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HYDROCARBON LIQUIDTRANSMISSION PIPELINE
AND STORAGE SYSTEMS -
DESIGN AND OPERATION
M. MohitpourM.S. Yoon
J.H. Russell
-ASl^EPRESS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xix
Accreditation xxi
Forewords xxii
Metric Conversion of Some Common Units xxv
Chapter 1 Introduction to Hydrocarbon Liquid Pipelines 1
1.1 Liquid Hydrocarbon Transportation System Scope 1
1.2 Hydrocarbon Liquid Pipelines 1
1.3 Liquid Pipeline Transportation Systems 3
1.4 Types of Transmission Pipelines 5
1.5 Liquid Petroleum Pipeline Networks 5
1.6 Single Versus Multiple Products Pipeline 11
1.6.1 Refined Petroleum Products 11
1.7 Liquid Pipeline Development History/Chronology 12
1.7.1 Historical Overview 12
1.7.2 Codes, Standards and Regulations (Addressing Liquid
Pipeline Design, Construction and Operation) 15
1.7.3 Codes 15
1.7.4 Regulations 16
1.8 Major Pipeline Facilities Layout 22
1.8.1 Pump Station 22
1.8.2 Metering/Measurement 22
1.8.3 Valve and Manifolds 26
1.8.3.1 Valves 26
1.8.3.2 Manifolds 27
1.9 General Pipeline Operations 28
Reference.1) 29
v
vi Table of Contents
Chapter 2 Hydrocarbon Liquid Properties 31
2.1 Hydrocarbon Liquids 31
2.2 Hydrocarbon Liquids Phase Behavior 32
2.2.1 Phase Diagram Determination 34
2.3 Properties of Petroleum Liquids 37
2.3.1 Mass, Volume, and Density 38
2.3.2 Density and Thermal Expansion 38
2.3.3 Compressibility, Bulk Modulus, and Thermal Expansion 38
2.3.3.1 Compressibility 38
2.3.3.2 Bulk Modulus K 39
2.3.3.3 Thermal Expansion 40
2.3.3.4 Calculating Bulk Modulus for Various Fluids 41
2.3.3.5 Other Techniques for Calculating Bulk Modulus 42
2.4 Specific Gravity and API Gravity 42
2.4.1 Specific Gravities of Blended Products 44
2.5 Viscosity, Newtonian Versus Non-Newtonian 45
2.5.1 Viscosity and Density Relationship 48
2.5.2 Viscosity of Blended/Diluted Liquids 48
2.5.2.1 (A) New Volume from Current Volume,
Current SG, and Target SG 48
2.5.2.2 (B) Viscosity Blending Calculation 48
2.5.3 Hydrocarbon Liquids Blending and Volume Shrinkage 49
2.5.4 Viscosity Determination 50
2.6 Pour Point and Viscosity Relationship 50
2.6.1 Reasons for Pour Point Determination 51
2.7 Vapor Pressure 52
2.7.1 True Vapor Pressure 52
2.8 Flash Point 55
2.9 Hydrocarbon Liquid Specific Heat Capacity 55
2.10 Thermal Conductivity 56
2.11 Effect of Hydrocarbon Liquid Properties on Measurement Systems 57
2.11.1 (a) Base Conditions 57
2.11.2 (b) Impact of Phase Change 57
2.11.3 Properties Important to Measurement Systems 57
2.11.4 Factors Affecting Measurement Accuracy 58
References 59
Chapter 3 System Hydraulics and Design 63
3.1 Fundamentals of Liquid Pipeline Hydraulics 63
3.1.1 Pipeline Flow Equations 63
3.1.1.1 Continuity or Mass Conservation Equation 64
3.1.1.2 Momentum Equation 64
Table of Contents vii
3.1.1.3 Energy Equation 67
3.1.1.4 Equation of State 68
3.1.2 Solution Methods 68
3.1.2.1 Method of Characteristics 69
3.1.2.2 Explicit Methods 69
3.1.2.3 Implicit Methods 69
3.1.3 Steady-State Solutions and Design Equations 70
3.1.3.1 Solution of Continuity Equation and
Volume Correction 71
3.1.3.2 Solution of Momentum Equation and Pressure
Profile Calculation 72
3.1.3.3 Solution of Energy Equation and Temperature
Profile Calculation 75
3.2 Design Process 83
3.2.1 Codes and Standards 83
3.2.2 Design Factors 84
3.2.2.1 Supply and Demand 84
3.2.2.2 Pipeline Route and Environmental Issues 85
3.2.2.3 Operating Parameters 86
3.2.2.4 Pipe Parameters 89
3.2.2.5 Pumping Parameters 93
3.2.2.6 Economic Factors 93
3.2.3 Hydraulic Design Procedure 96
3.3 Liquid Pipeline Design 98
3.3.1 Crude Oil Pipeline System — Isothermal Flow 99
3.3.2 Pipeline Configurations 104
3.3.2.1 Side Stream Delivery 105
3.3.2.2 Side Stream Injection 108
3.3.2.3 Pipeline in Series 112
3.3.2.4 Pipelines in Parallel 114
3.3.3 Severe Elevation Change — Slack Flow 115
3.3.4 Severe Weather Conditions 119
3.3.4.1 Pipeline in a Hot Environment 119
3.3.4.2 Pipeline in a Cold Environment 119
3.3.5 Batch Pipeline Hydraulics Design 120
3.3.6 High Vapor Pressure (HVP) Pipeline Design 122
3.3.7 Heavy Crude Pipeline Hydraulic Design 129
3.3.7.1 Determine the Physical Properties under
Pipeline Conditions 130
3.3.7.2 Determine the Pressure and Temperature throughoutthe Pipeline for the Anticipated Flow Rates 131
3.3.7.3 Review the Restart after Shutdown 132
3.3.7.4 Design Facilities 133
3.4 Locating Pump Stations 136
viii Table of Contents
Addenda to Chapter 3 144
A3.1 Temperature Calculation 144
A3.2 Erosional Velocity of Fluid 148
A3.3 Minor Pressure Losses 149
A3.4 Effect of Pressure and Temperature on Pipe Volume 154
References 157
Chapter 4 Pumps and Pump Stations 159
4.1 Introduction 159
4.2 Centrifugal Pumps 160
4.3 Centrifugal Pump Types 161
4.3.1 End Suction Single Stage Pumps 161
4.3.2 Vertical In-Line Single Stage Pumps 161
4.3.3 Horizontal Axially Split Between-Bearing Single-Stage Pumps 161
4.3.4 Horizontal Axially Split Between-Bearing Multi-Stage Pumps 161
4.3.5 Double-Case (Can) Vertically Suspended Volute Pumps 162
4.4 Pump Selection and Sizing 164
4.4.1 Pump Performance 164
4.4.1.1 Pump Performance Curves 165
4.4.2 Service Conditions 165
4.4.3 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) 167
4.4.3.1 Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHR) 167
4.4.3.2 Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) 168
4.4.4 Specific Speed 169
4.4.5 Suction Specific Speed 170
4.4.6 Pump Performance Curve Characteristics 171
4.4.7 Centrifugal Pump Power and Efficiency 172
4.4.8 Performance Modifications for Varying Pipeline Applications 172
4.4.9 Cavitation 176
4.4.10 Viscous Hydrocarbon Behavior in Pumps 180
4.4.11 Temperature Rise 181
4.4.12 Minimum Flow 182
4.5 Pump Specification and Purchase 182
4.5.1 Pump Data Sheets 182
4.6 Retrofitting Centrifugal Pumps for Changing Service Conditions 183
4.6.1 Reduced Pipeline Throughput 183
4.6.2 Increased Pipeline Throughput 183
4.6.3 Affinity Laws 184
4.7 Pipeline Hydraulic Requirements 185
4.7.1 System Head Curves and Pump Operating Points 185
4.7.2 Hydraulic Performance in Batched Pipeline
Systems with Constant Speed Pumps 188
Table of Contents ix
4.7.3 Hydraulic Performance in Batched Pipeline Systemswith Variable Speed Pumps 189
4.7.4 Pump Configurations 190
4.7.4.1 Parallel Operation 190
4.7.4.2 Series Operation 192
4.8 Pump Drivers 192
4.9 Pump Station Design 195
4.9.1 Pump Station Diagram 196
4.9.2 Pump Station Piping 196
4.9.3 Control Valve and Sizing 197
4.9.4 Station Flow Recirculation 198
4.9.5 Pig Launcher and Receiver 199
4.9.6 Pump Station at a Tank Farm 200
4.9.7 Pump Station Heater 201
4.10 Pipeline System Control 202
4.10.1 Pump Station Operation 203
4.10.2 Pump Control Strategy 206
4.10.3 Station Control 207
4.10.3.1 Pump Station Valve Control 207
4.10.4Injection/Delivery Station Control 208
4.10.5 Pump Unit Control 208
4.10.6Throttling vs. Speed Controls 209
4.10.6.1 Throttling for Fixed Speed Pumps 210
4.10.6.2 Speed Control for Variable Speed Pumps 211
4.11 Station Electrical Control 213
4.11.1 Station Auxiliary Systems 213
4.11.2 Shutdown Modes 214
4.11.2.1 Emergency Shutdown System 214
4.12 Applicable Codes and Standards 215
References 215
Chapter 5 Pipeline Operation and Batching 217
5.1 Pipeline Operation 217
5.1.1 Pipeline System Operation 217
5.1.2 Concepts of Pipeline Transient Flow 220
5.1.3 Surge Control 228
5.1.3.1 Control Devices 230
5.1.3.2 Pump Unit and Pump Station Operations 231
5.1.3.3 Special Surge Relief Devices 234
5.1.4 Example of Pipeline Operation and Surge Control 236
5.1.4.1 Scheduled Pipeline System Start-Up 238
5.1.4.2 Scheduled Pipeline System Shutdown 240
5.1.4.3 Emergency Shutdown of the Pipeline System 242
X Table of Contents
5.1.4.4 Batch Operation 242
5.1.5 Transient or Surge Analysis 243
5.2 Liquid Batching Transportation 245
5.2.1 Types of Liquid Pipelines 245
5.2.2 Liquid Hydrocarbon Batching 245
5.2.3 Batched Product Pipeline Growth and Technique 247
5.2.4 Products Batching Definitions and Terms 248
5.2.4.1 Batch Sequencing 249
5.2.4.2 Batch Cycle/Slug 250
5.2.4.3 Buffers 250
5.2.4.4 Batching Travel Time 251
5.2.4.5 Batch Interface Marking and Detection 251
5.2.4.6 Batch Injection, Transportation, and Delivery 252
5.2.4.7 Batch Reporting 253
5.2.5 Minimum Batch Size 253
5.2.6 Crude Oil Contamination 254
5.2.6.1 Natural Crude 254
5.2.6.2 Synthetic Crude 254
5.2.6.3 Contamination Level 255
5.2.7 Interface-Volume Estimations 256
5.2.7.1 Batch Calculation and Tracking Example 258
5.2.7.2 Results 259
5.2.8 Batched Products Pipeline Design and Operational Issues 259
5.2.8.1 Design and Operational Issues 260
5.2.8.2 Operation and Control 262
5.2.8.3 Pipeline System Operation/Control 267
5.2.9 Practical Batch Operation in Real-Time 274
5.2.9.1 Batch Launch and Delivery 275
5.2.9.2 Launching and Delivery Operation 276
5.2.9.3 Batch Tracking 276
5.2.10Multiproduct Pipeline Batch Optimization 278
Addendum to Chapter 5 278
Pipeline System Surge Mitigation Equipment 278
A5.1 Flow Control Valves 279
A5.2 Check Valves 282
A5.3 Relief Valves 286
A5.4 Bursting/Rupture Disc 287
A5.5 Surge Diversion Valve 287
A5.6 Increasing Pipeline Diameter and/or Wall Thickness 288
A5.7 Variable Speed Drives and Soft Starters 288
A5.8 Valve Opening and Closure Times 289
A5.9 Surge Tanks 289
A5.10 Pump Bypass Check Valves 290
A5.ll Applications 290
References 292
Table of Contents xi
Chapter 6 Non-Conventional Hydrocarbon Liquids, Production,and Transportation 295
6.1 Heavy Oil Technology and Transportation 295
6.1.1 Background 295
6.2 Heavy Oil Types and Global Distribution 297
6.3 Heavy Oil Properties and Type 299
6.3.1 Types/Grouping 300
6.3.2 Oil Viscosity Prediction 301
6.4 Heavy Oils Transportation Technologies 302
6.4.1 Dilution 303
6.4.2 Upgrading/Partial Upgrading 304
6.4.3 Heating/Thermal Upgrading 305
6.4.4 Water Emulsion 307
6.4.5 Core Annular Flow (CAF) 308
6.4.6 Surfactant/Flow Improvers 309
6.4.7 Slurry Transportation 312
6.4.8 Comparison of Transportation Techniques 312
6.5 Heavy Crudes Properties for Pipeline Transportation 315
6.5.1 Grouping of Crudes and Designations 315
6.5.2 Typical Properties 316
6.6 Heavy Oil Pipeline Transportation Example—Role of
Design for Operational Control 317
6.6.1 Summary on Role of Design 317
6.6.2 Need for Transient Analysis 318
6.6.2.1 Information Required for Pipeline Dynamic Assessment 318
6.6.3 Surge Mitigation Methods 320
6.6.4 Code Requirement 321
6.6.5 Case Study—Application to a Heavy Oil Pipeline Projects 322
6.6.5.1 Fluid Properties 323
6.6.5.2 Simulation Model and Data 324
6.6.6 Batch MovementyTransient Simulation Time 327
6.6.7 Simulations Scenarios and Techniques 328
6.6.7.1 Time Steps and Pipe Segment "Knot Spacing" 328
6.6.7.2 Valve Closure and Station Shutdown Timing Sequence 329
6.6.8 Simulation Results 329
6.6.8.1 Effect of Valve Closures 329
6.6.8.2 Effects Due to Pump Stations Shutdown 330
6.6.8.3 Delivery Restriction (Zero Delivery) 332
6.6.8.4 Terminal PCV Closure 332
6.6.8.5 Effect of Minimum Flow Delivery at Maximum PumpStations Discharge Pressure—Line Packing Conditions 332
6.6.9 Conclusion 333
Addendum to Chapter 6 333
Heavy Oil Resources and Recovery Techniques 333
A6.1 Heavy Oil Resource Base 333
xii Table of Contents
A6.2 Bitumen and Heavy Oils Recovery/Extraction Techniques 336
A6.2.1 Extraction/Recovery Techniques 336
A6.2.2 Production Techniques Scope 339
A6.2.3 Recovery Techniques Summary 342
A6.2.4 Oil Reservoir Classifications 342
References 344
Chapter 7 Liquid Measurement 347
7.1 Introduction 347
7.2 Static Measurement 348
7.2.1 Tank Calibration 348
7.2.1.1 Manual Tank Strapping Method (MTSM) 348
7.2.1.2 Optical Reference Line Method (ORLM) 349
7.2.1.3 Optical Triangulation Method (OTM) 351
7.2.1.4 Electro-Optical Distance Ranging Method (EODRM) 353
7.2.2 Tank Capacity Tables 355
7.2.3 Liquid Calibration of Tanks 355
7.3 Tank Gauging 355
7.3.1 Manual Tank Gauging 355
7.3.2 Servo Tank Gauge 356
7.3.3 Radar Tank Gauge 357
7.3.4 Hybrid Tank Measurement Systems 358
7.3.5 Calculation of Tankage Volumes 359
7.4 Dynamic Measurement 361
7.4.1 Measurement Systems and Characteristics 361
7.4.2 Measurement Uncertainty 362
7.4.2.1 Quality of Liquids 364
7.4.2.2 Device Degradation 364
7.4.2.3 Operational Problems 365
7.4.2.4 Calibration 365
7.4.2.5 Transducer/Transmitter 365
7.4.3 Custody Transfer Requirements 365
7.4.4 Types of Meters 366
7.4.4.1 Positive Displacement Meters 366
7.4.4.2 Turbine Meters 368
7.4.4.3 Ultrasonic Meters 371
7.4.4.4 Coriolis Meters 373
7.4.5 Meter Selection 376
7.4.5.1 Meter Sizing 377
7.4.5.2 Instrumentation and Accessories 377
7.4.5.3 Flow Computers 379
7.4.6 Meter Station Design 380
7.4.6.1 Meter Station Components 381
Table of Contents xiii
7.4.6.2 Meter Run 382
7.4.6.3 Meter Provers 384
7.4.7 Prover Types 386
7.4.7.1 Tank Provers 386
7.4.7.2 Conventional Pipe Provers 386
7.4.8 Prover Calibration 390
7.5 Volume Accounting System 392
7.5.1 Ticketing Functions 393
7.5.2 Meter Ticket 394
7.5.3 Tank Ticket 395
7.5.4 Volume Tracking 396
7.5.5 Volume Calculation and Balancing 396
7.5.5.1 Volume Calculation 396
7.5.5.2 Meter Factor and Calibration 396
7.5.6 Determination of Liquid Volume 396
7.5.7 General Equations for Determining Liquid Volumes at
Base Conditions 397
7.5.8 Volume Balancing 399
Addendum: Standards Relevant to Liquid Petroleum Measurement 400
A7.1 American Petroleum Institute (API)—www.api.org 400
A7.2 ASTM International (American Standard for
Testing Materials)—http://www.astm.org 403
A7.3 American National Standards Institute/
American Society of Mechanical Engineers 403
A7.4 International Organization for Standardization (ISO)—
www.iso.org 403
References 405
Chapter 8 Hydrocarbon Petroleum Tankage and Terminal Design 407
8.1 Introduction and Overview 407
8.2 History and Reasons for Use 410
8.3 Products Stored and Properties 412
8.4 Types of Petroleum Storage Tanks 415
8.4.1 Definition and Classifications 415
8.4.2 Types 416
8.4.2.1 Fixed Roof Tanks 416
8.4.2.2 Floating Roof Tanks 419
8.4.3 Emission Control in Storage Tanks 428
8.4.3.1 Tank Rim Sealing Systems: Floating Roof Tanks 428
8.4.4 Tank Fittings and Appurtenances 435
8.5 Petroleum Storage Tanks Standards (For Design,
Operation, and Protection) 445
8.6 Regulations Affecting Terminal and Storage Facilities 450
xiv Table of Contents
8.7 Petroleum Storage/Terminal Design 452
8.7.1 Typical Layout and Spacing 452
8.7.2 Tank Design (Including Sizing, Materials, and Construction) 456
8.7.2.1 Design Data 456
8.7.2.2 Design Calculations 457
8.7.2.3 Tank Material 465
8.7.3 Civil Design 465
8.7.3.1 Tank Foundation 465
8.7.3.2 Types of Foundations 469
8.7.3.3 Bund Walls/Dikes 471
8.7.4 Fabrication and Welding 474
8.7.4.1 Tank Construction—Fabrication and Welding 474
8.7.4.2 Welding Techniques 476
8.7.4.3 Post Weld Heat Treatment of Welded Tanks Structures 482
8.7.4.4 Construction of Spheres 485
8.7.5 Mechanical/Piping Components and Instrumentation 485
8.7.5.1 Mechanical Appurtenances 485
8.7.5.2 Instrumentation and Controls 486
8.7.6 Tank Venting Emission Calculations 490
8.7.6.1 Total Losses from Fixed Roof Storage Tanks 491
8.7.6.2 Total Losses from Floating Roof Tanks 499
8.7.7 Operational Issues 500
8.7.8 Cathodic Protection of Above Ground Hydrocarbon
Storage Tanks 503
8.7.8.1 Definition of Corrosion 503
8.7.8.2 Corrosive Environment 503
8.7.8.3 Consequences of Corrosion 503
8.7.8.4 Types of Corrosion 506
8.7.8.5 Storage Tank Cathodic Protection 510
8.7.8.6 Above Ground Storage Tank CP System 517
8.7.8.7 Typical CP Installation for Above Ground
Storage Tanks 519
8.7.8.8 Applicable CP Standards 519
8.8 Tank Failures and Emergency Response 520
8.8.1 Tank Failures 520
8.8.1.1 Past Accidents 523
8.8.1.2 Causes of Tank Failure Hazards 524
8.8.2 Designing Tankage Systems to Minimize Hazards 528
8.8.2.1 Effective Steps 528
8.8.3 Design of a Foam System for Fire Protection of Storage Tanks 537
8.8.3.1 Identifying Flammable Liquid 537
8.8.3.2 Types of Foam Discharge Outlets 538
8.8.3.3 Foam System for Fire Protection of Storage Tanks 538
8.8.3.4 Foam Dam Design for Tanks 543
8.9 Emergency Response Planning and Facilities 543
Table of Contents xv
8.9.1 Planning for the Emergency 544
8.9.2 Responding to Oil Spill Emergencies 544
8.9.3 Tactical Priorities 545
8.9.4 Foam Application 545
8.9.4.1 Foam Supply 546
8.9.4.2 Water Supply 547
8.9.4.3 Exposure Protection 547
References 548
Chapter 9 Liquid Pipeline Operation 551
9.1 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) 551
9.1.1 Introduction 551
9.1.2 Pipeline System Monitoring and Control 554
9.1.3 Control Center and SCADA System 554
9.1.4 Data Communications 559
9.1.5 Data Management 562
9.1.6 Alarms 564
9.1.7 Human Machine Interface (HMI) and Reporting 566
9.1.8 Security 571
9.2 Overview of Pipeline Leak Detection System 572
9.2.1 Introduction 572
9.2.2 Overview of Leak Detection Techniques 576
9.2.2.1 Inspection Methods 576
9.2.2.2 Sensor Methods 577
9.2.2.3 Computational Pipeline Monitoring (CPM) Methods 579
9.2.3 Implementation and Operation 584
9.2.4 Leakage Response 587
9.2.5 Summary 587
9.3 Drag Reducing Agent (DRA) 587
9.3.1 Introduction 587
9.3.1.1 Drag Reduction Mechanism 588
9.3.1.2 Benefits of Using a DRA 589
9.3.2 DRA Characteristics and Performance 590
9.3.3 DRA Operations 590
9.3.3.1 DRA Facilities 590
9.3.3.2 DRA Injection 591
9.3.3.3 DRA Concentration Tracking 593
9.3.3.4 DRA Limitations on Operation and Design 593
9.3.4 DRA Correlations 594
9.4 Tank Farm Operation and Volume Measurement 596
9.4.1 Tank Farm Operation 597
9.4.1.1 Normal Batch Lifting Sequence at a Product
Lifting Tank Farm 597
9.4.1.2 Operation at the Delivery Terminal 598
xvi Table of Contents
9.4.1.3 Side-Stream Injection 598
9.4.1.4 Side-Stream Delivery 599
9.4.1.5 Break-Out Operation 599
9.4.1.6 Sump System 600
9.4.2 Tank Control 600
9.4.3 Tank Volume Measurement 602
9.4.4 Tank Inventory 602
9.5 Power Cost Control 603
9.5.1 Power Demand Control 604
9.5.2 Pump Unit Operating Statistics 604
9.5.3 Pump Station Monitoring 605
9.5.4 Power Optimization 606
References 608
Appendix Glossary of Terms and Acronyms 611
References 644
Index 645
