Hunger in Africa - The Responsibility to Cooperate - Final Version

8/3/2019 Hunger in Africa - The Responsibility to Cooperate - Final Version

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Table of Contents

Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................. 2

List of illustrations ................................................................................................................................... 3

List of abbreviations ................................................................................................................................ 4

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 5

Defining hunger ....................................................................................................................................... 8

Issue life cycle of Hunger ....................................................................................................................... 10

Literature review ................................................................................................................................... 12

Notes regarding the current literature .............................................................................................. 14

Responsibility attribution ...................................................................................................................... 16

Interests ............................................................................................................................................. 16

Trade-offs and paradoxes.................................................................................................................. 17

Responsibility .................................................................................................................................... 17

Responsibility for causes ................................................................................................................... 19

Partnerships .......................................................................................................................................... 21

The necessity of cooperation ............................................................................................................ 21

Current partnerships and initiatives .................................................................................................. 22

Effectiveness ...................................................................................................................................... 24

Leadership ............................................................................................................................................. 26

Desired leadership styles ................................................................................................................... 26

Limitations ............................................................................................................................................. 31

Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................... 32

Photo front page: Bryna (2011)


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Executive Summary

Currently an estimated 239 million people in sub-Saharan Africa suffer from hunger. With

30% of the population this is the worlds largest proportion. In this paper hunger is defined as

the state of persons, whose food intake regularly provides less than their minimum energy

requirements. As hunger is caused by an institutional void where clear rules and regulationsare lacking, it can be classified as an interface issue between market and civil society.

Even though hunger issue impacts the lives of many on a daily basis, the public

interest in the issue has been declining since 2008. This implies issue fatigue, which means

that people have seen so many similar affairs that they are no longer impressed by and

interested in news about the issue. The issue of hunger is thus in the post-maturity stage of the

issue life cycle.

According to academic literature there are various causes for hunger in Africa,

including low agricultural productivity, infectious diseases, natural disasters and war.

Scholars seem to largely disagree in regards to the causality between hunger and these causes,

as well as about the importance of each cause. Therefore it can be concluded that it is likely

that all the factors mentioned contribute to the issue to some degree.Literature falls short in assigning responsibility in regard to the issue and focuses more

on discussing causes and solutions. As hunger is an interface issue, it is implied that the

primary responsibility lies with the market and civil society. When looking at the separate

causes of hunger, however, it is noticeable that not only the market and civil society are

responsible, but also the state plays a major role. Therefore it can be concluded that all

societal spheres are responsible for hunger and should collectively contribute to a solution.

This notion can be supported by the fact that all three societal spheres have an interest

in resolving hunger. This implies that all three societal spheres also have an incentive to

contribute to the eradication of hunger, which is illustrated by various initiatives that are

undertaken by the state, market and civil society. All three actors do however also face trade-

offs, for example between the short term and the long term. This makes coming to a solution

more difficult, as each actor has its own interests in addition to its commitment to the cause.

Regardless of who holds responsibility, cooperation on global, national and local level

is necessary to solve such complex issues as world hunger. Not only because the

responsibilities cannot be clearly attributed to one societal sphere, but also because no sector

has sufficient resources and capabilities. Therefore it is no surprise that the use of partnerships

to solve issues like hunger is increasing. In order for a partnership to be optimally effective,

all partners need to share the analysis of the issue, the vision, and ambition. In the case of

hunger, the vision is shared, but the analysis and ambition are shared only partly between

different actors. There is therefore room for improvement.

Lastly, the literature shows that cooperation between the societal spheres andstructural change are necessary to resolve hunger. The leadership styles that match these

needs are connecting, transformational and collective leadership. We therefore conclude that

for leaders of all spheres these leadership styles are most important in solving the issue of

hunger.

It was concluded that an important barrier for increased effectiveness of partnerships

and for structural changes, is issue fatigue. This impedes the collective efforts of all three

societal spheres and results in the provision of only the most necessary aid. Therefore, the

issue of hunger should be reframed in a positive way, emphasizing the opportunities that exist

for all spheres in eradicating hunger. Transformational, connecting as well as collective

leadership are necessary to make structural changes and to bring together key people of all

spheres who can collectively solve the issue.


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List of illustrations

Table 1: Methodological information ...................................................................................... 10

Table 2: Causes that contributed to the peaks .......................................................................... 10

Table 3: Different causes of hunger in Africa .......................................................................... 12

Table 4: Responsibilities for the causes of hunger ................................................................... 19

Table 5: Partnerships in tackling the issue of hunger in Africa ............................................... 22

Table 6: Overview of leaders from each societal sphere ......................................................... 27

Figure 1: The Issue Life Cycle of Hunger (ILC)...................................................................... 10


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List of abbreviations

AAHM Alliance Against Hunger and Malnutrition

BAACH Business Alliance Against Chronic Hunger

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

FIVIMS Food Insecurity and Vulnerability Mapping Systems

IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development

IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute

ILC Issue Life Cycle

MDGs Millennium Development Goals

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

OPEC Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries

THP The Hunger Project

UN United Nations

UNICEF UnitedNations Childrens Fund

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UN CERF United Nations Emergency Response Fund

WEF World Economic Forum

WFP World Food Programme


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Introduction

No one really knows how many people exactly suffer from hunger, but the most recent

estimate by the FAO released in 2010 counts 925 million people being undernourished (FAO,

2010). This is 13.6 per cent of the estimated global population of 6.8 billion (World Hunger,

2011). Of this amount, around 239 million people live in sub-Saharan Africa, where they

suffer from acute, chronic or hidden hunger. Even though the number of undernourished

people in Africa is smaller than in Asia and the Pacific (578 million), with 30 per cent of the

population, the proportion is highest in the world (FAO, 2010)(see Factsheet: Hunger in

Africa below). Therefore the Millennium Declaration of the United Nations called for special

attention to Africa and its needs to develop (United Nations, 2000). Overall, to tackle the

issue of hunger in Africa and other continents, the target of Goal 1 of the United Nations

(UN) Millennium Development goals (MDGs) to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

envisions to reduce by half the proportion of people who suffer from hunger (UNDP, 2011).

However, so far, the goal has not been reached and the issue is not solved yet. It remains

very urgent as acute hunger crises, such as currently the famine in the Horn of Africa, show.

The cause of this crisis is the worst drought in 60 years which has hit the areas of northern

Kenya, south-eastern Ethiopia, southern Somalia and Djibouti, leading to 10 million people in

need of food aid (The Economist, 2011). These urgent crises are only the top of the iceberg

compared to the largely invisible problem of chronic hunger (Sanchez et al., 2005).

The aim of this paper is to provide insight in the issue of hunger and give suggestions on

the actions that could be taken to address the issue in de coming years. In order to do this

three questions have been developed that will be answered in this paper:

1. What are the causes of hunger and how are they linked to the responsibilities ofvarious stakeholders?

2. What are the current efforts that exist in addressing hunger?


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3. How should hunger be addressed in the coming years?The questions will be addressed by firstly looking at which societal sphere (governments,

firms, and/or civil society) holds responsibility and secondly by analysing initiatives and

partnerships where responsibility is being taken. Chapter one builds the basis for describing

the complexity of the issue by bringing the related keywords into a context. Moreover, these

keywords are analysed based on their presence in the media to depict the issue life cycle of

hunger and define the stage the issue is currently in. Chronic hunger for example receives

much less attention in the media than for example acute famines (Sanchez et al., 2005), which

are more prominently discussed. Chapters two and three depict how in literature scholars have

extensively discussed causes and have to a certain extent defined who holds responsibility in

solving them. Attributing the responsibility of stopping hunger can be done by linking

responsibilities to the many causes leading to not only acute hunger, as currently in the Horn

of Africa, but also to more long-term chronic hunger. Moving from the description of who

holds responsibility in solving this issue, the paper shifts to analysing current activities where

responsibilities are taken. Different actors have taken on leading roles in addressing the issue

and raising awareness, and others have formed partnerships to tackle the issue on a global,

national, and local level. However, as the current number of hungry people in Africa is not

declining and in many countries the MDGs are unlikely to be achieved, it is important to

continue looking for solutions. Therefore, this paper finishes with suggestions of directions in

which solutions should go.


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Note: The Global Hunger Index is composed of the proportion of the undernourished as a

percentage of the population, the prevalence ofunderweight children under the age of five

and the mortality rate of children under the age of five (calculated average, in percentage).

Factsheet: Hunger in Africa

Sources: WFPe 2010,

FAO 2010, IFPRC

2010

Global Hunger Index 2010
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underweighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_mortalityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_mortalityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underweight


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Defining hunger

There are several definitions of hunger and related concepts, such as malnutrition,

undernourishment, and food insecurity (FAO, 2011a). Hunger itself has been defined as an

uncomfortable or painful sensation caused by insufficient food energy consumption (FAO,

2011a). Taking into account that everyone feels hungry occasionally, in this context hunger

refers to the manifestation of hunger over a longer time period, also called chronic hunger or

undernourishment (FAO, 2011b). This is defined as The state of persons, whose food intake

regularly provides less than their minimum energy requirements. The average minimum

energy requirement per person is about 1800 kcal per day. The exact requirement is

determined by a persons age, body size, activity level and physiological conditions such as

illness, infection, pregnancy and lactation (FAO, 2011b). This definition already shows the

difficulties in measuring hunger (Mason, 2002; FAO, 2000a), which also results in the

diverging numbers of people suffering from hunger.

Of people suffering from hunger, 90 percent suffer from chronic hunger, and despite

the global attention during famines and starvations, this acute hunger only represents a small

part (Sanchez et al., 2005). The third type of hunger is hidden hunger (Sanchez et al., 2005)

and has been related to the term malnutrition, which is defined as a broad term for a range of

conditions that hinder good health, caused by inadequate or unbalanced food intake or from

poor absorption of food consumed (FAO, 2011b). This implies undernutrition (food

deprivation) as well as overnutrition (excessive food intake in relation to energy

requirements), characterized by an inadequate intake of protein, energy and micronutrients

(FAO, 2011a; FAO, 2011b). Malnutrition can be an outcome of food insecurity, but can also

be caused by insufficient health services or an unhealthy environment (FAO, 2011a;

UNICEF, 2002). Food insecurity again exists when people lack access to sufficient amounts

of safe and nutritious food (FAO, 2011b). As the opposite, food security, is defined as access


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to food at all times (World Food Summit, 1996), insecurity may also include the limited and

uncertain ability of securing food (Anderson, 1990). Not all people that are food insecure are

at that point hungry (FAO, 2011a) as food insecurity has other causes than direct hunger

(FAO, 2011a). Food insecurity can be chronic, seasonal or transitory (FIVIMS, 2011) and it

can occur at household, regional or national level.

As in the report of the United Nations MDGs (Sanchez et al., 2005) in this paper we

use the word hunger to encompass both food and nutritional insecurity. As this paper focuses

on hunger in Africa, overnutrition however is excluded.


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Issue life cycle of Hunger

An issue can be classified into different stages using the Issue Life Cycle (ILC) of the issue

hunger. An analysis of the ILC can help to see whether the issue is a growing topic in the

media. In order to create the ILC, the newspaper database LexisNexis was consulted. Some

methodological information can be found in table 1; the results of all the search attempts were

combined and are presented in Figure 1 and an analysis of the peaks in table 2.

Figure 1: The Issue Life Cycle of Hunger (ILC)

Table 1: Methodological information

Key words used Hunger and Africa, Famine, World Hunger

Worlds excluded drugs, feast, coal, mortgage, oil, energy, fuel, raw materials, rare earths

Analyzed newspapers Financial Times, New York Times, Washington Post, International Herald Tribune

Table 2: Causes that contributed to the peaks

Year of peak Causes that contributed to the peak

1985 Efforts of Band Aid (i.e. releasing the song Do they know its Christmas, Live Aid concertsetc.), (Financial Times, 1985)

1991/1992 Famine in Somalia

UN International Conference on Nutrition in Rome (Financial Times, 1992)

1997/1998 Amartya Sen, known for his work on famines, won a Nobel Prize (Financial Times, 1998)

Action related to the FAO World Food Summit of end 1996 (Financial Times, 1997)

2002/2003 Famines in North-Korea and Sudan

World Food Summit in June 2002 (Financial Times, 2002)

2005 Famines in Africa

Live 8 concert (BBC, 2006)

G8 summit (ibid)

2008 Famines in North-Korea, Somalia and ZimbabweIncreases impact of climate change and financial crisis

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

19

80

19

81

19

82

19

83

19

84

19

85

19

86

19

87

19

88

19

89

19

90

19

91

19

92

19

93

19

94

19

95

19

96

19

97

19

98

19

99

20

00

20

01

20

02

20

03

20

04

20

05

20

06

20

07

20

08

20

09

20

10

20

11

Number of Articles


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After 2008, media attention is declining, even though at the moment a major famine in the

horn of Africa is taking place. This implies issue fatigue, which means that people have seen

so many similar affairs that they are no longer impressed by and interested in news about the

issue (Schoonman, 1995; Van Tulder and van der Zwart, 2006). Especially in a time where

other issues such as the global economic situation and global warming seem to gain

importance, it is not surprising that an old issue like hunger moves to the background. We

therefore conclude that the issue hunger is in the post-maturity stage.

A potential problem with the ILC is that the newspapers that were chosen are all

English and have a primary focus on the West (in particular on the US since most newspapers

are American).Taking this into account, one has to be careful to generalize the results of the

ILC to other parts of the world other than the West (presumed that the US shares largely the

same interests as Europe).


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Literature review

In order to shed some light on the causes of hunger, a literature review is needed. The aim of

this literature review is to see how wide the explanations of hunger go and to what extent

there is consensus amongst scholars regarding this topic. Table 3 presents an overview of

different causes encountered.

In Africa, most agriculture is organized within family spheres and is on a small scale; rural

families are to some extent self-sufficient (Bryceson and Fonseca, 2006). The problem is that

people usually are unaware of specific techniques and knowledge to increase productivity

(Green, 1986). The agricultural productivity therefore is closely related to the issue of poverty

(Misselhorn, 2005). However, poverty is not taken as a separate cause of hunger, since many

authors treat hunger and poverty as a single issue: they represent different sides of the same

coin (Misselhorn, 2005; Sanchez et al., 2005; Sanchez and Swaminatha, 2005).

Other factors that contributed to hunger (and relate to productivity too) are a variety of

different infectious diseases (Sanchez et al., 2005). Bryceson and Fonseca (2006) mention

HIV/AIDS specifically as an important cause. In rural areas, AIDS is putting a heavy burden

on the local (family tied) workforce. With just a very thin labor force in operation, it is

Table 3: Different causes of hunger in Africa

Agricultural

productivity

Infectious

diseases

Politics War /

conflict

Infrastruct

ure

Socioeconomic

factors

Natural

disasters

Bryceson &

Fonseca(2006);

Green

(1986);

Sanchez &

Swaminatha

n (2005);

Sanchez et

al. (2005)

Bryceson

& Fonseca(2006);

Sanchez et

al. (2005)

Bryceson &

Fonseca(2006);

Clemens et

al. (2007);

Clover

(2003);

Green

(1986);

Misselhorn

(2005)

Baro &

Deubel(2006);

Clover

(2003);

Green

(1986)

Green

(1986);Sanchez et

al. (2005)

Bryceson &

Fonseca(2006);

Green

(1986);

Misselhorn

(2005); Sen

(1981);

Verdin et al.

(2005)

Baro &

Deubel(2006);

Green

(1986);

Misselhorn

(2005);

Verdin et

al. (2005)


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difficult to keep harvests at a constant output level, let alone increase them (Bryceson and

Fonseca, 2006).

Next to this, politics is an important aspect. This factor is a shared name for initiatives

which national and local governments have undertaken in order to address the issue, but also

includes corruption and kleptocracy. Green (1986) for instance, mentions the tendency to go

along with international fads. As a consequence, national-and local policies are introduced

or revoked at a pace nobody can adjust to, making the regulatory environment unfavorable for

development (Clemens et al., 2007; Misselhorn, 2005).

Closely related to politics is the factor of war/conflict. War and conflicts basically

knock out the entire production system in the area of impact causing immediate need for food,

water and supplies. According to some authors, conflicts can be seen as a direct cause of

hunger (Baro and Deubel, 2006). Others take a more cautious approach by naming it a factor

that has contributed to the issue (Clover, 2003; Green, 1986). It should be noted that these

conflicts do not have to be between nations. Severe civil unrest and ethnical conflicts are just

as well likely to emerge within a country or specific region (Green, 1986).

Moreover, infrastructure, or better the absence of it, contributes to the issue to some extent. In

this sense, infrastructure means the availability of transportation and storage, supply networks

and ease of access to remote areas (Sanchez et al., 2005). Additionally, Green (1986) includes

the effective use of inputs and production systems.

The socioeconomic factors are mainly trends on a national-or global level. One of the

main current shifts in rural Africa is that the emphasis on self-sufficiency is being pushed to

the background (Bryceson and Fonseca, 2006). Labor markets are equally changing: people

choose short term gains in favor of longer term sustainable options (Green 1986). Former self-

sufficient families for instance, might rent their land to others in exchange for money or

goods, but as a consequence they cannot use the land for farming purposes causing them to


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get into severe food problems (Bryceson and Fonseca, 2006). Finally, the price of food is a

major concern (Verdin et al., 2005; Sen, 1981). Food prices are often too high for ordinary

people and are therefore unable to buy food. This in turn is closely related to other issues such

as poverty (Misselhorn, 2005) and low agricultural productivity (e.g. Sanchez and

Swaminathan, 2005).

Lastly, natural disasters can cause hunger. Baro and Deubel (2006) argue that there is

a causal relationship between droughts in certain areas and the emergence of hunger in that

particular area. Verdin et al. (2006), Misselhorn (2005) and Green (1986) see natural disasters

only as a contributing factor to the issue, since they cannot be considered structural and are

manageable to some extent. In addition, natural disasters can be linked to global climate

change. The frequency with which natural disasters occur increases, as is their severity and

impact (van Aalst, 2006). This links the issue of hunger to global climate change and extreme

weather conditions that follow as a consequence (van Aalst, 2006).

As a conclusion it can be said that there is no clear answer yet as to what the main

cause of hunger is. It is likely that all the factors mentioned by the scholars to some degree

contribute to the issue. Therefore, most authors present multiple reasons for the existence of

hunger.

Notes regarding the current literature

The most important observation is that hunger is not a stand-alone issue. Many authors

believe that the issue of hunger is closely related to poverty, politics, war/conflicts and

climate change (Sanchez et al., 2005). This is important to realize since this implies that these

other issues have to be addressed as well when trying to tackle hunger. However, at the same

time it makes the issue of hunger far more complex than it might seem at a first glance.


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A possible weak point of the existing literature is that almost all authors share a similar

background: they were raised and educated in the developed Western world. Science, as most

people know it, is something developed and shaped mainly by Western cultures (Ogunniyi,

2007). However, the particular way ofWestern scientific thinking may not be appropriate in

all situations: another perspective taken on the same phenomena might generate different

outcomes (Ogunniyi, 2007). Regarding the issue of hunger, it is important to realize that this

literature overview represents a Western vision on the issue and therefore might not be

entirely complete. For instance, Holt-Gimnez and Patel (2009), state that hunger is a

distribution problem caused by capitalism.

Another possible problem might be that some authors (e.g. Baro and Deubel, 2006)

presuppose causality. This can be problematic in the case of conflicts as the cause of hunger.

Causality implies a temporal order: the cause must take place before the effect does (Hak,

2010). So in this case: conflicts lead to hunger. One can however, argue for a reversed

relationship: hunger leads to conflicts. Additionally, most other authors that used a

quantitative study only uncovered a statistical relationship. Most authors see all the causes as

contributing to the issue to some extent, instead of trying to identify one single cause.


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Responsibility attribution

Interests

All three societal spheres have a certain interest in resolving the issue of hunger. On national

level, it is in the interest of national governments to protect their people from hunger as

hunger reduces labor productivity (WFP, 2011c), can cause conflicts and unrest (Messer et al.,

1998), leads to migration, and reduces the population, (international) trade and global

economic competitiveness. On a global level it is in the interest of other governments as well

to prevent and stop hunger in the world as it impacts the global economy and political

stability.

The main interest that firms have for solving the issue is reputation and connected to

this, profits or prevention of losses. Taking social responsibility leads to a better reputation for

the firm and indirectly to financial value (Fombrun and van Riel, 2004; Fombrun and

Gardberg, 2000). The creation of future markets for the firms products (Newell and Frynas,

2007) is also of interest to firms. This is closely related to the idea that Africa represents a

huge potential market, called the bottom of the pyramid principle (Prahalad and Hammond,

2002). This concept might offer interesting opportunities for businesses, since addressing the

issue unleashes a large potential market. Lastly, if hunger is an issue among the employees or

potential employees of the company, fighting the issue may help to increase labor

productivity.

The primary interest of many NGOs in the issue of hunger lies primarily in upheaving

the living and health conditions in areas that suffer from this. Another interest of NGOs is to

create what Buttel (2000) calls: moral commitment and social activism to such an extent

that other actors will pay (more) attention to the issue. NGOs also try to increase attention

(campaign) for the often underestimated problem of chronic hunger, as now acute hunger has

a much stronger presence in the media and receives more funding (Loewenberg, 2010).


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Trade-offs and paradoxes

Though all actors have an interest in solving the issue, they also face certain trade-offs and

paradoxes.

National governments of developing countries face the trade-off of allocating financial

resources to shared public goods or food which is a private good. The trade-off further

extends between inferring or leaving the responsibility with the market and civil society.

On an international level, all governments face the trade-off of whether to allocate financial

resources to projects in their own countries or invest it in projects attempting to stop hunger in

other states.

Businesses are facing a paradox with profit maximization and hunger minimization on

the axes, as out-of-the-box solutions can lead to value creation for all parties involved. It is

however not always possible to create value and firms are also confronted with trade-offs. The

main trade-off exists between short term and long term profits. Solving hunger may lead to

higher long term profits due to productivity gains, economic development in the country and

reputational gains, but in the short term investments are needed.

Some NGOs seek cooperation among each other and with other actors in the field, in

particular with governmental institutions. As a consequence, at the level of the individual

actor, the NGO faces a trade-off between satisfying their own interests and satisfying the

interests of other actors (for instance governments/donors). Additionally, NGOs struggle with

the trade-off between short-and long term solutions. On the one hand they (and their

supporters) would like to see results within a limited amount of time, but it is hard to reach

structural and sustainable solutions on the short term.

Responsibility

There is limited information in the literature about the questions who is responsible for the

issue hunger. Most authors seem to focus on the causes and solutions of the issue. According


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to Baro and Deubel (2006) it is a responsibility of intergovernmental organizations and states

to guarantee human rights, including the right for food. They also mention that more research

needs to be done to assigning responsibility for the issue. Bryceson and Fonseca (2006) state

that human beings (i.e. civil society) are primarily responsible for the issue. They also

suggest, however, that it is more important to identify who is vulnerable and needs protection

than to assign responsibilities (ibid).

When it comes to responsibilities it is important to notice that hunger is an interface

issue between the market and civil society (Van Tulder and van der Zwart, 2006). Currently,

there are no rules of the game in place to manage/solve the issue, this is called an

institutional void (Van Tulder and Van der Zwart, 2006). This implies that these two

stakeholders are the main responsible for solving the issue. The states however, also take

considerable responsibility. We will shortly discuss the responsibilities of all three actors.

Since food is a private good and not a public good (Investopedia, 2011) the primary

responsibility is not held by the national governments or the intergovernmental institutions.

However, national governments are empowered by their people and need to act in the interest

of their people and take responsibility accordingly.

For firms it is important to distinguish between firms that play a major role in causing

hunger and thus hold direct responsibility and firms that are not related to the issue and

therefore do not hold responsibility. Firms that have caused hunger are for example chemical,

oil and mining companies that pollute the environment and make local food production

impossible or difficult. Companies of both types take some responsibility (the level of

responsibility differs of course per company).

As mentioned, civil society can be held responsible for the issue of hunger. NGOs

realize that civil society as a whole does not take up responsibility. Therefore, NGOs targeted

on combating hunger take up responsibility to only some extent: they realize that other actors


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are responsible too and should be involved as well. The main strategy of these NGOs is to

seek cooperation with other actors: equal partnerships and philanthropic partnerships are the

most likely options (Van Tulder, 2011). NGOs also tend to partner with other NGOs in

order to support each other and share resources when it comes to service delivery and

campaigning (Van Tulder and Meijs, 2011).

Responsibility for causes

In the previous paragraphs we have analyzed the responsibilities by looking at hunger as one

single issue. When we look at the different causes of hunger and the responsibilities that

stakeholders have in these causes (which are generally issues themselves), the image could be

different. We therefore analyze which actors are the main responsible for each cause. In Table

4 the issues related to each cause, the classification of each issue and the responsible

stakeholders are depicted.

Table 4: Responsibilities for the causes of hunger

Cause Issue Classification of the issue Responsible actorsLow agricultural

productivity

Productivity

Access to credit

Innovation

Education

Growth regime issue /

interface issue

State, civil society &

market /

State & civil society

Infectious diseases Health Interface issue Market & civil society

Politics Kleptocracy

Governance

Repressive regime

Primary responsibility issue State

War/conflict War

Civil war

Primary responsibility issue

Primary responsibility issue

State

Civil society

Infrastructure Infrastructure Primary responsibility issue State

Socioeconomic factors Income inequality

UnemploymentGender issues

Primary responsibility issue State

Natural disasters Climate change/ global

warming

Growth regime issue State, civil society &

market

(based on: Van Tulder and van der Zwart, 2006)

As it is difficult to determine the relative importance of each cause for the issue hunger, one

cannot just add up the number of times each stakeholder is responsible for a particular cause.

A conclusion that we can draw however, is that not only the market and civil society are

responsible for hunger as we stated earlier, but that a large role should be played by the state,


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as this actor is (partly) responsible for many of the individual causes of hunger. In looking for

a solution, one should therefore involve all three societal spheres.


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Partnerships

The necessity of cooperation

The causes of hunger are manifold and so are the initiatives to fight hunger with preventive

measures, tackling the causes of hunger and as relief activities after disaster situations. As the

responsibility of world hunger is shared, these activities are often initiated by entities of the

different societal spheres which engage in partnerships at global, national and local level

(Sanchez, 2005). Cooperation on all three levels, such as through cross-sector partnerships

(Googins and Rochlin, 2000), is necessary to solve such complex issues as world hunger

(Sachs, 2008). Not only are partnerships needed because the responsibilities cannot be clearly

attributed to one societal sphere, but also does no sector have sufficient resources and

capabilities to resolve such complex issues as hunger (Googins and Rochlin, 2000; Sachs,

2008). Partnering can moreover be seen as necessity to overcome the three forms of failure

(government failure, civil society failure, and market failure) which occur with unilateral

approaches to tackling development challenges such as hunger (Van Tulder and van der

Zwart, 2006).

Therefore finding ways to complement each other in competencies is crucial, as is the

necessity to clearly divide the roles and tasks (van Tulder, 2011 forthcoming). While

governments have already been active for some time in its cooperation with the market and

civil society sectors, corporations have only started to form partnerships with NGOs recently

and are now searching for effective ways to cooperate (Googins and Rochlin, 2000). This

progress in partnerships was also confirmed by UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan at the 2002

World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, where he stated that "The

summit represents a major leap forward in the development of partnerships, with the UN,

governments, business and civil society coming together to increase the pool of resources to

tackle global problems on a global scale" (UNDP, 2002). Yet governments, firms and NGOs


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can be active or rather reactive in their approach to partnering with other actors (Van Tulder,

2011 forthcoming).

Platforms such as the United Nations and the World Economic Forum (WEF) can be

seen as important to discuss and partner up for taking action in solving this global issue. Both

platforms have a global impact and draw considerable attention. As the WEF states, it aims at

bringing together all the different types of major stakeholders in global society to discuss

global issues and come up with ways of solving problems (Pigman, 2006).

Current partnerships and initiatives

Partnerships that have been built to tackle the issue of hunger are being created through such

platforms as the United Nations and the WEF. The current partnerships are being initiated and

led by the governmental sphere (WFP and FAO as UN agencies), the societal sphere (NGOs

as Action Against Hunger and the non-profit organization The Hunger Project), and the

market sphere (BAACH as an initiative of the WEF).

Table 5: Partnerships in tackling the issue of hunger in Africa

Government Market Civil Society Other

WFP

(See WFP,

2011a)

USA, Canada, Japan,

Australia etc.

TNT, Cargill,

Unilever, LG, etc.

Private donors and

NGOs (3000)

UN CERF, OPEC

fund, FAO,

IFAD, AfricanDevelopment

Bank

WEF- BAACH

(WEF, 2011a)

Government of

Kenya

General Mills,

Monsanto, TNT,

Nike, etc.

Local organizations -

FAO-AAHM

(AAHM, 2011)

Only at national or

local level

- NGOs such as

Oxfam

International,Caritas etc.

-

FAO-1 Billion

Hungry

(Website, 2011)

- Communication

companies

Initiative by the

FAO, supported

also by the WFP

-

Action Against

Hunger (Action

Against Hunger,

2011)

Institutional donors Hogan Lovells,

Carluccios,

Restaurant Magazine

etc.

Private donors,

foundations

-

The HungerProject (THP,

2011)

Various governments - Multiple other

NGOs

UNDP


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A small selection of the many partnerships with initiatives against hunger in Africa is

displayed in Table 5. Global initiatives of the WEF related to the issue of hunger include a

New Vision for Agriculture Initiative, which is led by the Consumer Industries Community of

the WEF (WEF, 2011b). 17 global companies of the WEF are engaged and provide strategic

leadership and championship of the initiative (WEF, 2011b). As for the efforts of the

national initiative in Kenya, the Business Alliance Against Chronic Hunger (BAACH) is a

public-private partnership managed by the WEF and the first private-sector-led alliance

focusing on hunger reduction and sustainable food production in Africa (WEF, 2011a).

The partnerships displayed in Table 5 however vary in their partnering activities and

the extent to which they actively incorporate partners. Whereas the BAACH is directly aimed

at finding business-led solutions to the issue together with the corporate partners (WEF,

2011a), Action Against Hunger only receives a small percentage (1.1 percent in 2010) of their

funding from corporate partners (Action Against Hunger, 2010). Also do the partnership

activities differ on a global, national or regional level, which also impacts the nature of the

partnership. The WFP is globally organized and has global partners on this level; however,

initiatives on national or local level are supported by local partners. The contributions of the

WFP are also divided to serve several programs. The majority goes to Protracted Relief and

Recovery Operations and emergencies (WFP, 2011b). Initiatives as the BAACH focus only

on tackling hunger in a region of Kenya (WEF, 2011a). Moreover are there three different

partnership rationales, bipartite (Public-Private Partnership), bipartite (for profit/ non-profit

partnerships), and tripartite partnerships which include all three actors (Van Tulder and Van

der Zwart, 2006). As one can see in Table 5, the latter is most occurring which is typical for

an interface issue as hunger occurring in an institutional void (Van Tulder and Van der

Zwart, 2006).


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Effectiveness

Global initiatives to end hunger can be traced back to FAOs Freedom from Hunger Camp aign

in 1960 (Gupta, 2003), and nowadays there exist many partnerships and initiatives to tackle the

issue of hunger. This integrated and cooperative approach is also what many see as necessary

in tackling the issue of hunger in Africa (Baro and Deubel, 2006). The consecutive question is

however whether they are effective in ending hunger in Africa.

To address this question, one can look at preconditions for success of NGO-business

partnerships as they have been identified by van Tulder (2011 forthcoming). First and foremost

the analysis, vision and ambition regarding the issue must be shared (Van Tulder, 2011

forthcoming). The problem is that different causes, their causality and their respective impact

on the issue of hunger are disputed and prevent a unified and standardized approach by the

different partnering entities (Global Issues, 2010). Therefore, the precise analysis of the issue

is not necessarily shared by all stakeholders involved. The partnering entities do share the

vision of eradicating extreme hunger in the world and have formulated or recognized the

MDGs. As for the shared ambition, the positions between the different actors in all three

spheres are divided and largely depend on the context and locality of the implementation of an

initiative. For example firms can have the incentive to engage in a partnership because they are

(partly) responsible for some of the causes of hunger, because they want to build relationships

with governments or actors in civil society, or in some cases also recognize the opportunities at

the bottom of the pyramid and the connected growth opportunities (Van Tulder, 2008).

Governments and civil society however do not necessarily share these ambitions. The fact that

the analysis and ambitions are shared only partly, impacts the effectiveness of partnerships

negatively (Van Tulder, 2011). This is however inherent to a complex issue as hunger and

effective partnerships are still possible when the partners realize the necessity to complement

each other effectively.


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Complementarity and the attribution of roles within a partnership is another element

contributing to the effectiveness of a partnership. According to the A New Vision for

Agriculture of the WEF (2011b), this attribution should be mainly based on the experience and

skills of the respective sphere. Also the FAO selects partners based on fit and

complementarity, specifically laying out the areas and principles of partnering with the

organization (FAO, 2000b). In order to do so however, it is necessary that all three spheres

work together to address such an interface issue as hunger, as otherwise one sector needs to

substitute the roles of the lacking one (Selsky and Parker, 2005) and is less effective.


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Leadership

The discussion on partnerships and their initiatives aimed at solving the issue of hunger does

not only involve the topic of partnerships and platforms such as the World Summit where

potential and existing partners meet. It also includes the topic of leadership, as leadership is

closely connected to human development (Safty et al., 2003). Effective leaders have the

ability to look beyond national or corporate interests at the larger picture of human

development. This also counts for corporate leaders who not only look at their business

models but at the global picture (ibid). Yet, in tackling the issue of hunger, important people

from all three societal spheres, have taken leadership in bringing attention to the issue and

partnering up with entities from the other spheres. As an example one can look at Peter

Bakker (market), Bob Geldof (civil society), and Kofi Annan (state) who all have taken a

leading and constructive role in the issue of hunger, however in different ways. Their role can

be analysed in terms of their background, their efforts in tackling the issue of hunger, and

their leadership style (see Table 6).

Desired leadership styles

In this part we will look at the leadership styles that we consider necessary and most effective

for solving the issue.

First of all there is a call for structural change in the literature (Bckstrand, 2006; Sanchez et

al., 2005). According to Bckstrand (2006, p. 191), intergovernmental diplomacy alone

cannot grapple with the pressing problems and complex dimensions of sustainable

development. Sanchez et al. (2005) also mention that policy reforms and other changes need

to take place in order to reach the first Millennium Development Goal. Transformational

leadership is the style that could achieve structural change, since this style is defined as a

leadership approach that causes change in individuals and social systems (Bass, 1998).

Transformational leaders search for out-of-the-box solutions and take a proactive approach.


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Table 6: Overview of leaders from each societal sphere

Sources: (Bass (1998); BoardEx (2011); Dubrin et al. (2006); Financial Times (1985); Kofi

Annan Foundation (2011); Leader Values (2011); Mirvis et al. (2006); TNT (2011); United

Nations (2011); Westley (1991); Westley and Mintzberg (1989); World Food Programme

(2011d))

In addition, the literature clearly shows that cooperation between societal spheres is

highly important to advance in the fight against hunger (Googins and Rochlin, 2000; Sachs,

2008). In practice however, parties often focus on their own interest and thus end up with sub-

optimal solutions, a so called prisoners dilemma (Van Tulder, 2011). Connecting the

different societal spheres and different stakeholders in the issue, could lead to improved

cooperation between them and to reaching optimal solutions. In order for this to happen,

connecting leaders need to establish the links between the different spheres and stimulate their

collective search for better solutions. In addition, transparency may be needed to stimulate

trust and display the real intentions of others.

Name Kofi Annan Peter Bakker Bob Geldof

Societal

sphere

State Market Civil society

Background Degrees in economics,

international affairs and

management.

Various roles in UN

UN Secretary-General

Business school

Worked in market sphere

CEO of TNT

No formal education

Difficult youth

Singer in Rock band

Initiatives Initiated reforms within UN

Brought attention to

development of AfricaSet up Kofi Annan Foundation

to promote food and nutrition

security.

Founder of the Alliance for a

Green Revolution in Africa

UN Ambassador Against Hunger

Initiator partnership TNT and

World Food ProgrammeAdvocate of partnerships between

private sector and humanitarian

world

Founder Band Aid

Organizer Live Aid and

Live 8 concertsOther initiatives against

hunger

Leadership

style

Transformational as UN

Secretary-General

Visionary and connecting

when related to the issue

Transformational within his role

as CEO of TNT

Steward leadership for

sustainable initiatives

Visionary leadership in

his quest against hunger

Motto Sure, we can! Feed the world!


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Closely connected to both transformational and connecting leadership is collective

leadership. The Collective Leadership Institute (2011) defines this leadership style as follows:

Collective Leadership for Sustainability is the capacity of a group of leaders to deliver their

contribution to a more sustainable future through assuming joint and flexible leadership in

service of the common good. At the core of collective leadership is the human capacity to

dialogue and transform differences into progress. It enables the transcendence of self-centered

views, a prerequisite for successfully addressing the challenges of globalization and

sustainability. This leadership style thus focuses on both cooperation and taking a

perspective beyond ones own interest on the one hand and transformation on the other hand

and could therefore be of great importance for solving the issue hunger.

Other leadership styles, such as responsible leadership and visionary leadership, can of

course also play a role in solving hunger. As both structural change and intense cooperation

are currently so important, we consider transformational, connecting and collective leadership

as the main priorities to focus on. These types are important to use in all three societal

spheres.


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Conclusion and suggestions

We have seen that the causes of hunger are manifold, making the issue very complex and

responsibility attribution disputed. No single cause can be defined and also is it impossible to

define a degree of impact of each cause that has been brought forward in literature. Even

though hunger is an interface issue between the market and civil society, it has become clear

that the state holds considerable responsibilities as well. With all three societal spheres

holding responsibility for solving the issue, it is therefore no surprise to see that current

efforts addressing hunger take place in partnerships and cooperative initiatives. They are

being initiated under the leadership of different organizations and institutions. These

collective efforts on global, national and local level are necessary and should be applauded;

however, the effectiveness is difficult to measure. Literature on this topic suggests that

partnerships with a shared vision, analysis and ambition will be most effective, and moreover

leadership taking in different styles contribute to the success of such partnerships.

The question remains however how the issue of hunger in Africa should be addressed

in the coming years in order to increase the effectiveness of the partnerships and initiatives,

and moreover to initiate crucial structural changes. It can be argued that the issue fatigue of

hunger in Africa is a barrier to the collective efforts of all three societal spheres, resulting in

the provision of only the most necessary aid in times of acute hunger as currently in the Horn

of Africa. These reactive and short-term actions of responsibility taking draw away the

attention from chronic hunger which is much more devastating and needs a long-term

structural approach. Therefore, the issue of hunger should be reframed within the coming

years to lead to a reincarnation of the issue. Reframing the issue needs to be however in a

positive way, emphasizing the opportunities at The Bottom of the Pyramid for companies,

the potential economic growth for national and international governments, as well as actors of

the civil society. It should be framed as a paradox, in a way that emphasizes the win-win


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situation of collective efforts to solve the issue. As the aim is structural change on a medium-

to long-term, a proactive approach by a transformational leader is necessary. An individual or

an organization of one sphere could take on this role of transformational leadership and the

other two spheres should consequently support and follow the initiative. Only in a partnership

with all three spheres the optimal progress can be made, therefore there is also an important

role for collective and connecting leaders to bring together key people from the three spheres

and create a shared analysis, vision and ambition. It should however be noted, that within the

partnerships complementarity and division of tasks is important for the success and

effectiveness of a cooperation, though structural rigidity needs to be prevented. The crucial

milestone in a few years will be whether or not individuals or organizations have been able to

form partnerships to initiate structural changes to the global system currently allowing an

institutional void for the issue of hunger.


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Limitations

This paper tried to address the issue of hunger by looking at Africa and the current efforts that

exist to solve the issue. However, this research has some limitations. First of all, we only

looked at the preconditions in organizational and procedural terms for creating solutions (e.g.

types of leadership and partnerships). The content of these solutions such as technological

innovations (e.g. genetically modified food and agricultural output enhancing techniques)

have been left out of the analysis. This might, however, be an interesting option and could

really contribute to fighting hunger.

Second, it proved hard (if not impossible) to quantify any of the causes in terms of the

most important cause of hunger. Future research should focus on this and try to uncover one

or two most influential factors that contribute to the issue. Another option might be, given the

disputed causes of hunger in the current literature, to study regions or countries and their

context to identify unique causes that lead to hunger. Because the causes are unclear, the

responsibility attribution is difficult.

Finally, leadership is very context specific. Many factors influence the effectiveness of

leadership. Therefore it is difficult to come up with clear and universal recommendations

regarding this. One should always consider the context when selecting a leadership style,

since different styles may be effective in different contexts.


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Documents

Hunger in Africa - The Responsibility to Cooperate - Final Version