Theories of Practice:The Human Resources FrameMPA 8002The Structure and Theory of Human OrganizationRichard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

People are the heart of any organization. When people feel the organization is responsive to their needs and supportive of their goals, managers and leaders can count on their followers commitment and loyalty. Managers and leaders who are authoritarian or insensitive, who dont communicate effectively, or who simply dont care about their people can never be effective managers and leaders. The human resource manager and leader works on behalf of both the organization and its people, seeking to serve the best interests of both.A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO

The job of the manager and leader is one of support and empowerment. Support takes a variety of forms: letting people know that they are important and that managers and leaders are concerned about them; listening to find out about their followers aspirations and goals; and, communicating personal warmth and openness. Human resource managers and leaders empower their followers through participation and openness as well as by making sure that they have the autonomy and the resources they need to do their jobs well. Human resource managers and leaders emphasize honest, two-way communication as a way to identify issues and resolve differences. They are willing to confront others when it is appropriate, but they try to do so in a spirit of openness and caring.Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 359)MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO

the human resources frame

Primary Metaphor for Organization:

Central Concepts:

Managerial

And

Leadership Image:

Fundamental Challenge:

Family

Tribe

Clan

Relationships

Self-Interest

Needs

Feelings

Skills

Empowerment

Liberation

Fulfillment

Self-Actualization

Attune organizational and human needs

If the principles of scientific management were considered revolutionary, the assertions of the early human resources theorists were radical...

as their hypotheses challenged the antecedents and theories of practice governing how managers viewed workers for the new Industrial era.

One of the earliest precursors of human resources theory...David Owen18th century mercantilistowned spinning mills throughout Scotlandbelieved that worker productivity could be improved by being attentive to their basic human needs

provided workers a high standard of living, including:life-long educational opportunitiesdecent, clean housingpreschoolday careprogressive elementary and secondary schoolingcontinuing adult education

in contrast to prevailing practice, Owen trained his managers in humane disciplinary practices......endeavored to make workers origins rather than pawns of the organization (de Charms, 1968)

Contrasting pawns and origins...passive workersbasically incompetent and lazyneed close supervisionrequire trainingactive resourcescompetent and basically self-motivatedare self-regulatingbring skills, attitudes, energy, enthusiasm, and commitmenthow managers and leaders view pawns:how managers and leaders view origins:

replaceable cogs in a machinealienating, dehumanizing, and frustratingvictims of incompetent bosses, bureaucratic inertia, and organizational doublespeakinvigorating opportunities to make a personal contributiona place for personal and professional growth and challenge by asserting oneself and advocating ones needsa place to experience a sense of belonging, to build self-esteem, and to become self-actualizedhow pawns experience work:how origins experience work:

The issue raised by the human resources theories of practice is that of better aligning people and organizations not people or organizations...

because...people need organizationsfor the extrinsic rewards work providesorganizations need peoplefor the intrinsic satisfaction work can providefor a reliable and stable labor poolfor the energy, effort, and talent people bring

The assumptions of human resources theories...1. organizations exist to serve human needs3. the fit of people and organization is critical2. organizations and people need each otherideasenergytalentsalariesopportunitiescareersan inappropriate fit can lead to exploitation or victimization by people and/or the organization

The rise of industrial/organizational psychology in the 20th century, especially human needs theories, provided a theoretical focus to consider the fit of people and organization...

Abraham Maslow (1954)...defined the hierarchy of pre-potent needs5. self-actualization4. self-esteem3. belongingness2. safety, security1. physiological12345

Chris Argyris (1957)...asserted that the worker-structure conflict is built into the traditional principles of organizational design and managementtask specialization defines jobs as narrowly as possible to improve efficiency...but the outcome is that work is depersonalized and becomes monotonous

1. personal withdrawalevident in absenteeism and quitting2. psychological withdrawalevident in indifference passivity, and apathy3. resistanceevident in soldiering, deception, feather bedding, and sabotage4. power grabsclimbing the bureaucracy5. forming coalitions (e.g., unions) to redress power imbalancesevidence of worker-structure conflict:6. socializing children with negative view of work (i.e., unrewarding, little hope for advancement)

Frederick Herzberg (1959)... formulated a two factor theory of the motivation to work:M2FAE motivation is a psychological complex of two factors manifesting themselves in attitudes evident in their effects

2 FACTORS2F these factors are the objective elements and subjective feelings (i.e., needs or drives activated by the events themselves) antecedent to an attitudehygiene factorsmotivators

do not motivate but the absence of hygiene increases worker dissatisfactionhygiene factorswhen hygiene is not met, workers strike or give up motivation and become addicted to hygieneextrinsic

hygiene factorsGood organizational hygiene provides the foundation for higher motivation in the workplace...

experiences enabling personal growth and self-actualization in the work itselfmotivatorsintrinsicachievementresponsibilitythe work itselfadvancementdoing complete jobs, experiencing successengaging in work design and accountabilitydoing the jobengaging in new learnings, developing expertise

hygiene factorsmotivators...motivators build on hygiene factors...

To inculcate higher motivation in workers, managers and leaders should focus on:attending to the workers attitudes not the work processusing the organizing and planning functions to encourage high morale

While attending to worker morale and attitudes, managers and leaders recognize:that motivation to work is a psychological process not a matter of a workers interest in the jobthat workplace hygiene is primary providing the foundation for motivationthat salary is a hygiene factor not a motivator

According to Herzbergs two-factor theory of motivation, the worst of all motivators is an across-the-board salary increase

Douglas McGregor (1960)... posited a theory of management, Theory X and Theory Yasserting that a managers assumptions about people become self-fulfilling prophecies evident in organizational behavior

Theory X...people are inherently:lazypassivepossess little ambitionprefer to be ledresist change

Theory X...workers are characterized by:an external locus-of-controlother-centered directedness

Theory X...management through:coerciontight controlsthreatspunishments

Theory X...self-fulfilling prophecies:coerciontight controlsthreatspunishmentslow productivityantagonismmilitant unionssubtle sabotage

Theory Y...people are inherently:motivatedactive and interestedambitiousprefer to leadinterested in change

Theory Y...workers are characterized by:an internal locus-of-controlself-direction

Theory Y...management through:open systemscommunicationself-managing teamspeer-controlled pay systems

Theory Y...management through:open systemscommunicationself-managing teamspeer-controlled pay systemsneeds and tasks alignedaccurate feedbackworker investmentfairness and equity

the essential task of managers and leaders is to arrange organizational conditionsso that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their efforts toward organizational rewards

While industrial/organizational psychology provided a theoretical focus to consider the fit of people and organization... the goal of making the workplace and productivity a forum for people to express their freedom and dignity, as noble as this goal may be, has never been empirically proven.

Argyris & Schn (1974, 1996)... juxtaposed two theories of practice, Model I and Model IIModel Iwhat managers and leaders say conflicts with what they doModel IIthrough organizational learning, there is congruence between what managers and leaders say and do

Model I assumptions...organizations are competitive, dangerous placeswatch out for yourself or someone else will do you in

Model I theory-in-use...core valuesaction strategyoutcomes: behavioroutcomes: learningidentify and achieve goalsdesign and manage the environment unilaterallydefensive, inconsistent, fearful, and selfish appearanceno learning: self-sealing, protection from negative feedback

core valuesaction strategyoutcomes: behavioroutcomes: learningmaximize winning, minimize losingown and control what is relevant to ones interestsengenders defensive, inconsistent, fearful, and selfish behaviors in otherssingle-loop learning:core values and assumptions remain unquestioned

core valuesaction strategyoutcomes: behavioraloutcomes: learningminimize the expression of negative feelingsinsulate oneself from criticism, discomfort, and vulnerabilityreinforces defensive norms: mistrust, risk avoidance, conformity, and rivalrycore values and assumptions are tested privately

core valuesaction strategyoutcomes: behavioroutcomes: learningbe rationalinsulate others from being hurtcritical organizational issues are not discussedcollusion that impedes organizational learning

The Model I problem-solving process...1. assume that others are causing the problem2. develop a private, unilateral diagnosis and solution to the problem

calmly using facts, logic, and rational persuasion to assert the merits of your point of viewusing indirect coercive influences formulating and issuing direct critiques3. get other(s) to change by...

4. defensiveness confirms the original diagnosis5. intensify pressures by offering to protect or to reject the other person(s)6. if unsuccessful, bear no responsibility because the outcome is the other person(s) fault

Model I outcomes...feelings of vulnerabilityManagers and leaders using a Model I theory of practice increase in workers...self-protecting behaviorsgames of camouflagedeception

organizationalcatastropheand increase the probability of...

Model II problem-solving process...1. emphasize common goals and mutual influenceMutually Assured Destruction produces no winnersMADLEADERS AND MANAGERS DO NOT FORGET:

2. communicate openly and publicly, testing ones assumptions and beliefsDoes what I espouse...what I do?

3. combine inquiry with advocacywhat others think, know, want, and feelinquiryadvocacywhat I think, know, want, and feel

Human resources theory requires that managers and leaders possess...a fundamental competence in relating with diverse individuals effectivelysufficiently good interpersonal skills:the refined ability to inquire in a non-threatening way:What is going on here?Why are people behaving as they are?What can I do about it?

is not afraid of conflictsufficiently good intrapersonal skills:in arguments, is able to distance oneself from the passion of the moment and to construct how other individuals are making sense of thingsis able to confront conflictcomplicates (rather than simplifies) ones understanding of how the organization really works

negotiates the fit between the individual and the organizationsufficiently good group skills:is comfortable with plurality, diversity, and ambiguitydirects conflict towards productive endswhile solving problems, resolves organizational issues

while groups can promote...groups can also generateincreased knowledgea diversity of perspectivestime and energyimproved communicationincreased acceptance of decisionscaving into social pressureinefficiencypersonal agendas which dominate the decision making processunproductive constraints

to increase group productivity managers and leaders must be able to address:others personal intereststhe requirements of various task rolesthe requirements of various personal rolesinformal group normsinterpersonal conflict

Basic human resources strategies...1. develop a long-term organizational commitment to the philosophy of human resourcesbuild human resources in to the corporate and incentive structuresdevelop quantitative and qualitative measures of human resources management

2. invest in peoplehire the right people and reward them wellprovide job securitypromote from withintrain and educateshare the wealth of success

3. deal directly with peopleengage in active listeningprovide accurate feedbacksearch for common interestsexperiment with ideas and proposalsdoubt ones infallibilitytreat differences as a group responsibility

4. empower people through work redesignprovide greater autonomy and participative managementfocus on job enrichmentemphasize teamworkensure egalitarianismprovide opportunities for upward hierarchical influence

Because change causes people to feel incompetent, needy, and powerless, providing for the development of new skills, creating opportunities for involvement, and providing psychological support are essential managerial/leadership tasks.

Using human resources theory...effective managers and leaders arecatalystswhose primary concerns aresupportempowermentservants

Human resources tasks for managers and leaders...1. help individuals and group develop a shared sense of direction and purpose2. balance task and process goals3. endeavor to make group work both satisfying and efficient

4. keep on top of a large, complex set of activities

5. get support from bosses6. get support from corporate staff and other constituents7. motivate, coordinate, and control large, diverse group of subordinates

Abusing human resources theory...ineffective managers and leaders arewimpswhose primary concerns aremaking people happymanaging by abdicationpushovers

Strengths of the human resources theory of practice...personalpracticaladdresses fundamental human needs and interests

Limitations of the human resources theory of practice...naveoptimisticnot realistic in a fast-changing environment

Integrating reflective practice, conceptual pluralism, and organizational analysis...Analyzing organizations through four frames inculcates the conceptual pluralism needed to diagnose the issues underlying the problems manifesting themselves in human organizations. the structural framethe human resources framethe political framethe symbolic frame

This module has focused on...the human resources theories that managers and leaders can utilize in practice episodes

the human resources frameas these theories of practice provide managers a frame of reference to inform decision making, theoffers managers and leaders guidance about the strengths and limits of human resources theory

People are the heart of any organization. When people feel the organization is responsive to their needs and supportive of their goals, managers and leaders can count on their followers commitment and loyalty. Managers and leaders who are authoritarian or insensitive, who dont communicate effectively, or who simply dont care about their people can never be effective managers and leaders. The human resource manager and leader works on behalf of both the organization and its people, seeking to serve the best interests of both.A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO

The job of the manager and leader is one of support and empowerment. Support takes a variety of forms: letting people know that they are important and that managers and leaders are concerned about them; listening to find out about their followers aspirations and goals; and, communicating personal warmth and openness. Human resource managers and leaders empower their followers through participation and openness as well as by making sure that they have the autonomy and the resources they need to do their jobs well. Human resource managers and leaders emphasize honest, two-way communication as a way to identify issues and resolve differences. They are willing to confront others when it is appropriate, but they try to do so in a spirit of openness and caring.Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 359)MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO

the human resources frame

Primary Metaphor for Organization:

Central Concepts:

Managerial

And

Leadership Image:

Fundamental Challenge:

Family

Tribe

Clan

Relationships

Self-Interest

Needs

Feelings

Skills

Empowerment

Liberation

Fulfillment

Self-Actualization

Attune organizational and human needs

The next module will focus on...and the political science theories that managers and leaders can utilize in practice episodesthe political frame

Managers and leaders have to recognize political reality and know how to deal with it. Inside and outside any organization, there are always a variety of different interest groups, each with its own agenda. There are not enough resources to give everyone what he or she wants, and there is always going to be conflict.A POLITICAL SCENARIO

The job of managers and leaders is to recognize the major constituencies, to develop ties to their leadership, and to manage conflict as productively as possible. Above all, they need to build power bases and use power carefully. They cannot give every group everything it wants, although they can try to create arenas for negotiating differences and coming up with reasonable compromises. Managers and leaders also have to work hard at articulating what everyone in their organizations possesses in common. Managers and leaders must tell the people that it is a waste of time to fight each other when there are plenty of enemies outside that they can all fight together. Groups that fail to work well together internally tend to get trounced by outsiders who have their own agendas.Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 361)MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN A POLITICAL SCENARIO

the political frame

Primary Metaphor for Organization:

Central Concepts:

Managerial

And

Leadership Image:

Fundamental Challenge:

Jungle

Self-Interest

Power

Conflicts

Competition

Politics

Intrigue

Advocate

Referee

Mediator

Develop agenda

Form coalitions and build power base

Acquire good intelligence

Dispense information wisely

ReferencesArgyris, C. (1960). Individual actualization in complex organizations. Mental Hygiene, 44(2), 22637.Argyris, C. (1986, Sept.-Oct.). Double loop learning in organizations, Harvard Business Review, 64(5), 74-79.Argyris, C. (1977, Sept-Oct). Skilled incompetence. Harvard Business Review, 55(5),115-25.Argyris, C. (1991). Teaching smart people how to learn. Harvard Business Review, 69(3),99-109.Argyris, C., & Schn, D. A. (1974). Theory in Practice: Increasing Professional Effectiveness. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Barnard, C. I. (1938/1968). The functions of the executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1997). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice and leadership (2nd edition). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.DeCharms, P. (1968). Personal causation. New York: Academic Press.Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. B. (1959/1993). The motivation towork. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370-396.McGregor, D. (1960). The human side of organization. New York: McGraw Hill.Sergiovanni, T. J. (1989). Informing professional practice in educational administration. Journal of Educational Administration, 27(2), p. 186.Weick, K. E. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: SagePublications, Inc.