Unit-IV

Chapter-10

Human Settlements

We all live in clusters of houses. You may call ita village, a town or a city, all are examples ofhuman settlements. The study of humansettlements is basic to human geographybecause the form of settlement in any particularregion reflects human relationship with theenvironment. A human settlement is defined asa place inhabited more or less permanently. Thehouses may be designed or redesigned,buildings may be altered, functions may changebut settlement continues in time and space.There may be some settlements which aretemporary and are occupied for short periods,may be a season.

CLCLCLCLCLASSIFICAASSIFICAASSIFICAASSIFICAASSIFICATION OF SETTLEMENTSTION OF SETTLEMENTSTION OF SETTLEMENTSTION OF SETTLEMENTSTION OF SETTLEMENTS

RURAL URBRURAL URBRURAL URBRURAL URBRURAL URBAN DICHOAN DICHOAN DICHOAN DICHOAN DICHOTTTTTOMYOMYOMYOMYOMY

It is widely accepted that settlements can bedifferentiated in terms of rural and urban, butthere is no consensus on what exactly definesa village or a town. Although population size isan important criterion, it is not a universalcriterion since many villages in denselypopulated countries of India and China havepopulation exceeding that of some towns ofWestern Europe and United States.

At one time, people living in villagespursued agriculture or other primary activities,but presently in developed countries, largesections of urban populations prefer to live invillages even though they work in the city. Thebasic difference between towns and villages isthat in towns the main occupation of the peopleis related to secondary and tertiary sectors,while in the villages most of the people areengaged in primary occupations such asagriculture, fishing, lumbering, mining, animalhusbandry, etc.

Sub Urbanisation

It is a new trend of people moving away from

congested urban areas to cleaner areas

outside the city in search of a better quality

of living. Important suburbs develop around

major cities and everyday thousands of

people commute from their homes in the

sub urbs to their work places in the city.

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Differentiations between rural and urbanon the basis of functions are more meaningfuleven though there is no uniformity in thehierarchy of the functions provided by rural andurban settlements. Petrol pumps are consideredas a lower order function in the United Stateswhile it is an urban function in India. Evenwithin a country, rating of functions may varyaccording to the regional economy. Facilitiesavailable in the villages of developed countriesmay be considered rare in villages of developingand less developed countries.

The census of India, 1991 defines urban

settlements as “All places which have

municipality, corporation, cantonment board

or notified town area committee and have a

minimum population of 5000 persons, at

least 75 per cent of male workers are

engaged in non-agricultural pursuits and a

density of population of at least 400 persons

per square kilometers are urban.

TYPES AND PATYPES AND PATYPES AND PATYPES AND PATYPES AND PATTERNS OF SETTLEMENTSTTERNS OF SETTLEMENTSTTERNS OF SETTLEMENTSTTERNS OF SETTLEMENTSTTERNS OF SETTLEMENTS

Settlements may also be classified by theirshape, patterns types. The major typesclassified by shape are:

(i) Compact or Nucleated settlements:

These settlements are those in whichlarge number of houses are built veryclose to each other. Such settlementsdevelop along river valleys and in fertileplains. Communities are closely knitand share common occupations.

(ii) Dispersed Settlements: In thesesettlements, houses are spaced farapart and often interspersed with fields.A cultural feature such as a place ofworship or a market, binds thesettlement together.

Fig. 10.2: Dispersed Settlements

Rural Settlements

Rural settlements are most closely and directlyrelated to land. They are dominated by primaryactivities such as agriculture, animalhusbandary, fishing etc. The settlements sizeis relatively small. Some factors affecting thelocation of rural settlements are :

Fig.10.1 : Compact Settlements

Fig. 10.3 : Siting near water

Water Supply

Usually rural settlements are located near waterbodies such as rivers, lakes, and springs wherewater can be easily obtained. Sometimes theneed for water drives people to settle in otherwisedisadvantaged sites such as islandssurrounded by swamps or low lying riverbanks. Most water based ‘wet point’ settlementshave many advantages such as water for

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drinking, cooking and washing. Rivers andlakes can be used to irrigate farm land. Waterbodies also have fish which can be caught fordiet and navigable rivers and lakes can be usedfor transportation.

Land

People choose to settle near fertile lands suitablefor agriculture. In Europe villages grew up nearrolling country avoiding swampy, low lyingland while people in south east Asia chose tolive near low lying river valleys and coastalplains suited for wet rice cultivation. Earlysettlers chose plain areas with fertile soils.

Upland

Upland which is not prone to flooding waschosen to prevent damage to houses and lossof life. Thus, in low lying river basins peoplechose to settle on terraces and levees which are“dry points”. In tropical countries people buildtheir houses on stilts near marshy lands toprotect themselves from flood, insects andanimal pests.

Building Material

The availability of building materials- wood,stone near settlements is another advantage.Early villages were built in forest clearings wherewood was plentiful.

Defence

During the times of political instability, war,hostility of neighbouring groups villages werebuilt on defensive hills and islands. In Nigeria,upstanding inselbergs formed good defensivesites. In India most of the forts are located onhigher grounds or hills.

Planned Settlements

Sites that are not spontaneously chosen byvillagers themselves, planned settlements areconstructed by governments by providingshelter, water and other infrastructures onacquired lands. The scheme of villagisation inEthiopia and the canal colonies in IndiraGandhi canal command area in India are somegood examples.

Rural Settlement Patterns

Patterns of rural settlements reflect the way thehouses are sited in relation to each other. Thesite of the village, the surrounding topographyand terrain influence the shape and size of avillage.

Rural settlements may be classified on thebasis of a number of criteria:

(i) On the basis of setting: The main typesare plain villages, plateau villages,coastal villages, forest villages anddesert villages.

(ii) On the basis of functions: There maybe farming villages, fishermen’s villages,lumberjack villages, pastoral villages etc.

(iii) On the basis of forms or shapes of the

settlements: These may be a numberof geometrical forms and shapes suchas Linear, rectangular, circular starlike, T-shaped village, double village,cross-shaped village etc.

(a) Linear pattern: In such settlementshouses are located along a road,railway line, river, canal edge of a valleyor along a levee.

(b) Rectangular pattern: Such patterns ofrural settlements are found in plainareas or wide inter montane valleys.The roads are rectangular and cut eachother at right angles.

In loess areas of China, cave dwellings wereimportant and African Savanna’s buildingmaterials were mud bricks and the Eskimos, inpolar regions, use ice blocks to construct igloos.

Fig. 10.4 : House on stilts

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(c) Circular pattern: Circular villagesdevelop around lakes, tanks andsometimes the village is planned in sucha way that the central part remains openand is used for keeping the animals toprotect them from wild animals.

(d) Star like pattern: Where several roadsconverge, star shaped settlements developby the houses built along the roads.

(e) T-shaped, Y-shaped, Cross-shaped or

cruciform settlements: T -shaped

settlements develop at tri-junctions of

the roads ( ) while -shaped

settlements emerge as the places wheretwo roads converge on the third oneand houses are built along these roads.Cruciform settlements develop on thecross-roads and houses extend in allthe four direction.

Fig.10.6 : Linear pattern settlement Fig.10.7 : Y shape settlement

Linear Pattern Cross-shape Pattern Star-like Pattern

T-Shape Pattern Circular Pattern Double Pattern

Railway

Bridge

Road

Temple

River

Village

Canal

Pond

Well

Tree

Fig. 10.5: Rural Settlement Patterns

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(f) Double village: These settlementsextend on both sides of a river wherethere is a bridge or a ferry.

Identify these patterns on any topographical sheet which

you have studied in Practical Work in Geography, Part

I (NCERT, 2006) in Class XI

Problems of Rural Settlements

Rural settlements in the developing countriesare large in number and poorly equipped withinfrastructure. They represent a great challengeand opportunity for planners.

Supply of water to rural settlements indeveloping countries is not adequate. Peoplein villages, particularly in mountainous andarid areas have to walk long distances to fetchdrinking water. Water borne diseases such ascholera and jaundice tend to be a commonproblem. The countries of South Asia faceconditions of drought and flood very often. Cropcultivation sequences, in the absence ofirrigation, also suffer.

The general absence of toilet and garbagedisposal facilities cause health related problems.

The design and use of building materialsof houses vary from one ecological region toanother. The houses made up of mud, woodand thatch, remain susceptible to damageduring heavy rains and floods, and requireproper maintenance every year. Most housedesigns are typically deficient in properventilation. Besides, the design of a houseincludes the animal shed along with its fodder-store within it. This is purposely done to keepthe domestic animals and their food properlyprotected from wild animals.

Unmetalled roads and lack of moderncommunication network creates a uniqueproblem. During rainy season, the settlementsremain cut off and pose serious difficulties inproviding emergency services. It is also difficultto provide adequate health and educationalinfrastructure for their large rural population.The problem is particularly serious whereproper villagisation has not taken place andhouses are scattered over a large area.

Urban Settlements

Rapid urban growth is a recent phenomenon.Until recent times, few settlements reached thepopulation size of more than a few thousandinhabitants. The first urban settlement to reacha population of one million was the city ofLondon by around. A.D. 1810 By 1982approximately 175 cities in the world hadcrossed the one million population mark.Presently 54 per cent of the world’s populationlives in urban settlements compared to only 3per cent in the year 1800 (Table 10.1).

Classification of Urban Settlements

The definition of urban areas varies from onecountry to another. Some of the common basisof classification are size of population,occupational structure and administrativesetup.

Population Size

It is an important criteria used by most countriesto define urban areas. The lower limit of thepopulation size for a settlement to be designatedas urban is 1,500 in Colombia, 2,000 inArgentina and Portugal, 2,500 in U.S.A. andThailand, 5,000 in India and 30,000 in Japan.Besides the size of population, density of 400persons per sq km and share of non-agriculturalworkers are taken into consideration in India.Countries with low density of population maychoose a lower number as the cut-off figurecompared to densely populated countries. InDenmark, Sweden and Finland, all places witha population size of 250 persons are calledurban. The minimum population for a city is

Year Percentage

1800 3

1850 6

1900 14

1950 30

1982 37

2001 48

2017 54

Table 10.1: Percentage of World’s Population Livingin Urban Areas

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300 in Iceland, whereas in Canada andVenezuela, it is 1,000 persons.

Occupational Structure

In some countries, such as India, the majoreconomic activities in addition to the size of thepopulation in designating a settlement as urbanare also taken as a criterion. Similarly, in Italy, asettlement is called urban, if more than 50 percent of its economically productive populationis engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. Indiahas set this criterion at 75 per cent.

Administration

The administrative setup is a criterion forclassifying a settlement as urban in somecountries. For example, in India, a settlementof any size is classified as urban, if it has amunicipality, Cantonment Board or NotifiedArea Council. Similarly, in Latin Americancountries, such as Brazil and Bolivia, anyadministrative centre is considered urbanirrespective of its population size.

Location

Location of urban centres is examined withreference to their function. For example, thesitting requirements of a holiday resort are quitedifferent from that of an industrial town, amilitary centre or a seaport. Strategic townsrequire sites offering natural defence; miningtowns require the presence of economicallyvaluable minerals; industrial towns generallyneed local energy supplies or raw materials;tourist centres require attractive scenery, or amarine beach, a spring with medicinal wateror historical relics, ports require a harbour etc.

Locations of the earliest urban settlementswere based on the availability of water, buildingmaterials and fertile land. Today, while theseconsiderations still remain valid, moderntechnology plays a significant role in locatingurban settlements far away from the source ofthese materials. Piped water can be suppliedto a distant settlement, building material canbe transported from long distances.

Apart from site, the situation plays animportant role in the expansion of towns. The

urban centres which are located close to animportant trade route have experienced rapiddevelopment.

Functions of Urban Centres

The earliest towns were centres ofadministration, trade, industry, defence andreligious importance. The significance of defenceand religion as differentiating functions hasdeclined in general, but other functions haveentered the list. Today, several new functions,such as, recreational, residential, transport,mining, manufacturing and most recentlyactivities related to information technology arecarried on in specialised towns. Some of thesefunctions do not necessarily require the urbancentre to have any fundamental relationshipwith their neighbouring rural areas.

What would be the effects of Informationand Communication Technology (ICT) asa function on the development of existingand new settlements?

Prepare a list of cities where earlier functions have been

replaced by newer ones.

In spite of towns performing multiplefunctions we refer to their dominant function.For example, we think of Sheffield as anindustrial city, London as a port city,Chandigarh as an administrative city and soon. Large cities have a rather greater diversityof functions. Besides, all cities are dynamic andover a period of time may develop new functions.Most of the early nineteenth-century fishingports in England have now developed tourism.Many of the old market towns are now knownfor manufacturing activities. Towns and citiesare classified into the following categories.

Administrative Towns

National capitals, which house the administrativeoffices of central governments, such as New Delhi,Canberra, Beijing, Addis Ababa, WashingtonD.C., and London etc. are called administrative

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towns. Provincial (sub-national) towns can alsohave administrative functions, for example,Victoria (British Columbia), Albany (New York),Chennai (Tamil Nadu).

Trading and Commercial Towns

Agricultural market towns, such as, Winnipegand Kansas city; banking and financial centreslike Frankfurt and Amsterdam; large inlandcentres like Manchester and St Louis; andtransport nodes such as, Lahore, Baghdad andAgra have been important trading centres.

Cultural Towns

Places of pilgrimage, such as Jerusalem, Mecca,Jagannath Puri and Varanasi etc. areconsidered cultural towns. These urbancentres are of great religious importance.

Additional functions which the citiesperform are health and recreation (Miami andPanaji), industrial (Pittsburgh andJamshedpur), mining and quarrying (BrokenHill and Dhanbad) and transport (Singaporeand Mughal Sarai).

Urbanisation means the increase in the proportion

population of a country who live in urban areas.

The most important cause of urbanisation is rural-urban

migration. During the late 1990s some 20 to 30 million

people were leaving the countryside every year and

moving into towns and cities.

Developed countries experienced rapid urbanisation

during the nineteenth century.

Developing counties experienced rapid urbanisation

during the second half of the twentieth century.

CLCLCLCLCLASSIFICAASSIFICAASSIFICAASSIFICAASSIFICATION OF TOTION OF TOTION OF TOTION OF TOTION OF TOWNS ON THEWNS ON THEWNS ON THEWNS ON THEWNS ON THE

BBBBBASIS OF FORMSASIS OF FORMSASIS OF FORMSASIS OF FORMSASIS OF FORMS

An urban settlement may be linear, square, staror crescent shaped. In fact, the form of thesettlement, architecture and style of buildingsand other structures are an outcome of itshistorical and cultural traditions.

Towns and cities of developed anddeveloping countries reflect marked differencesin planning and development. While most citiesin developed countries are planned, mosturban settlements of developing countries haveevolved historically with irregular shapes. Forexample, Chandigarh and Canberra areplanned cities, while smaller town in India haveevolved historically from walled cities to largeurban sprawls.

Addis Ababa (The New Flower)

The name of Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa, asthe name indicates (Addis-New, Ababa-Flower)is a ‘new’ city which was established in 1878.

The whole city is located on a hill-valleytopography. The road pattern bears the influence

Fig. 10.8: Morphology of Addis Ababa

Fig. 10.9: Skyline of Addis Ababa

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of the local topography. The roads radiate fromthe govt headquarters Piazza, Arat and AmistKilo roundabouts. Mercato has markets whichgrew with time and is supposed to be the largestmarket between Cairo and Johannesburg. Amulti-faculty university, a medical college, anumber of good schools make Addis Ababa aneducational centre. It is also the terminal stationfor the Djibouti-Addis Ababa rail route. Boleairport is a relatively new airport. The city haswitnessed rapid growth because of its multi-functional nature and being a large nodal centrelocated in the centre of Ethiopia.

Canberra

Canberra was planned as the capital ofAustralia in 1912 by American landscapearchitect, Walter Burley Griffin. He hadenvisaged a garden city for about 25,000 peopletaking into account the natural features of thelandscape. There were to be five main centres,

each with separate city functions. During thelast few decades, the city has expanded toaccommodate several satellite towns, whichhave their own centres. The city has wide-openspaces and many parks and gardens.

Types of Urban Settlements

Depending on the size and the services availableand functions rendered, urban centres aredesignated as town, city, million city,conurbation, megalopolis.

Town

The concept of ‘town’ can best be understoodwith reference to ‘village’. Population size is notthe only criterion. Functional contrasts betweentowns and villages may not always be clear-cut, but specific functions such as,manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, andprofessional services exist in towns.

City

A city may be regarded as a leading town, whichhas outstripped its local or regional rivals. Inthe words of Lewis Mumford, “ the city is in factthe physical form of the highest and mostcomplex type of associative life”. Cities aremuch larger than towns and have a greaternumber of economic functions. They tend tohave transport terminals, major financialinstitutions and regional administrative offices.When the population crosses the one millionmark it is designated as a million city.

Conurbation

The term conurbation was coined by PatrickGeddes in 1915 and applied to a large area ofurban development that resulted from themerging of originally separate towns or cities.Greater London, Manchester, Chicago andTokyo are examples. Can you find out anexample from India?

Million City

The number of million cities in the world hasbeen increasing as never before. London

Fig. 10.10 : Morphology of a planned city – Canberra

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reached the million mark in 1800, followed byParis in 1850, New York in 1860, and by 1950there were around 80 such cities. There were162 million cities in mid 70’s and there wasthreefold increase in 2005 and the numberreached to 438. In 2016, there were 512 citieswith at least 1 million inhabitants globally.By 2030, a projected 662 cities will have at least1 million residents.

Megalopolis

This Greek word meaning “great city”, waspopularised by Jean Gottman (1957) andsignifies ‘super- metropolitan’ region extending,as union of conurbations. The urbanlandscape stretching from Boston in the northto south of Washington in U.S.A. is the bestknown example of a megalopolis.

Distribution of Mega Cities

A mega city or megalopolis is a general termfor cities together with their suburbs with apopulation of more than 10 million people.New York was the first to attain the status ofa mega city by 1950 with a total populationof about 12.5 million. The number of megacities is now 31. The number of mega citieshas increased in the developing countriesduring the last 50 years vis-à-vis thedeveloped countries.

Problems of Human Settlementsin Developing Countries

The settlements in developing countries, sufferfrom various problems, such as unsustainableconcentration of population, congested housingand streets, lack of drinking water facilities.They also lack infrastructure such as,electricity, sewage disposal, health andeducation facilities.

Rural/Urban Problems

Can you identify the problems faced by your city/town/

village in terms of any one of the following?

Availability of potable water.

Electricity supply.

Sewerage system.

Transportation and communication facilities.

Health and educational infrastructure.

Water and air pollution.

Can you think of solutions to these problems?

Source: www.un.org as on 20.07.17

Table 10.2: Mega Cities of the World

Tokyo, Japan

Delhi, India

Shanghai, China

Mumbai (Bombay), India

São Paulo, Brazil

Beijing, China

Ciudad de Mèxico (Mexico City),

Mexico

Kinki M.M.A. (Osaka), Japan

Al-Qahirah (Cairo), Egypt

New York-Newark, USA

Dhaka, Bangladesh

Karachi, Pakistan

Buenos Aires, Argentina

Populationin 2016

(thousands)

City, CountryRank

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

38140

26454

24484

21357

21297

21240

21157

20337

19128

18604

18237

17121

15334

Kolkata (Calcutta), India

Istanbul, Turkey

Chongqing, China

Lagos, Nigeria

Manila, Philippines

Guangzhou, Guangdong, China

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Los Angeles-Long Beach-Santa

Ana, USA

Moskva (Moscow), Russian Federation

Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of

the Congo

Tianjin, China

Paris, France

Shenzhen, China

Jakarta, Indonesia

Bangalore, India

London, United Kingdom

Chennai (Madras), India

Lima, Peru

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

14980

14365

13744

13661

13131

13070

12981

12317

12260

12071

11558

10925

10828

10483

10456

10434

10163

10072

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Problems of Urban Settlements

People flock to cities to avail of employmentopportunities and civic amenities. Since mostcities in developing countries are unplanned,it creates severe congestion. Shortage ofhousing, vertical expansion and growth ofslums are characteristic features of moderncities of developing countries. In many citiesan increasing proportion of the populationlives in substandard housing, e.g. slums andsquatter settlements. In most million pluscities in India, one in four inhabitants lives inillegal settlements, which are growing twice asfast as the rest of the cities. Even in the AsiaPacific countries, around 60 per cent of theurban population lives in squatter settlements.

Fig. 10.11: Slums

Economic Problems

The decreasing employment opportunities inthe rural as well as smaller urban areas of thedeveloping countries consistently push thepopulation to the urban areas. The enormousmigrant population generates a pool of un-skilled and semi-skilled labour force, which isalready saturated in urban areas.

Socio-cultural Problems

Cities in the developing countries suffer fromseveral social ills. Insufficient financial resourcesfail to create adequate social infrastructurecatering to the basic needs of the hugepopulation. The available educational andhealth facilities remain beyond the reach of theurban poor. Health indices also, present agloomy picture in cities of developing countries.Lack of employment and education tends toaggravate the crime rates. Male selectivemigration to the urban areas distorts the sexratio in these cities.

Environmental Problems

The large urban population in developingcountries not only uses but also disposes off ahuge quantity of water and all types of wastematerials. Many cities of the developingcountries even find it extremely difficult toprovide the minimum required quantity ofpotable water and water for domestic andindustrial uses. An improper sewerage systemcreates unhealthy conditions. Massive use oftraditional fuel in the domestic as well as theindustrial sector severely pollutes the air. Thedomestic and industrial wastes are either letinto the general sewerages or dumped withouttreatment at unspecified locations. Hugeconcrete structures erected to accommodate thepopulation and economic play a very conduciverole to create heat islands.

Urban Strategy

The United Nations Development

Programme (UNDP) has outlined these

priorities as part of its ‘Urban Strategy’.

What is a Healthy City?

World Health Organisation (WHO) suggests

that, among other things, a ‘healthy city’

must have:

A ’Clean’ and ‘Safe’ environment.

Meets the ‘Basic Needs’ of ‘All’ its

inhabitants.

Involves the ‘Community’ in local

government.

Provides easily accessible ‘Health’ service.

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Increasing ‘Shelter’ for the urban poor.

Provision of basic urban services such as

‘Education’, ‘Primary Health care’, ‘Clean

Water and Sanitation’.

Improving women’s access to ‘Basic

Services’ and government facilities.

Upgrading ‘Energy’ use and alternative

‘Transport’ systems.

Reducing ‘Air Pollution’.

Cities, towns and rural settlements are linkedthrough the movements of goods, resources andpeople. Urban-rural linkages are of crucialimportance for the sustainability of human

EXERCISES

1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.

(i) Which one of the following forms of settlement develops along either side ofroads, rivers or canals?

(a) circular (c) cross-shaped

(b) linear (d) square

(ii) Which one of the following types of economic activities dominates in all ruralsettlement?

(a) primary (c) secondary

(b) tertiary (d) quaternary

(iii) In which of the following regions has the oldest well-documented urbansettlement found?

(a) Huang He Valley (c) Nile Valley

(b) Indus Valley (d) Mesopotamia

(iv) How many of the following cities in India have attained the million status at thebeginning of 2006?

(a) 40 (c) 41

(b) 42 (d) 43

(v) Sufficiency of which type of resources can help to create adequate socialinfrastructure catering to the needs of the large population in the developingcountries?

(a) financial (c) natural

(b) human (d) social

settlements. As the growth of rural populationhas outpaced the generation of employment andeconomic opportunities, rural-to-urban migrationhas steadily increased, particularly in thedeveloping countries, which has put an enormouspressure on urban infrastructure and servicesthat are already under serious stress. It is urgentto eradicate rural poverty and to improve thequality of living conditions, as well as to createemployment and educational opportunities inrural settlements. Full advantage must be takenof the complementary contributions and linkagesof rural and urban areas by balancing theirdifferent economic, social and environmentalrequirements.

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2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

(i) How would you define a settlement?

(ii) Distinguish between site and situation.

(iii) What are the bases of classifying settlements?

(iv) How would you justify the study of human settlements in humangeography?

3. Answer the following questions in not more than 150 words.

(i) What are rural and urban settlements? Mention theircharacteristics.

(ii) Discuss the problems associated with urban settlements indeveloping countries.

Project/Activity

(i) Do you live in a city? If not, do you live nearby? Is your lifesomehow linked to a city?

(a) What is its name?(b) When was it first settled?(c) Why was the site chosen?(d) What is its population?(e) What are the functions it performs?(f) On a sketch of the city, try to identify the areas where

these functions are performed.Each student should make a list of five things associated with the selected city;things that cannot be found elsewhere. This is a mini definition of the city as eachstudent sees it. The lists should be shared with the class. How much agreement is

there between the lists?

(ii) Can you think of some ways by which you can singlehandedly help reduce pollution levels of your settlement

Hints :(a) Proper garbage disposal(b) Using public transport(c) Better management of domestic water consumption(d) Planting trees in the neighbourhood

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