenior Environment Officer, Department ofEnvironment, Parks and Recreation,Environmental Planning and ManagementDivision, Ministry of Development

3. CambodiaMr. Pisey OumDeputy Director Ministry of Environment

Mr. Pao SophalAssistant to the MinisterPlanning, Cooperation and ASEAN AffairsMinistry of Environment(until 14th AWGNCB)

4. IndonesiaMr. Adi Susmianto, Msc.Director, Biodiversity Conservation, Directorate General for Forest Protection andNature Conservation, Ministry of Forestry

Mr. Widodo S. RamonoDirector, Biodiversity ConservationDirectorate General for Nature Protection andConservation, Ministry of Forestry(until 14th AWGNCB)

5. Lao PDRMr. Bouaphanh PhanthavongHead of Technical UnitDepartment of ForestryDivision of Forest Resources Conservation(until 14th AWGNCB)

6. MalaysiaMs. Goh Siok EngDeputy DirectorConservation and Environmental ManagementDivisionMinistry of Science, Technology andEnvironment

7. MyanmarMr. Htun Paw OoDirector Nature and Wildlife Conservation Division, Forest Department

Mr. Khin Maung ZawDirectorNature and Wildlife Conservation DivisionForest Department(until 14th AWGNCB)

8. SingaporeDr. Lena Chan Assistant Director (Biodiversity Centre)Singapore Botanic Gardens National Parks Board

9. ThailandMs. Nisakorn KositratnaOffice of Natural Resources and EnvironmentalPolicy and Planning


Appendix III

Dr. Srisuda JarayabhandSenior Environment OfficerOffice of International Cooperation on NaturalResources and EnvironmentMinistry of Natural Resources and Environment(until 13th AWGNCB)

Dr. Saksit TridechSecretary-GeneralOffice of Environmental Policy and Planning(until 12th AWGNCB)

10. Viet NamMr. Le Xuan CanhDirectorInstitute of Ecology and Biological Resources

Dr. Vu Quang ConDirector Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources(until 12th AWGNCB)


11. Working Group on Environmentally Sustainable Cities (AWGESC)

28 – 29 June 2005 3rd ASEAN Working Group on Environmentally Sustainable Cities Viet Nam

20 – 21 July 2004 2nd ASEAN Working Group on Environmentally Sustainable Cities Thailand

25 – 26 June 2003 1st ASEAN Working Group on Environmentally Sustainable Cities Singapore

Members

1. Chairperson of AWGESCMr. Loh Ah TuanDeputy CEO/Director-General for Environmental ProtectionNational Environment Agency, Singapore

2. Brunei DarussalamMr. Hj. Mohd. Zakaria Hj. SarudinDirector, Department of Environment, Parksand Recreation, Ministry of Development

Mr. Hj. Mohd. Jumin bin Hj. MarsalPermanent SecretaryMinistry of Development(until 2nd AWGESC)

3. CambodiaDr. Lonh HealChairman ASOEN – CambodiaTechnical Director-GeneralMinistry of Environment Department of Planning & Legal AffairsMinistry of Environment

Mr. Khieu MuthDirector GeneralDepartment of Planning and Legal AffairsHead of ASEAN UnitMinistry of Environment(until 2nd AWGESC)

4. IndonesiaMr. Mohammad HelmyAssistant Deputy Domestic Waste and Small Scale EnterprisePollution ControlMinistry of the Environment

Ms. Liana Bratasida Chairman ASOEN – IndonesiaAssistant to the Minister for GlobalEnvironmental Affairs and InternationalCooperation, Ministry of the Environment(until 2nd AWGESC)

Mr. Aboejoewono AboeprajitnoAssistant to the Minister forGlobal Environment AffairsMinistry of the Environment(1st AWGESC)

5. Lao PDRMr. Soukata VichitChairman ASOEN – Lao PDRDirector General Department of EnvironmentScience, Technology and Environment Agency

6. MalaysiaDato’ Hajah Rosnani IbarahimDirector GeneralDepartment of EnvironmentMinistry of Natural Resources and theEnvironment

Dato’ Dr. Isahak Yeop Mohamad SharSecretary-GeneralMinistry of Natural Resources and theEnvironment(until 2nd AWGESC)

Appendix III


Dato’ Leong Ah HinSecretary-GeneralMinistry of Science, Technology and theEnvironment(1st AWGESC)

7. MyanmarMs. Yin Yin LayJoint Secretary/DirectorNational Commission for Environmental AffairsMinistry of Forestry

Mr. Thaung TunChairman ASOEN – MyanmarSecretaryNational Commission for Environmental Affairs(until 2nd AWGESC)

Mr. Thane MyintSecretaryNational Commission for Environmental Affairs(1st AWGESC)

8. PhilippinesMr. Demetrio L. Ignacio, Jr.Chairman ASOEN – PhilippinesUndersecretary for Planning and PolicyDepartment of Environment and NaturalResources (DENR)

9. ThailandMs. Usa KiatchaipipatDirectorUrban Environment and Area Planning DivisionOffice of National Resources andEnvironmental Policy and Planning

Dr. Plodprasop SuraswadiPermanent SecretaryMinistry of Natural Resources and Environment(until 2nd AWGESC)

10. Viet NamMs Nguyen Thi My HoangOfficerInternational Cooperation DivisionVietnam Environmental Protection AgencyMinistry of Natural Resource and Environment

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc SinhDirector GeneralNational Environment AgencyMinistry of Science, Technology and Environment(until 2nd AWGESC)


12. Working Group on Water Resources Management (AWGWRM)

01 September 2005 5th ASEAN Working Group on Water Resources Management Indonesia

22 October 2004 4th ASEAN Working Group on Water Resources Management Thailand

09 – 10 June 2004 3rd ASEAN Working Group on Water Resources Management Malaysia

21 – 22 November 2003 2nd ASEAN Working Group on Water Resources Management Thailand

28 – 29 January 2003 1st ASEAN Working Group on Water Resources Management Thailand

Members

1. Chairman of AWGWRM Mr. Sanong Chantanintorn Director GeneralDepartment of Water ResourcesMinistry of Natural Resources and Environment, Thailand

Mr. Kasem ChancharoonpongDirector GeneralDepartment of Water ResourcesMinistry of Natural Resources and Environment, Thailand(until 4th AWGWRM)

Mr. Surachai SasisuwanDirector GeneralDepartment of Water ResourcesMinistry of Natural Resources and Environment, Thailand(until 2nd AWGRM)

2. Brunei DarussalamMr. Hj Suhaimi bin Hj Ghafar Director of Water ServicesPublic Works Department

3. CambodiaMr. Am NorinDeputy DirectorDepartment of Water Resources Managementand ConservationMinistry of Water Resources and Metrology

4. IndonesiaDr. Ir. Sutardi, M.Eng (Mr)Head of Sub Directorate for HydrologyDirectorate General of Water ResourcesMinistry of Settlement and Infrastructure


Appendix III

5. Lao PDRMr. Chanthanet BoulaphaDeputy Director of Water ResourcesCoordination Committee Secretariat (WRCCS),Prime Minister OfficeScience, Technology and Environment Agency

6. MalaysiaDatuk Ir. Hj. Keizrul AbdullahDirector GeneralDepartment of Irrigation and DrainageMinistry of Natural Resources and Environment

7. MyanmarMr. Sein TunDeputy DirectorDirectorate of Water Resources andImprovement of River SystemsMinistry of Transport

8. PhilippinesMr. Ramon B. AlikpalaExecutive DirectorNational Water Resources Board

9. SingaporeMr. Chan Yoon KumDirectorWater DepartmentPublic Utilities Board

10. Viet NamDr. Nguyen Thai LaiDirector GeneralDepartment of Water Resources ManagementMinistry of Natural Resources and Environment


13. ASEAN Working Group on Sub-Regional Fire Fighting Arrangements(SRFA) for Borneo and Sumatra

14 November 2005 17th Joint Meeting of the Working Groups on Sub-Regional Brunei DarussalamFire-Fighting Arrangements (SRFAs) for Borneo and Sumatra

17 March 2005 16th Joint Meeting of the Working Groups on Sub-Regional Singapore Fire-Fighting Arrangements (SRFAs) for Borneo and Sumatra

22 – 23 July 2004 15th Joint Meeting of the Working Groups on Sub-Regional IndonesiaFire-Fighting Arrangements (SRFAs) for Borneo and Sumatra

22 – 23 April 2004 14th Joint Meeting of the Working Groups on Sub-Regional MalaysiaFire-Fighting Arrangements (SRFAs) for Borneo and Sumatra

31 July – 2 August 2003 13th Joint Meeting of the Working Groups on Sub-Regional IndonesiaFire-Fighting Arrangements (SRFAs) for Borneo and Sumatra

15 – 16 January 2003 12th Joint Meeting of the Working Groups on Sub-Regional Brunei Darussalam Fire-Fighting Arrangements (SRFAs) for Borneo and Sumatra

12 – 13 August 2002 11th Joint Meeting of the Working Groups on Sub-Regional SingaporeFire-Fighting Arrangements (SRFAs) for Borneo and Sumatra

21 May 2002 10th Joint Meeting of the Working Groups on Sub-Regional IndonesiaFire-Fighting Arrangements (SRFAs) for Borneo and Sumatra

1 March 2002 9th Joint Meeting of the Working Groups on Sub-Regional IndonesiaFire-Fighting Arrangements (SRFAs) for Borneo and Sumatra

6 September 2001 Informal Joint Meeting of the Working Groups on Sub-Regional IndonesiaFire-Fighting Arrangements (SRFAs) for Borneo and Sumatra

15 – 16 November 2001 8th Joint Meeting of the Working Groups on Sub-Regional Malaysia Fire-Fighting Arrangements (SRFAs) for Borneo and Sumatra

17 July 2001 Urgent Joint Joint Meeting of the Working Groups on Sub-Regional Video ConferenceFire-Fighting Arrangements (SRFAs) for Borneo and Sumatra

1 – 2 August 2001 7th Joint Meeting of the Working Groups on Sub-Regional Brunei Darussalam Fire-Fighting Arrangements (SRFAs) for Borneo and Sumatra

24 – 25 April 2001 6th Joint Meeting of the Working Groups on Sub-Regional MalaysiaFire-Fighting Arrangements (SRFAs) for Borneo and Sumatra

5 – 6 February 2001 5th Joint Meeting of the Working Groups on Sub-Regional SingaporeFire-Fighting Arrangements (SRFAs) for Borneo and Sumatra

Members

1. Chairperson of SRFA SumatraMr. Lee Heng KengDeputy Director-General for OperationsDepartment of Environment Malaysia

Dato’ Hajah Rosnani IbarahimDirector-GeneralDepartment of EnvironmentMalaysia(until 13th Joint SRFA)

2. Chairperson of SRFA BorneoMr. Hj. Mohd. Jumin bin Hj. MarsalPermanent SecretaryMinistry of DevelopmentBrunei Darussalam

Dato Paduka Hj. Zakaria Hj. Noordin Permanent SecretaryMinistry of DevelopmentBrunei Darussalam(until 13th Joint SRFA)


Mr. Effendy A. SoemardjaAssistant Minister for Global Environment Affairs, Ministry of the Environment(until Informal Joint SRFAs, 2001)

4. SingaporeMr. Chua Yew Peng Head, Planning and Development DepartmentNational Environment Agency

Mr. Joseph Hui Head, Planning and Development Department National Environment Agency (until 16th Joint SRFA)

Mr. Khoo Seow Poh Director, Corporate Communications andInternational Relations Division Ministry ofEnvironment (until 10th Joint SRFA)

5. ThailandMr. Petipong Pungbun Na AyudhyaPermanent SecretaryMinistry of Natural Resources and Environment (since 17th Joint SRFA)


Appendix III


14. Simulation Organising Committee (SOC)

15 – 16 March 2005 3rd Meeting of the Simulation Organising Committee Singapore

13 – 14 January 2003 2nd Meeting of the Simulation Organising Committee Brunei Darussalam

13 August 2002 1st Meeting of the Simulation Organising Committee Singapore

Members

1. Chairperson of SOCMs. Liana BratasidaAssistant to the Minister for GlobalEnvironmental Affairs and InternationalCooperation, Ministry of the Environment

2. Brunei DarussalamMr. Hj. Mohd Zakaria Hj SarudinDirectorDepartment of Environment Parks andRecreationMinistry of Development

3. MalaysiaMr. Lee Heng KengDeputy Director General for OperationDepartment of Environment Malaysia

4. SingaporeMr. Joseph Hui Head, Planning and Development DepartmentNational Environment Agency



Appendix III

Members

1. Chairperson of SRCRMr. Woon Shih LaiDirector, ASEAN Specialised MeteorologicalCentre (ASMC)Singapore

2. Brunei DarussalamMr. Muhamad Husaini AjiActing Chief Meteorological OfficerBrunei Meteorological Service

3. IndonesiaMr. Sri DihartoDirector-General Meteorological and GeophysicsIndonesia

4. MalaysiaDr. Lim Joo TickDirector-General, Malaysian MeteorologicalService Malaysia


15. Sub-Regional Climate Review Meeting (SRCR)

27 Aug 2002 8th Sub-Regional Climate Review Meeting (SRCR) Malaysia

24 May 2002 7th Sub-Regional Climate Review Meeting (SRCR) Philippines

1 April 2002 6th Sub-Regional Climate Review Meeting (SRCR) Singapore

Members

1. Chairperson of LGLEMs. Muslina SulaimanPrincipal Assistant Director,International Affairs UnitDepartment of Environment

2. Brunei DarussalamMr. Pg Shamhary Pg Dato Paduka HajiMustaphaEnvironment Officer, Environment Unit, Ministry of Development

3. IndonesiaMr. Antung Deddy Radiansyah Head of Centre for Emergency Response andReadiness for Environmental Disaster,Environmental Impact Management Agency(BAPEDAL)

4. SingaporeMr. Bin Chee KwanChief Engineer (Regional Policy)Ministry of the Environment

5. ASEAN SecretariatMs. Adelina KamalSenior Officer, Environment and DisasterManagementBureau for Resources Development

16. SRFA Legal group on Law and Enforcement (LGLE)

22 – 23 April 2001 2nd Meeting of Sub-Regional Fire-Fighting Arrangement Malaysia(SRFA) Legal Group on Law and Enforcement

Appendix IV


Preparation of the Third ASEAN State of the Environment Report

(A) Designated Focal Points

1. Brunei Darussalam Ms. Martinah Haji TamitSenior Environment OfficerDepartment of Environment, Parks andRecreationMinistry of Development

2. Cambodia Dr. Lonh HealTechnical Director-General, Ministry ofEnvironment

3. IndonesiaMs. Siti Aini HanumAssistant Deputy for Environmental Informationand DataCapacity Building and Technical InfrastructureDevelopment DivisionMinistry of Environment

4. Lao PDRMd. Keobang A. KeolaDeputy Permanent Secretary, Department ofEnvironment, Science Technology and Environment Agency

5. Malaysia Ms. Dalilah Binti DaliPrincipal Assistant DirectorDepartment of EnvironmentMinistry of Natural Resources and Environment

6. MyanmarMs. Yin Yin LayJoint SecretaryNational Commission for Environmental AffairsMinistry of Forestry

7. PhilippinesMr. Demetrio L. Ignacio, Jr.Undersecretary for Planning and Policy, Department of Environment and NaturalResources (DENR)

8. SingaporeMr. Koh Joon HongAssistant DirectorInternational Relations DivisionMinistry of Environment and Water Resources

9. ThailandMs. Duangmal SinthuvanichDirector, Monitoring and Evaluation DivisionOffice of Natural Resources and EnvironmentalPolicy and PlanningMinistry of Natural Resources and Environment

10. Viet NamDr. Tran Hong HaDirector-General, Viet Nam EnvironmentalProtection Agency, Ministry of NaturalResources and Environment

11. ASEAN SecretariatDr. Raman LetchumananHead of Environment and DisasterManagement Unit, Bureau for Resources Development


Appendix IV

(B) Planning and Review Meeting

First Task Force Meeting on the Third ASEAN State of the Environment Report (Penang, Malaysia, 15 August 2005)

Brunei Darussalam : Hj. Shaharudin Khairul Hj. Annuar

Indonesia : Ms. Liana Bratasida

Malaysia : Ms. Dalilah Binti Dali

Myanmar : Ms. Yin Yin Lay

Singapore : Mr. Koh Joon Hong

Thailand : Mrs. Wantanee Petchampai

ASEAN Secretariat : Ms. Wendy YapMr. Aprianto MasjhurMs. Vinca Safrani

Second Task Force Meeting on the Third ASEAN State of the Environment Report (Indonesia, 23 – 25 August 2006)

Cambodia : 1. Mr. Sreng Sophal2. Mr. Sam Thary

Indonesia : 1. Ms. Siti Aini Hanum2. Mrs. Murawani Nurfadilastuti

Lao PDR : 1. Mr. Kongsaysy Phommaxay2. Mr. Syamphone Sengchandala

Malaysia : 1. Ms. Dalilah Binti Dali2. Dr. Sivanathan Elagupillay

Myanmar : 1. Dr. San Win2. Ms. Kyi Kyi Myint

Singapore : 1. Mr. Koh Joon Hong2. Ms. Chan Yee Ping Jacin

Thailand : 1. Mr. Mingkwan Thornsirikul2. Mr. Rangsan Pinthong

Viet Nam : 1. Ms. Nguyen Thanh Nga2. Mr. Nguyen Van Thuy

ASEAN Secretariat : Dr. Raman Letchumanan (Chairman)Mr. Aprianto MasjhurMr. M. Tanzir WilsonMr. Susilo Ady KuncoroMr. Nyi Soe