M A B Digest

1. Eutrophication management framework for the policy-maker (1989). Walter Rast, Marjorie Holland and Sven-Olof Ryding.

H U M A N I N V E S T M E N T A N D R E S O U R C E U S E

A n e w research orientation at the e n v i r o n m e n t / e c o n o m i c s interface

Edited by Michael Young Natarajan Ishwaran

Based on a task force organized by Unesco-MAB

The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Unesco concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area of its authorities, or concerning the deli­mitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The opinions expressed in this digest are those of the authors and not necessarily those of Unesco or the employers of the contributors.

Addresses of the editors of this report

Michael Young C S I R O Division of Wildlife and Ecology P . O . Box 84 Lyneham A C T 2602 Australia

Natarajan Ishwaran Division of Ecological Sciences Unesco 7, Place de Fontenoy 75700 Paris France

Overall direction: Bernd von Droste Series editor: Malcolm Hadley Computer assisted layout: Lucia Fabbri Cover design: Jean-Francis Cheriez Text preparation for this report: Silvia Rodriguez Design on back cover: Ivette Fabbri, Lucia Fabbri Suggested citation: Young, M . & Ishwaran, N . (Eds). 1989. Human investment and resource

use: a new research orientation at the environment!economics interface. M A B Digest 2. Unesco, Paris.

Published in 1989 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 7, place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris Printed by Imprimerie des Presses Universitaires de France, V e n d ô m e

© Unesco 1989

Printed in France

P R E F A C E

About this series...

The M A B Digest Series was launched by Unesco in 1989. Several types of pub­lication are envisaged —distillations of the substantive findings of M A B acti­vities, overviews of recent, ongoing and planned activities within M A B in par­ticular subject or problem areas, and proposals for new research activities.The target audience will vary from one digest to another. S o m e will be designed with planners and policy-makers as the main audience in mind. Others will be aimed at collaborators in the M A B Programme. Still others will have technical per­sonnel and research workers as the target, whether or not they are involved in MAB.

...and M A B Digest 2

At its ninth session in November 1986, the International Co-ordinating Coun­cil for the M A B Programme approved four new research orientations within M A B : (1) Ecosystem functioning under different intensities of human impact; (2) Management and restoration of human-impacted resources; (3) H u m a n in­vestment and resource use; and (4) H u m a n response to environmental stress. These orientations had been proposed by a General Scientific Advisory Panel established by the Council at its previous session to review the scientific pro­gramme of M A B and make recommendations on ways and means of dissemi­nating and implementing new criteria, concepts, techniques and methods.

The motivation is that these orientations would serve as a motor for re-exam­ining and renewing the overall approach and methodology of M A B . They would

m o v e M A B research into topics of current and emerging environmental policy concern and would connect it to the most active of ongoing research and scho­larship in the natural and social sciences. They would defacto broaden the spa­tial and temporal scales of M A B ' s research-interests and refocus them upon hitherto underemphasized considerations such as the economic driving forces of resource use and human behavioural dimensions of environmental change. Most importantly, the orientations would provide the stimulus for continuous questioning and reassessment of the M A B Programme and opportunities for the development of a new generation of M A B activities. These four new research orientations would supplement and connect, and not supplant, the existing in­ternational research projects and areas of concentration within M A B .

The M A B Council had, at its ninth session held in November 1986, outlined steps for the elaboration of the four new orientations. A s part of this process, a small task force on orientation n9 3 (Human Investment and Resource Use or H I R U ) was convened at Unesco House in Paris from 29-31 March 1988 (see Annex for a list of participants and titles of background papers). The objectives of the task force were: (1) to elaborate the new M A B - H I R U orientation, par­ticularly in relation to themes and issues at the environment/economics inter­face; (2) to provide an overview of the scope of the M A B - H I R U orientation and identify optimal points of entry for a new generation of M A B activities; (3) to propose a framework, incorporating salient features of past and on-going M A B activities, for the future development of the M A B - H I R U orientation; and (4) to identify and recommend, within the proposed framework, priority themes and issues which the future M A B - H I R U orientation could address.

This report has been prepared on the basis of the task force's discussions and conclusions, by a two-person team comprising Messrs M . D . Young and N . Ish-waran, in consultation with other members of the task force and a selected n u m ­ber of individual specialists. The first draft of the report was reviewed during October-December 1988, by members of the task force and individual special­ists, as well as by the International Co-ordinating Council for M A B , at its tenth session in Paris from 14-18 November 1988. In the light of reviewers'comments and the Council's considerations, the report was complemented and revised and submitted to the M A B Bureau at its meeting in Paris from 25-27 April 1989. This second draft was further revised, on the basis of additional coments made by M A B Bureau, task force members and individual specialists, and is hereby published as the second number of the M A B Digest series.

It is hoped that this digest will contribute more widely to the growing inter­est in exploring issues at the environment/economics interface, particularly to those concerned with the effect of the level and nature of human investments in determining the manner in which natural resources are utilized.

C O N T E N T S

Summary 9 Introduction IS

Investment IS Resource use 17

Sustainable development 18 Aims, objectives and perspectives 21

The environment, economics and equity interface 23 A policy/decision-making focus 26 A comparative approach 26

Project framework 27 Examples of themes and issues 33

Buffer zone management 34 Investment in restoration and redevelopment of tropical ecosystems 38 Investment and resource use in tropical savannas 40 Rural land use change in temperate zones 41

Future development 47

References 51 Annex: Task force on ' H u m a n Investment and Resource Use' 53

List of Participants 53 Titles of discussion papers 54

S U M M A R Y

During the last 15 years of world-wide activities under the Man and the Bio­sphere (MAB) Programme of Unesco, significant progress has been made in un­derstanding the interaction between human activities and ecosystems under a wide range of conditions. These studies generally emphasized the productive and assimilative capabilities of various ecosystems under different intensities of stress associated with human use. In many of those studies, the linkages be­tween ecological, social and economic considerations, however, have not been sufficiently developed. Policy and/or decision-making relevance of studies therefore needs to be reinforced in the future work of MAB.

A new orientation

A more systematic and integrated approach to manage the environment-devel­opment interface so as to accomplish sustainable development is now both time­ly and critical for the future development of MAB. To achieve this, a new orien­tation entitled H u m a n Investment and Resource Use (HIR U.for short) focussing on the interactions between investment and resource use is being established. Of the various aspects of human activities associated with the use of resources, the role of investment has been identified as central to an understanding of humanlenvironment interactions, both from the point of view of developing preventive policies and actions as well as for making investments towards eco­system redevelopment and restoration.

Human and environmental welfare

In spite of wide diversity in economic development in various parts of the world, it is now generally recognized that human and environmental welfare are inti-

9

mately linked. It is no accident that poverty and degraded environments are generally coincident. The level and nature of human investments determine con­temporary resource-utilization patterns and options for the future. The level of technological expertise and the ability to adopt new knowledge also play vital roles in resource utilization and development.

Investment

Unmanaged and managed environmental resources, for example in fisheries and agriculture, serve as life support systems in a subsistence economy and are primarily directed towards ensuring human survival. In emerging market econ­omies, investment is aimed at enhancing capital generation to serve a nation's economic development objectives. When investment capital is generated through resource degradation, however, poverty tends to increase among those people who continue to depend on the depleted resource base for subsistence. Ways and means to generate capital for investment, without decreasing, or preferably, increasing the capital stock of resources available for future use, need to be identified.

Developed economies engage in much higher levels of investments and trade at both national and international levels. The multi-level links between environ­ment and development issues, at local, national, regional and international le­vels, are becoming increasingly evident. For example, the effects of the Com­mon Agricultural Policy of the European Community may not always facilitate sustainable use of resources in developed and less developed countries, both in Europe and elsewhere.

Investment includes intended changes in social organization, accumulation of knowledge, etc., and does not confine the use of this term to the narrow fin­ancial sense. It should be thought of as the expenditure of human efforts and al­location of resources to any activity that may have direct or indirect effects on the value and use of other resources over short- or long-time periods.

Change

A key theme for MAB projects with this new orientation should be 'adjustment to and the management of change'. Given the correct information, change pro­vides opportunities to achieve sustainable development and improve resource use. Adjustment to change has several aspects, and projects may have to con­sider, among others, ecological, socio-economic and institutional changes. Em­phasis should also be given to the influence of technological innovation on se­lected parameters of change and its effects on the management of the human/environment interface.

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Alms and objectives

The overall aim of projects within MAB-HIRU should be to identify, through

appropriate research, opportunities for changing resource use so as to stimu­

late investment in a manner which leads to sustainable development, economic

growth, and long-term preservation of the environment. In almost all cases it is

anticipated that the work should directly contribute to current policy or man­

agement issues and, wherever possible, lead to proposals for policy change.

Drawing on the ecological strength of past and on-going research under the

MAB network, the specific objectives of the HIRU orientation should be to:

• Identify policy issues at the interface between resource use, investment,

economic development and the environment;

• Elaborate project proposals which address these issues;

• Act as a catalyst for locating and pooling together the financial, technical

and other necessary resources for the implementation of these proposals;

• Ensure the wide dissemination of the information and policy recommenda­

tions which arise from the above work; and

• Monitor the extent to which the recommendations are adopted by decision­

makers.

Resources

Typically, resources are classified in a variety of ways and in most cases the

classification is not rigid. Conventionally they are classified into generic ca­

tegories: land, labour and capital or, alternatively, as renewable and non-re­

newable natural resources. Resources can also be usefully classified according

to their income producing, waste assimilating and environmental amenity

values. In many forms of investment and resource use, one or more of these

values are often either substantially depreciated or even totally ignored.

The3Es

It is recommended that all MAB projects consistent with the HIRU orientation

pursue studies which examine the interface between Environmental integrity, Economic efficiency and Equity considerations (dubbed as the 3Es). By attempt­

ing to focus on the interface between these three policy goals, research can be

expected to provide timely and pertinent information and propositions for ad­

ministrators.

Environmental integrity . The first of the 3Es recommended as goals for

MAB projects, consistent with the HIRU orientation, i.e. Environmental inte­grity, refers to identifying and developing ecologically favourable management

11

regimes. Environmental integrity places due recognition on the dynamics of ecosystem functions and their resilience and response to change. It stresses the importance of adopting policies which allow ecosystems to adapt to changing conditions with a minimum of adverse impacts on their renewal, productive and assimilative capacities.

Economic efficiency. This criterion requires that all internal and external costs, including those long-run costs which affect future generations, are in­cluded in the costs imposed on resource users. If this is done, then the costs will be transferred to the consumers through market processes in a manner which reflects the true economic value of the resource to the society. It also requires that any short-run environmental damage control and prevention costs are met by resource users who cause the damage. At the same time, it recognizes that economic incentives for the production of public benefits which are not ex­pressed in the market place, must be offered to encourage resource users who provide those public (environmental) benefits.

Equity considerations. These, on the other hand, relate to patterns of dis­tribution of benefits, incomes and profits among various socio-economic classes of people. Although these considerations belong to the domain of politicians, relevant research must take full account of conflicts between interest groups, at the local, national and international levels. This is essential if information from projects is to influence policy proposals that emphasize the interests of one or more such interest groups. For example, MAB work over the last 15 years has emphasized that economic benefits of genetic resources conservation in bio­sphere reserves should primarily accrue to local people. Future MAB-HIRU work may identify and recommend policy changes that may be necessary to achieve this management goal in a selected number of biosphere reserves.

Policy orientation

A strong policy orientation requires that studies be designed in a manner so

as to make possible the development of realistic recommendations within two

to three year time periods. In some cases, however, additional work may be

necessary. Furthermore, studies should also draw on a broad range of current

information and insights and develop concepts and principles relevant to man­

agement and use of resources in a sustainable manner. It is also suggested that

except where MAB has a comparative advantage, attempts to examine metho­

dological problems that fall clearly within the domain of either ecology or econ­

omics, or for that matter any other related natural/social sciences disciplines,

be avoided.

Consideration of the 3Es will require institutional arrangements to be under­

stood, so that the results of the studies can be used to make recommendations

12

to policy-makers and advisors. Furthermore, the time periods for which the 3Es are assessed and evaluated and the limitations of extrapolating such assess­ments and evaluations into the future need to be highlighted. This is considered essential given the fact that several economically efficient situations over short periods of time may have adverse environmental implications over longer time horizons.

Comparative methodology

The use of diverse environmental! economic situations for comparative study for obtaining insights into key variables and their interactions is recommended. Such insights help strengthen foresight and predictive capabilities and hence the development of policy recommendations and management regimes. The use of comparative methodology is already a characteristic of several MAB initia­tives such as those joint operations with IUBS on Tropical Soil Biology and Fer­tility (TSBF) and Responses of Savannas to Stress and Disturbance (RSSD). Such a comparative approach would also enable the coordination of HIRU studies with the efforts of other international organizations such as FAO, IUCN, UNEP, World Bank and OECD.

The framework

The framework proposed for future activities utilizes the biome categories which are already part of the organizational design of MAB projects and at­tempts to further elaborate on the human investment aspects, particularly those that are relevant from the perspectives of policy formulation and decision mak­ing. This framework conceptualized in the form of a matrix draws attention to the policy and decision-making, investment and environmental dimensions of future MAB-HIRU work.

Themes and Issues

Initial themes and issues identified as being appropriate for the development of projects consistent with this new research orientation of MAB include: • Buffer and transition zone management and development within the context of biosphere reserves and World Heritage sites in various biogeographic prov­inces; • Investments in management and restoration/redevelopment of tropical eco­systems; • Resource use, investment and sustainable development in arid and semi-arid lands;

13

• Rural land-use change, investment, and resource use in mid-temperate ag­ricultural areas; • Resource use, allocation and investment in coastal areas and islands; • Management of environment!human investment problems in urban systems; • The influence of national and international marketing and trade arrange­ments on investment and resource use in the tropical and sub-tropical regions, particularly in savanna ecosystems.

This report elaborates upon a selected number of these issues and identifies pol­icy relevant questions which could be taken up by work within the MAB-HIRU orientation.

14

I N T R O D U C T I O N

Investment

Investments can create, protect, improve or reduce the value of scarce resour­ces used by humans. Negative investments — such as those which stimulate the exploitive use of resources — are c o m m o n place throughout the world and it is being increasingly argued that this type of resource use is not sustainable. Posi­tive investments which increase the stock of resources available for use and ap­preciation by m a n , facilitate socio-economic development and preserve essen­tial ecological processes and functions are needed. This report sets out the aims, objectives and perspectives, framework and initial themes and issues for a new M A B research orientation entitled ' H u m a n Investment and Resource Use' ( H T R U ) which seeks to identify opportunities for improving resource use pat­terns and options through positive investments.

Investment, as it is used here, includes all h u m a n actions to realize intended changes in social organization as well as accumulation of knowledge and does not confine the use of this term merely to the narrow financial sense. It should be thought of as the expenditure of human efforts and allocation of resources to any activity that m a y have direct or indirect effects on the value and use of re­sources over short or long time-periods. S o m e examples of potentially positive investments are: • The reclamation of a degraded rangeland with a view to increasing its car­rying capacity;

• The creation of a reserve to retain biological diversity and improve oppor­tunities for tourism development; • The construction of a road to increase livestock development and marketing opportunities; and • The introduction of a training programme to improve h u m a n skills and knowledge.

15

Such investments can be m a d e for improving social welfare, economic growth and/or resource sustainability. M a n y of them involve decisions to fore­go those benefits which flow from current resource consumption in order to real­ize other benefits in the future. W h e n investments are 'narrowly based', n a m e ­ly when all of their social, economic and ecological implications have not been adequately considered, the consequences of those investments on resource use can be the reverse of what was initially desired. It is no accident that poverty and degraded environments are generally coincident. Poverty gives rise to des­perate measures to sustain a livelihood over very short periods — resources are exploited non-sustainably to meet subsistence and survival needs of today with little regard to future consequences of current resource consumption. From a national and international perspective, however, this resource degradation fur­ther exacerbates poverty by imposing additional constraints on the capacity of essential resources such as fuelwood, pasture, water and soil to sustain the de­mands of the poor (Warford and Pearce 1987). A s in parts of the Sahel, for example, the resource base, economic activity and social welfare can all be eroded together. Adverse consequences of such non-sustainable resource use m a y have not only local and regional but also global implications.

Investment drives change. Investment in land development in the southern hemisphere can lead to deforestation that produces climatic and resource im­pacts in the northern hemisphere. Investment in fast-growing tree plantations in the South can shift trade balances in forest products for the benefit of forest eco­system restoration in the North. The link between h u m a n welfare and ecosys­tem sustainability is through investment processes that reflect local, regional and global forces. For this reason, investigation of the links between h u m a n in­vestment and resource use requires the integration of knowledge of a) social perceptions and expectations, b) the behaviour and responses of biophysical systems and c) the processes of investment, disinvestment and reinvestment. Realization of this integration rests upon the elaboration of the linkages and commonalities between the social, ecological and economic dimensions of m a n ­aging the environment-development interface.

Investments are often m a d e by borrowing scarce capital and resources from other ecosystems and societies. Scarcity constrains all potential investments. Positive sustainable forms of investments anticipate the likely consequences of their intended actions. It must be recognized that investments, for example, decisions to create biosphere reserves, while they keep certain resource use options open, foreclose other alternative development opportunities, both for the present and for the future. Sustainable forms of investments must also take into consideration the need to repay any resultant debts, immediately after the investments have been m a d e and/or periodically over a number of subsequent years. The world is already littered with m a n y examples of investments which

16

have been m a d e to meet short-term development goals but have foreclosed most or all future resource use and development options (George 1988).

Resource use

Typically, resources are classified in a variety of ways and in most cases the classification is not rigid. Conventionally, they are grouped by economists into generic categories: land, labour and capital or, alternatively, as renewable and non-renewable or exhaustible natural resources. Resources can also be classi­fied, perhaps more usefully, according to their income producing, waste as­similating and environmental amenity values (Barbier 1988, 1989). Under m a n y forms of investment on resource use, one or more of these important functions are either substantially depreciated or even totally ignored. The most important characteristic of resources, however, is that they are scarce, relative to the number of investments and uses that members of society would like to m a k e of them.

Investments influence the level, nature and distribution of the resources and hence the manner in which resources are utilized. The construction of a road through a forested area or the drainage of a wetland m a y increase opportunities to generate income but decrease waste assimilation and environmental amenity values of those ecosystems. Consequently, the collection of information about the functioning of ecosystems and their interactions with other nearby ecosys­tems as well as social and economic systems is a precondition to sustainable development. Continuous economic growth is dependent upon the efficiency of increasing the total stock and value of resources available for use, chang­ing current consumption patterns and improving future options ( W C E D 1987).

Investment facilitates resource use, its conservation and protection. In this sense, the value of an investment can be measured in terms of change in the aggregate stock of resource available after allowing for those which are lost or consumed as a result of the investment. But the manner in which an invest­ment is valued is also dependent upon the linkages a m o n g the physical, cultu­ral and institutional infrastructure within which it is m a d e . The level of tech­nological expertise and the ability to adopt n e w knowledge play crucial roles in enhancing the value of investment in resource utilization. Therefore, edu­cation and training must be considered crucial forms of investment. Without technological expertise, there is limited ability to change resource use and con­sumption patterns and to improve future options.

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Sustainable development

In spite of the wide diversity in economic development in various parts of the world, it is n o w generally recognized that h u m a n and environmental welfare are intimately linked. U n m a n a g e d and managed environmental resources, for example in fisheries, agriculture and forestry, serve as the basic life support sys­tem in a subsistence economy. Although their use appears to require comparative­ly little capital investment, resources even in a subsistence economy, can easily be degraded. A growing population could lead to an increase in the aggregate de­m a n d on resources though per capita demand m a y remain at subsistence or below-subsistence levels. Non-sustainable use of resources in a subsistence economy m a y also result from demands of external users w h o have better technological, economic and political power than local people to gain access to and use resour­ces. In most cases, expensive re-investment would be required to rehabilitate any such environmental resource which had been degraded.

In emerging market economies, h u m a n investment is aimed at enhancing the stock of resources available to serve a nation's economic development objectives. The development goals of nations and regions vary but typically include increased gross national product and average per capita income, improved educational stand­ards, improved environmental quality, greater export income and decreased inter­national debt. Sustainable development can usefully be regarded as a set of invest­ment strategies which causes the vector composing all of the above-mentioned indicators to increase through time (Warford and Pearce 1987). It can also be ar­gued that investment strategies for sustainable development should be biased to­wards a preference to improve the worst-off members of present and future societies (Pearce 1988a). A key policy question, related to the development of such invest­ment strategies, is h o w to change, re-allocate and improve the use of resources so that as m a n y of them as possible can be re-invested for the future without unduly compromising short-term consumption needs. O n e way this might be achieved is through changing property rights and related infrastructures so that incentives for local investment, rather than consumption, are increased.

Developed economies engage in m u c h higher levels of investments and trade at both national and international levels. The multi-level links between environment and development issues at local, national, regional and international levels are be­coming increasingly evident. Price support for cereal production, through the E u ­ropean Community's C o m m o n Agricultural Policy, for example, has increased ap­plication of mineral fertilizers in all M e m b e r States of the Community (Box 1) which has, in turn, led to increased levels of nitrate pollution. This policy has main­tained agricultural income in a number of regions, at artificially high levels and, by depressing world prices, reduced opportunities to generate the resources necessary for agricultural development in several less developed countries.

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Box 1. Impact of agricultural price policy on environmental quality in the European Community

T h e C o m m o n Agricultural Policy ( C A P ) of the Commission of Euro­pean Communities ( C E C ) has main­tained agricultural prices at levels higher than those that would result from market forces alone. A s a result, the level of agricultural production in the E C is higher than what it would be under free market conditions.

While these distorted price levels have contributed to a growing agricul­tural surplus, whose storage and use have drained the budgets of the C E C M e m b e r States, they have also had m a n y negative impacts upon the envi­ronment (von M e y e r 1988). For example, high support prices for cer­eals set by the C A P have, in m a n y areas, led to an increase in land under intensive cultivation.

W h e n Ireland and the United King­d o m joined the Community in 1973 the cereal prices there increased and a large amount of land was drained, ploughed and converted from pasture to agricultural land. A s a result, criti­cal habitats of m a n y rare and endan­gered animal and plant species were destroyed. At present, however, op­portunities for further extension of the agricultural area in Western Europe are limited.

High prices set for agricultural pro­ducts led to intensification of inputs

for crop production, especially in the case of fertilizers, pesticides and feed-stuffs. During the last three decades the use of mineral nitrogen fertilizers in the E C increased by 400 %. Levels of application, as indicated in the ac­companying table, are above 100 kg N ha'1 in agricultural area of most of the nothern m e m b e r states of the C o m ­munity.

During the same time, the amount of organic nitrogen from animal wastes also increased due to higher livestock densities. A m o n g the six founding members of the C E C , ni­trogen levels in agricultural areas were about 64 kg N ha"' in 195S but in­creased to about 85 kg N ha"1 in the late 1980s. Increasing nitrate pollution has led to eutrophication of aquatic habi­tats and further species losses and is becoming a threat to drinking water supplies in m a n y regions of the C E C . Nitrogen emissions from intensive ag­riculture also share responsibility for acid rain and forest die-back.

A n accurate assessment of the en­vironmental impact of the C A P must take into account regional imbalances in the extents of nitrogen pollution. In 1981-1982, farmers in agricultural areas of the Netherlands used more than twice the amount of nitrogen (230 kg N ha"1) compared to the aver-

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age amounts used in M e m b e r States of the Community (99 kg N ha"1). In the northwestern coastal region of the Community, the amount of or­ganic nitrogen per hectare is also m u c h higher than in other parts. Li­vestock production became po­larized to these regions since they are

closer to ports, in Belgium and the Netherlands, where imported live­stock feeds, like soya and tapioca, arrive. The dependence of intensive livestock producers on imported feed is also a consequence of the C A P which set high prices for livestock.

Application of mineral nitrogen fertilizers in agricultural areas of Member States of the C E C over a 30-year period.

Country

Federal Republic of Germany France Italy Netherlands Belgium/Luxembourg United Kingdom Ireland Denmark Greece

AVERAGE

Kg N ha

1950-1951

26 11

8 71 43 17

2 23

6

23 [Source : von Mayer (1988) based on S R U (1985, p. 265.]

1981-1982

109 70 56

237 125 76 47

130 37

99

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A I M S , O B J E C T I V E S A N D P E R S P E C T I V E S

Change is an integral part of resource use that is linked to the development of policies and the creation of opportunities which lead to sustainable develop­ment. The World Commission on Environment and Development has defined sustainable development as 'a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological devel­opment and institutional changes are m a d e consistent with future as well as pres­ent needs' ( W C E D 1987).

The overall aim of projects within H L R U , through appropriate research, should be to identify opportunities for changing resource use so as to stimulate investment in a manner which leads to sustainable development and economic growth. In almost all cases, it is anticipated that the work should directly con­tribute to current policy and management issues and, wherever possible, lead to proposals for policy change. Drawing on the ecological strength of the M A B network (Fig. 1) which has been developed since the early 1970s, it is envis­aged that projects, apart from having a strong policy perspective, should also focus on the interface of environmental integrity, economic efficiency, and equity considerations. This would also facilitate the illustration of the linkages between natural and the social sciences which has always been an objective of M A B projects.

The specific objectives of H I R U should be: • to identify policy issues at the interface between investment, resource use, economic development and the environment; • to elaborate project proposals which address these issues;

• to act as a catalyst for locating and pooling together the financial, technical and other resources necessary for the implementation of these projects;

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Z-Urban systems

Island and coastal ecosystems

Inland waters and wetlands

High mountain systems

Temperate, mediterranean and boreal landscapes

Arid and semi-arid lands

H u m i d and sub-humid tropical and sub-tropical ecosystems

/

Fig. 1. Organization of M A B field research with a strong ecological focus in different biomes and their relationship to the evolving four n e w research orientations.

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• to ensure the wide dissemination of the information and policy recommen­dations which arise from the above work; and • to monitor the extent to which the recommendations are used by decision­makers.

A key theme for projects within the M R U orientation should be 'adjustment to and the management of change'. Aspects of change which m a y have to be considered include socio-economic, institutional and ecological changes. With the correct information and attitudes, change provides opportunities to achieve sustainable development and improve resource use.

The environment, economics and equity interface

In all cases, M A B projects within the H I R U orientation should address the inter­face between ecological and economic systems by examining the policy goals of ensuring environmental integrity, economic efficiency and equity in distribution of benefits. Most resource use and development issues require trade-offs among these goals. W o r k within H I R U , by its focus on harmonizing the conflicts among these three goals, can be expected to provide timely and pertinent information and policy options for consideration by the decision-making community.

The first of the 3Es — Environmental integrity — requires the identifica­tion and/or development of ecologically favourable management regimes which lead to economic development. Environmental integrity places due recognition on the dynamics of ecosystem functions, their resilience and responses to change. It stresses the importance of adopting policies which allow ecosystems to adapt to changing conditions with a m i n i m u m of adverse impact. Amongst other things, it is essential that the waste assimilative and environmental amenity functions of ecosystems are maintained. This would require target re­search on ecosystem functioning in order to test hypotheses on linkages between adjacent ecosystems, and among ecological, social and economic systems. Syn­thesis of research results, from M A B studies of the past conducted in several biomes and to be carried out under Orientation n* 1 ('Ecosystem functioning under different intensities of h u m a n impact') should provide the basis for ela­boration of environmental integrity criteria and identification of critical vari­ables that need to be monitored.

The policy goal of Economic efficiency, requires that all internal and exter­nal costs, including those long-run costs which affect future generations, are in­cluded in the costs imposed on resource users. If this is done, then the costs will be transferred to the consumers through market processes and reflect the true economic cost of resource use (Box 2). Economic efficiency also requires that short-run costs of control and prevention of environmental damage are met by

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Box 2. Discovering the true cost of resources

In this example from Pearce (1988b), SS and D D are supply and demand cur­ves with which most people are famil­iar. Pi is the current price and Qi the current quantity of resource used. H o w ­ever, using resources often imposes costs elsewhere in the economy and, furthermore, if consumption of resour­ces does not allow for replenishment, the resources are unavailable for future use. Only if market processes respond to these external-and user costs (fore­going future uses) will the true price prevail and the 'correct' amount of re­sources be used.

Prevailing market forces, which do not respond to such external and user costs are poor guides to the usable quan­tity and prices of certain types of resources. S o m e examples are non­exclusive resources (use of the resource by one user need not reduce the amount or quality available to another user.

such as aesthetic characteristics of a reserve) or resources for which markets are not always fully developed (e.g. en­dangered species). W h e n external and user costs are estimated by interdiscipli­nary teams of experts and policy deci­sions are m a d e to include them, the price increases from Pi to P2 (if only ex­ternal costs are included) and to P3 (if both external and user costs are in­cluded). This increase in price will re­sult in a decrease in the quantity of resource used from Qi to Q 2 (if only external costs are included) and to Q 3 (if external and user costs are included). A combination of market forces and policy decisions to incorporate external and user costs will be required if 'true' prices and quantities of resource use are to be established. Investment strategies should be directed towards guiding the price and quantity changes so as to re­flect the 'true' prices and quantities.

24

resource users. At the same time, it recognizes that economic incentives for the production of public benefits which are not expressed in the market place must be offered to resource users w h o supply those public (environmental) benefits. Assuming those w h o gain from a reallocation of resources compensate those w h o lose, an economically efficient allocation of resource use is optimal in the sense that there is no other allocation which would m a k e at least one person bet­ter-off but no one worse-off.

Equity considerations, on the other hand, relate to changes in the distribution of resource use rights, income and profits a m o n g various socio-economic classes of people and directly relate to the politics of the development of a given region. H o w ­ever, if research results are to be relevant to decision-makers then research must take full account of conflicts between interest groups. In particular, careful thought needs to be given to the effects of the redistribution of wealth and rights to use re­sources which go beyond those necessary to achieve economic efficiency. The re­distribution of land is one example of such a policy issue. Reallocation of resour­ces, such as land, involves moral and ethical considerations which have political implications. Theoretical reasons for recommending policies which favour relative­ly higher economic gains to the poor need to be identified and highlighted. They would facilitate poor resource-users to break free from the 'environment-poverty trap' (Pearce 1988b) and enable them to contribute towards sustaining the waste assimilating and environmental amenity values of ecosystems which they normally tend to undervalue or ignore completely.

Institutional arrangements must be understood in any attempt to recommend optimal trade-offs a m o n g the 3Es so that the results of the studies can be presented in a manner which is easily interpreted by policy-makers and advi­sors. Furthermore, the time horizons for which the 3Es are assessed and evalu­ated and the limitations of extrapolating these assessments and evaluations into the future, need to be highlighted. Economically efficient policies recom­mended for a short-term time frame, for example, m a y have adverse environ­mental implications over longer time horizons.

The objective of harmonizing the policy goals of environmental integrity, econ­omic efficiency and equity considerations is implicit in several on-going M A B pro­jects; e.g. the work on protecting ecologically representative areas in biosphere reserves seeks to encourage the use of environmental amenities and genetic resour­ces of ecosystems within the reserves for the economic benefit of local people. In the future, conscious efforts to quantify and m a k e explicit the relationships and trade-offs among these policy goals are needed. It will be through the results and recommendations of such work that policy-makers and advisors would be able to identify ways and means by which they could redistribute the economic benefits of ecosystem and genetic conservation in biosphere reserves to the relative advantage of local people.

25

A policy/decision-making focus

B y focusing on the above 3Es interface, it is anticipated that work within H T R U will remain policy relevant and seek to identify policy instruments, institutional arrangements and management strategies, which, by changing investment beha­viour and resource use patterns, can be expected to improve the overall value of the resources to present and future generations. Contact with decision-makers and their advisors, as well as interactions with resource users, during the design phase of M A B - H I R U projects will be indispensable. A strong policy dimension also re­quires that projects be designed in such a manner so as to produce realistic policy recommendations within a two to three year time frame. Although in some cases further work m a y be necessary, the difficulties in holding multi-disciplinary teams together over longer time periods must be borne in mind. In this regard the ap­proach of identifying a series of policy propositions and persuading the research community to test their work against them is recommended. A s far as possible, this should be achieved by drawing on current information and insights and the development of concepts and principles which are relevant to the management and use of resources. Such information and insights will benefit from the future syn­thesis work of M A B along Orientation n' 1 ('Ecosystem functioning under differ­ent intensities of human impact') and along Orientation n" 2 ('Management and restoration of human-impacted resources').

A comparative approach

Although it need not necessarily be a dominant perspective, most H I R U pro­jects could benefit from a comparative approach so that their conclusions and relevance to more than one situation could be clearly demonstrated. The use of a comparative methodology is already a characteristic of several M A B initia­tives, such as those joint operations with I U B S on Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility (Swift 1987) and Responses of Savannas to Stress and Disturbance (Frost et al. 1986). A comparative methodological perspective would also en­able the coordination of M A B - H I R U work with the efforts of other international organizations such as F A O , I U C N , U N D P , U N E P , World Bank and O E C D .

It is suggested that attempts to examine problems related to the improvements in methodology per se which fall clearly within the domains of ecology, econ­omics, or any such established disciplines be avoided, except where M A B has a relative advantage to deal with those questions.

26

P R O J E C T F R A M E W O R K

It is envisaged that H I R U , as a n e w M A B orientation, will utilize the principal biomes and physiographic units recognized within M A B (Fig. 1) as a means to group themes and issues. Within each of these categories, the four new orienta­tions are expected to fine-tune and re-orientate M A B work. Projects which do not fit within one or more of the orientation/biome categories in Figure 1 are likely to be phased out. Unlike other work on the interface between ecological and socio­economic systems, the work of M A B - H I R U will focus on investment, rather than development, as a motor for influencing changes in resource use patterns. With­in the context of H I R U , changes in investment patterns, particularly at the local level, are seen as a necessary precursor to the realization of development goals.

Time and space dimensions of investment and resource use in respect of each of the themes and issues will figure prominently in H I R U work. T ime has very different implications for economic efficiency, environmental integrity and equity considerations. In private production, the interests of future generations have almost no influence on resource use or current investment policy and hence the intergenerational-equity problems caused by degradation of resources could be substantial. In the public sector, particularly in developing countries, policies often promote the extensification of agricultural land to the detriment of natu­ral ecosystems. They m a y be motivated by the political need to meet rising socio-economic expectations of a land-hungry peasantry but too frequently fa­vour clearing of 'natural' vegetation in 'new' areas than encourage redevelop­ment of degraded sites or re-distribute titled lands.

Environmental effects of economic and natural resource use policy vary de­pending upon the perceived benefits of those policies over different scales of time and space. Rehabilitating degraded natural ecosystems m a y take centuries. Economic benefits of commercial forestry, however, m a y accrue over 25-80 years, fruit-tree and vineyard production within 10 to 50 years and cereal pro-

27

duction in 1 or 2 years. Governments, which generally need to achieve their pol­icy goals within a 3-5 year framework (Fig. 2), tend to evolve economic and natural resource use policies that encourage production of cereals and annual crops, and fruits and vine-crops, over those favouring commercially valuable but slow-growing trees and the rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems.

Spatial effects of economic policies m a y also have similar differences depend­ent upon scale. Withdrawal of a production subsidy m a y be efficient from a na­tional and international perspective that emphasizes removal of controls imposed upon market processes. The impact of the subsidy withdrawal on producers at the local level, however, m a y result in resource use patterns which m a y be non-sus-

Fig. 2. Response times for different categories of resource use. Note that only agricultural crops with short response times fit into the 'life-span' of governments. [Source: Maini 1988.]

28

tainable. This would be particularly so if the economic loss borne by the local pro­ducer due to subsidy withdrawal was not compensated by other incentives, for example in terms of changes in the local producer's rights to have access and use resources. Although subsidy withdrawal m a y result, over time, in an increase in price to indicate the true cost of production (Box 2), the economic benefits of a higher price to local producers m a y only be marginal. A larger share of those econ­omic benefits m a y reach trading and merchant groups, particularly if these groups are vital for linking producers with the markets for their products.

Policy recommendations to change interactions between h u m a n investment and resource use should, apart from time and space considerations, also take into account the infrastructural and institutional framework within which such changes need to be effected. This is essential in order to identify the choice and mix of policy instruments which would influence decision-making processes and facilitate desired changes (Table 1, Fig. 3). A mix of instruments, includ­ing subsidies, incentives and tariffs, m a y often be essential parts of economic and resource use policies that aim to redistribute economic and environmental benefits by reallocating resource use rights and changing consumption patterns. Consideration of infrastructural and institutional constraints on implementation of policy will also enable the identification and formulation of politically real­istic proposals. Even where policy recommendations of M A B - H T R U work m a y be politically sensitive, the manner in which they are phrased and presented m a y improve the chances of their acceptability to, and subsequent adoption by, de­cision-makers.

Fundamental structural decisions, such as the physical development of a re­gion, involve massive investments and have a long and usually permanent im­pact on resource use and consumption patterns. Most decision-makers m a k e relatively few structural decisions during their lifetime. Examples include the implementation of a major river-valley development scheme or large-scale con­version of tropical forests to plantations for timber production. In each case, a major investment of time, labour, money , and natural resources is involved and as a result the physical, socio-economic and institutional structure of a region is changed fundamentally. Structural decisions are also usually characterized by the acquisition of a substantial debt which must be repaid.

Throughout the world, there are m a n y examples of structural decisions whose effects on resource sustainability, in retrospect, have been considered negative. Structural decisions in the past have too frequently been m a d e on the basis of narrowly-defined economic efficiency criteria. Negative outcomes of past structural decisions have committed nations and regions to debt repayment schedules which constrain their present and future structural decisions and in­vestments. N e w approaches to debt management, such as debt-for-nature swaps, provide innovative links between debt repayment and environmental manage-

29

T A B L E 1. H u m a n investment and resource use: a suggested framework for problem analysis and project development.

Investment/Resource Category components/Examples

Natural/cultural infrastructure

Institutional framework

Policy interface

Natural and transformed resource base land/water soils, plant/animal systems natural and modified ecosystems

H u m a n religious/ideological context tradition and cultural attitudes socio-economic classes and interactions demographic factors education/literacy related factors

Physical villages, towns, cities road and transportation systems information, dissemination and communication systems

Rights-structure and distribution in terms of land other natural resources resource use

Organizational constitution legislation administrative structures market structure and function international relations

Technology available technology access to technology

Goals environmental integrity economic efficiency equity

Constraints time/space considerations basic needs (e.g. social-security, subsidies on food, education, health, etc.)

Instruments subsidies taxes and tariffs regulations

Time Spatial interests and contexts

Days W e e k s Months

Years Decades

Generations

Local

Regional (within country) National Sub-regional (sub-continental)

Regional (geographic, geo-political, ecological)

Global

30

NATURAL RESOURCES

INFRASTRUCTURE

INSTITUTIONAL

FRAMEWORK

ENVIRONMENTAL INTEGRITY

ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY

EQUITY CONSIDERATIONS

UJ DC

I-3

HI X I-GC O u.

U) z o w o UJ

o

/l\

TIME

BASIC NEEDS

SPACE

-SUBSIDIES

- TAXES AND TARIFFS

• REGULATIONS

STRUCTURAL / | \TACTICAL

STRATEGIC

Fig. 3 . Diagrammatic representation of h u m a n investment and resource use factors and their link to structural, strategic and tactical decisions for the future via the policy interface.

31

ment and hence m a y facilitate positive investments in the immediate future. From a long-term point of view, however, incorporating criteria related to en­vironmental integrity and equity considerations, in addition to those of econ­omic efficiency, into policy- and decision-making processes would probably be the optimal w a y to minimize future negative consequences of investments m a d e on die basis of current structural decisions.

Strategic decisions are m a d e on a more regular basis and characteristically involve a decision to use a set of resources and the structural investments which underpin them differently. Examples include a decision to begin cropping a traditional grazing area and the introduction of a tax on the use of certain re­sources so as to limit pollution. These decisions are often m a d e periodically and are particularly sensitive to changes in governments and the emergence of major international agreements.

Sometimes strategic decisions are constrained by or depend upon invest­ments m a d e in accordance with structural decisions that have already been taken and which have changed the relative values of resources in a region. M o r e fre­quently, however, they are taken in response to an assessment of the likely fu­ture impact of global market conditions on resource use in a region. Most gov­ernment policy decisions which involve legislation operate at this level. Often their purpose is to stimulate investment and/or change resource use. At other times, the intention is to internalize external costs (such as the effects of soil erosion on water quality) which affect resource users. The alternative is to pro­vide financial inducements to modify management practices and consumption patterns of resource users so as to enhance environmental quality.

Tactical decisions are principally concerned with short-term considerations associated with resource use and development. N o single tactical decision is likely to have a permanent influence on resource use, but by examining their aggregate impacts on resource use and investment, the need for a strategic de­cision to be taken can often be identified. Because of the recommendation that projects should have a strong policy perspective, it is anticipated that most work within this orientation will be concerned with strategic and tactical decisions m a d e by administrators and managers. M A B has the relative advantage of being able to do this within a framework of substantial knowledge on natural and so­cial systems which it has accumulated since the early 1970s.

Other M A B orientations (see Preface and Fig. 1), through their continuing concern with the development of scientific knowledge, expertise and technol­ogy, will also contribute to H I R U , vis-a-vis their insights into the nature of structural investments which would be needed to maintain essential ecosystem functions and processes. Such insights would be crucial in identifying and for­mulating policy recommendations for the management as well as restoration and redevelopment of ecosystems.

32

E X A M P L E S OF T H E M E S A N D ISSUES

Given the conceptual framework considered here and the goal of seeking to re­solve resource allocation and use issues associated with a number of conflicting policy options, it is proposed that the initial work under this new research orien­tation should include studies within one or more of the following thematic areas:

• Buffer and transition zone management and development within the context of biosphere reserves and World Heritage sites in various ecological zones of the world;

• Investments in management and restoration/redevelopment of tropical eco­systems; • Resource use, investment and sustainable development in arid and semi-arid lands; • Rural land-use change, investment, and resource use in mid-temperate agri­cultural areas;

• Resource use, allocation and investment in coastal areas and islands; • Management of investment problems at the human/environment interface in urban systems; and • The influence of national and international marketing and trade arrange­ments on investment and resource use in the tropical and sub-tropical regions, particularly in savanna ecosystems.

In the following paragraphs, some of these themes are developed in further detail, with a view to indicating the types of policy relevant issues which pro­jects could address. M a n y of the linkages between h u m a n activities and natural processes are understood, but have been poorly enunciated because of differen­ces in the approaches and assumptions used by social and natural scientists. This problem needs to be addressed and that which is already k n o w n documented. This understanding of the linkages between the two broad groupings of scien­ces should then form a basis for further H I R U work. Important areas for clearer

33

elaboration include the linkages between poverty and investment; poverty and the sustainable use of resources; the rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems; re­source quality and development; product price, marketing arrangements, and the intensity of resource use; rural population decline and development; property rights and investment, etc. Most of these linkages are understood with greater precision in developed countries and, in several cases, the degree to which they apply to developing countries has still to be demonstrated. Co-oper­ation with other international and regional agencies working to identify these relationships, such as the World Bank and the regional development banks, is envisaged.

Buffer zone management

Zoning as a means of delineating the permitted or desired types of land use with­in an area has been applied as a planning and management technique in several fields, such as urban planning and natural resources management. In protected area management, it has been widely adopted and is an important application of the biosphere reserve concept designed, as part of M A B Project 8, to con­serve genetic resources contained within natural areas. While the importance of establishing and managing buffer zones around core zones of protected areas is widely acknowledged, their use as a management tool to guide investment has not been clearly demonstrated. The difficulties involved in attaining the goals of buffer zone development are frequently related to the lack of policy initia­tives to resolve conflicts among competing environmental, economic and social objectives of buffer zone management.

Key policy issues in buffer zone management relate to a) the consolidation of the primary role of the buffer zone in enhancing the preservation of the core zone of protected areas, and b) facilitating investments which encourage the sustainable use of buffer zone resources for the benefit of local people. The in­formation needed and the decision-makers involved in resolving these policy issues could be case-specific. However, some underlying environmental, econ­omic and equity considerations that must be taken into account could form the basis for future work.

Environmental integrity within core and buffer zones of protected areas re­quires an understanding of: • Comparative biological values in terms of species diversity, endemism and gene pools at national, regional and international scales; • Comparative ecological values in terms of critical importance of ecosystems, m i n i m u m area requirements met by core/buffer zones for protecting ecosys­tems/species, ecosystem functions as watersheds, in flood control, in tempera-

34

ture regulation and as habitats for m i n i m u m viable populations of endangered, threatened, and rare species; and • Effectiveness of design features and legislative and management infrastruc­ture of core and buffer zones in ensuring the long-term conservation of biologi­cal and ecological values.

T o assess whether or not policy proposals are economically efficient it m a y be necessary to collect information on: • The socio-economic value of the principal environmental functions of buffer zones; • The net income accrued through services provided vis-à-vis research and data collection, environmental education, tourism and recreation; • The net income generated through sustainable use of resources in the buffer zone and other multiple and traditional use zones outside of the core; and

• The revenue accrued, due to the scientific, conservation and aesthetic im­portance of the area, through national, regional and international users.

Equity considerations relate to the distribution of benefits and costs a m o n g several interest groups. Frequently while some resource users m a y be incur­ring the costs of conservation and management, other beneficiaries m a y re­ceive a 'free ride'. In other cases, a national government agency m a y bear all the costs, while resource users reap most of the benefits. The reallocation of rights to use and develop resources within a buffer zone is also a major invest­ment issue. The right to control access to scenically valued areas, for example, has a substantial impact on investment. Asymmetries in the distribution of costs and benefits to interest groups at local and national levels m a y also occur. Economic benefits through resource development activities benefit local people but services such as tourism and recreation frequently benefit external interest groups, often from urban areas, which have direct access to interna­tional tourism networks (Box 3).

Considerations of environmental integrity, economic efficiency and equity in distribution of cost/benefits m a y differ also between core and buffer zones of protected areas. In any given national situation, there are other administra­tive/legislative constraints within which solutions to conflicting priorities among environmental, economic and equity considerations must be sought. Knowledge of these constraints will be an important prerequisite to the devel­opment of policy relevant conclusions.

For any given work to benefit policy-makers and advisors, the following types of questions m a y have to be posed: • Given a distribution of costs/benefits a m o n g interest groups at the local/na­tional level, what policy initiatives would attract investment to increase econ­omic benefit to local people, with a concurrent enhancement of environmental benefits at the national, regional and international levels?

35

Box 3. Biosphere reserves, environmental amenities and economic benefits

Efforts to protect ecologically rep­resentative areas in biosphere reserves seek to encourage the use of environmental amenities and genetic resources of ecosystems within those reserves for the econ­omic benefit of local people. Fu­ture work might usefully quantify and m a k e explicit the relationships and trade-offs required to a) broaden access to environmen­tal amenities to users outside the local region and b) enhance econ­omic benefits to local people. The accompanying figure describes the changes that might be desired by the management of a biosphere reserve with regard to the distribu­tion of access to environmental amenities and economic benefits among users at the local, regional (within a country), national, con­tinental-regional and global levels.

In most protected areas, access to environmental amenities (curve A A ) is highest at the local level (L) (e.g. clean air, scenic beauty, minimal pol­lution) but decreasing at regional (within nation R N ) , national (N)> re­

gional (continental region R C ) , and global levels (G) (curve A A ) . In con­trast, economic benefits (curve B B ) derived from resource use or from exploiting economic value of envi­ronmental amenities tend to peak at national (N) rather than at local (L)-regional (RN) or global (G)-regional (RC) levels (curve B B ) . For example in less developed countries, econ­omic benefits of environmental amenities, such as scenic beauty, are exploited for the benefit of a tourist industry whose objectives are often linked to national economic develop­ment with benefits to local people being accrued in a coincidental rather than in a planned manner.

A n international biosphere reserve (Unesco 1984) —through its emphasis upon international co­operation to further research, training and demonstration, environ­mental education, environmental monitoring and conservation of genetic diversity— increases access to environmental amenities of the protected area to levels other than the local, but without reducing local ac-

36

cessibility levels (curve A A ' ) . In the biosphere reserve, the management also aims to elevate the level of econ­omic benefit to local people, either without adversely affecting benefits

already accrued by other levels (B'B) or through policy incentives aimed to provide relatively higher economic gains at the local in comparison to other levels ( B ' B ' ) .

E S s < -I

Í 3

> z ui

s

§

DISTRIBUTION (EQUITY)

37

• In the absence of major increases in their total annual budgets, what are the legal, administrative and fiscal measures that would enable national governmen­tal agencies to increase their investment into applied research directly relevant to buffer zone management?

• Could investment in research, tourism development or environmental edu­cation in reserve management, from external resources, be increased to an ex­tent where the national agency could maximize its o w n investment mainly on infrastructure building for protection? W h a t are the advantages and disadvant­ages of adopting such a policy and, if advantages clearly outweigh disadvant­ages, what are the necessary institutional and organizational changes that would be required to implement such a policy?

Investment in restoration and redevelopment of tropical ecosystems

Restoration and/or redevelopment of ecosystems whose production potentials have been eroded due to misuse and mismanagement are vital concerns in the management of change and sustainability of tropical ecosystems. Investments to facilitate the exploitation of natural resources within the tropics often adver­sely impact both ecological and economic production capabilities of tropical ecosystems. O n e of the best k n o w n examples in this regard is the conversion of certain tropical humid forests, often with a large proportion of the nutrients locked up in the biomass rather than in the soil, to other land-use categories such as agriculture and animal husbandry. In m a n y cases, production from the converted land is limited to a few years. A s a result vast areas of tropical lands, denuded of their forest-cover, have been abandoned to homogenous swards of weeds such as the grass Imperata cylindrica. S o m e exploitive uses, such as ir­rigated agriculture, if poorly managed m a y result in increased soil salinity. A q u ­atic ecosystems, in coastal and inland areas, m a y also suffer from similar non-sustainable uses of their resources, or of the resources of their drainage basins and catchments.

Rehabilitation of tropical ecosystems m a y be necessary when their environ­mental integrity has been compromised to an extent where conventional benefits due to resource-use, waste assimilation and/or environmental amenity functions of ecosystems can no longer be accrued. Loss of environmental integrity owing to non-sustainable uses might be due to soil erosion, loss of nutrients or accumu­lation of some elements to toxic levels, eutrophication, invasion by undesirable plant and animal species and loss of species diversity. In tropical ecosystems where elements of the physical and biological environment are closely linked to

38

the socio-cultural environment, loss in environmental integrity m a y lead, amongst other things, to depopulation of villages and ensuing neglect and decay of cultu­ral life and artefacts. Recovering environmental integrity, both in terms of the natural and socio-cultural environment, to desired levels, will have to be an im­portant consideration of ecosystem restoration/redevelopment schemes. Identifi­cation of the expected net return of planned activities will also be important in de­signing cost effective restoration/redevelopment programmes.

In most ecosystems, loss of environmental integrity is likely to lead, through the economically inefficient consumption of scarce resources, to increasing pov­erty and decreasing development opportunities. Even where environmental inte­grity remains largely unaffected (e.g. a national park or a similar protected area), economically inefficient policies m a y lead to revenue losses if tourism, depend­ent largely on visitors from other countries, is affected by domestic/international political situations. Here the protected area network of the country m a y require redevelopment from an economic sense, since environmental integrity remains largely unaffected. In other cases, such as converting Imperata grasslands to pas­tures with enhanced year-round grazing value, policy incentives m a y be necess­ary to attract investments which lead to desired combinations of economic actions and their predicted consequences on resource use and the environment.

A variety of interest groups are affected and hence need to participate in sus­tainable development within the tropics. Considerations regarding w h o pays for rehabilitation and h o w the benefits are to be distributed are unavoidable since vast tracts of wastelands in the tropics are 'owned by the public' and require clear government policies to allocate resource-use rights. Redevelopment in most cases is likely to have 'winners' and 'losers' in an economic sense. H u n ­ters and gatherers w h o live within a tropical forest are likely to lose from most forms of development. Moreover, as the quantity and quality of forest resour­ces available to these people diminish, they m a y be forced to adopt short-term resource exploitation strategies to the detriment of the long-term conservation of the forest ecosystem.

S o m e questions that m a y be of interest to policy-makers and which could form the basis of future H I R U projects include: • Is restoration of degraded tropical humid and other forest lands a realistic policy alternative? Is redevelopment a better alternative? Could the differential effects of alternative sets of policy options that characterize restoration and re­development of tropical lands be demonstrated in field projects scheduled to be completed within politically realistic time periods?

• W h a t are the environmental integrity, economic efficiency and equity con­siderations that must be taken into account in crop-diversification in agro-eco­systems? W h a t mix and choice of policy initiatives enhance the probabilities of success in such redevelopment efforts?

39

• C a n investment into the development of knowledge and expertise related to ecosystems rehabilitation be increased through policy incentives for existing national governmental and non-governmental organizations to strengthen their international and regional cooperation in research, management and training ef­forts? Would setting up new institutions solely addressing research, manage­ment and training needs of ecosystem restoration and redevelopment be a bet­ter alternative?

Investment and resource use in tropical savannas

Almost one fifth of the world's population lives in the tropical savannas, m a n y of them in rural societies which depend on subsistence agriculture supplemented by the periodic sale of livestock. Moreover, m a n y savanna resources are severe­ly degraded and the future of the people w h o depend on them appears to be heav­ily dependent on the development of sustainable grazing systems which include improved market and investment opportunities. The cycle of degradation of sa­vanna resources and ensuing pauperization of dependant people could only be checked by policy interventions similar to those recommended for certain other resources in the Sahelian region (Box 4).

Most current livestock markets in tropical savanna regions are depressed. Pastoralists are unable to compete with farmers in most industrialized countries where markets are generally subsidized and highly protected. At a national level, there are also m a n y impediments to the further development of livestock markets. Not all of these policies are economically efficient and in several cases they encourage livestock management patterns which are not sustainable. Examples include controls on market prices which aim to reduce the cost of food in urban areas, inappropriate credit facilities, and the lack of enforced health regulations and restrictions on the movement of livestock. A s a result, the economies of most savanna regions remain depressed and opportunities for developing export income and establishing sustainable production systems are limited.

In several countries, such as Botswana, special preferential trade agreements and other subsidies have stimulated certain forms of savanna land use which have increased the rate of land degradation. In other cases, local investment pro­grammes have favoured developments and changed land use rights in a w a y which does not favour all land users. 'Small is beautiful for those w h o benefit, and clearly small efficient successes are better than none. However, small is less than beautiful for those w h o do not benefit, particularly if they do not benefit precisely because someone else is getting an excessive and unreplicable

40

concentration of the limited support services... Linking localized initiatives to national support and ensuring that they use resources wisely is important for people as well as for economies.' (Nelson 1988).

Within the context of savanna land use and investment, questions which could be considered within the H I R U framework include: • H o w degraded are the savannas and what are the linkages between their con­dition and the economic development of the people w h o use them? • H o w do production incentives, trade barriers and market conditions affect use and sustainable development of savannas? • Which types of investment in livestock market conditions and transport and communication networks are most likely to stimulate positive local adjustments in livestock management?

O n e proposed activity which addresses questions such as these has been ela­borated within Responses of Savannas to Stress and Disturbance ( R S S D ) , a joint venture of the International Union of Biological Sciences (IUBS) and Unesco-M A B , with the overall aim of comparing the responses of different savanna re­gions to similar types and degrees of disturbance using, wherever possible, ex­perimental techniques (Frost et al. 1986). This collaborative programme also includes a number of synthesis activities, one of which is focussed upon econ­omic driving forces and constraints of land use in savanna regions. Several case studies and issue papers, adopting a comparative approach, have been commis­sioned and will be presented and discussed at a workshop in Nairobi in Ja­nuary 1991.

Rural land use change in temperate zones

Since 19S0, rural land use change in mid-temperate agricultural areas has been substantial. Within the European Community , for example, a combination of social, economic, technological and political factors have contributed to over­capacity in food production (Fig. 4). Agriculture at the farm level has become more concentrated, more intensive and more uniform. While the production in­creases achieved under the C o m m o n Agricultural Policy have been dramatic, agricultural populations have declined, agricultural pollution has increased, species diversity has declined and landscapes have become more homogeneous.

A s a result of the above problems and also because of international pressure to make European agriculture more economically efficient, substantial reforms to the policies which determine the prices received by European farmers are being considered. A significant reduction in the real prices they receive is one likely scenario. At the same time, it is likely also that direct payments to en-

41

Box 4. Environmental, economic and equity considerations (3Es) in the formulation of policy: a case study of the g u m arabic

A case study of the g u m arabic in Sudan (Pearce 1988a) provides a framework for analyzing the linkages between the 3Es, i.e. Environmental integrity, Economic efficiency and Equity considerations, within the con­text of a resource management issue, and for identifying a policy-frame­work which could facilitate invest­ments to improve the total stock of the available resource.

Resource. Acacia Senegal (local n a m e Hashab [Sudan]) a gum-produc­ing leguminous tree of the Sudano-Sahelian Zone.

Resource product G u m exuded by Acacia Senegal is a low-calorie, non-toxic, polysaccharide, which is flavourless, odourless, highly soluble in water and has a low viscosity. The g u m is a good emulsifier and is sought after in confectionary, beverage, phar­maceutical, lithographic and photo­graphic industries.

Resource substitutes. Another acacia, namely Acacia seyal, pro­duces a g u m but the quality of g u m is considered inferior. Main competing substitutes for the g u m are a) synthetic and modified starch in the confection­ary, beverage and flavouring indus­tries, and b) dextrins, cellulose esters

and synthetic polymers in the pharma­ceutical industry. However, a pre­m i u m on the use of high quality g u m arabic persists in off-set lithography processes and in other manufacturing processes which favour its low-ca­lorie characteristics.

Environmental integrity. Aca­cia Senegal has a very deep and lat­erally expansive tap-root system (often comprising 4 0 % of the tree-bio-mass) which stabilizes the soil. Being a leguminous tree it improves soil quality by fixing nitrogen. In its arid climate the tree, stimulates growth of graminaceous cover in the immediate vicinity for livestock grazing and hence is an integral part of sylvo-pas-toral systems. Its tolerance to tempera­ture and rainfall variation and its N fixing qualities extend its distribution more northwards than other gum-pro­ducing trees of the region, a character­istic which makes it an invaluable species in 'buffer zones' against desertification. There is some evi­dence that yields of cereal and root crops are higher in rotations with .Aca­cia Senegal trees.

Economic efficiency. The 1988 export price for the g u m arabic was U S $ 3,455/tonne. Each tree has an ap-

42

proximately 10-year 'economic life­span' (between years 6 and 16) and up to 400 trees m a y be planted in a hec­tare. There is no economic return from the resource during years 1-5. Fodder production is possible to a certain ex­tent during years 6-16 but could be in­creased thereafter. After age 16, the trees could be cut for fuelwood pro­duction. A partial cost-benefit ana­lysis of g u m arabic planting which took into account all these uses over different time periods, showed a 36% rate-of-return. G u m production is a source of income to fanners during the dry seasons, between November and April, when alternative income oppor­tunities are rare.

Equity considerations. The main product of Acacia Senegal, the g u m arabic, has an international market and prices are regulated to a certain extent by the G u m Arabic Company which has monopoly power within Sudan. T h e government collects revenues through taxes, on the sales of the company as well as that of local merchants. The latter might obtain a 13-16% share of the final export price. Partial cost-benefit analysis of g u m arabic tree planting assumed that farmers received 70% of export price; the estimate of 36% rate-of-return is likely to be significantly lower if the merchant share is considered. Mer ­chants provide loans to fanners (under a local 'sheil' system) where­by farmers mortgage part of their crops to merchants in exchange for other goods. Implicit interest rates of these loans are high, around 50-75%.

Policy questions. Fanner decison making processes in Sudan are caught in an 'environment-poverty' trap; farmers, already poor due to deteriorating ecological conditions of the Sudano-Sahelian region, opt for short-term economic gains to the long-term detriment of the environ­ment which further pauperizes them.

Within this environmental and socio­economic context, what policy incen­tives are needed to accelerate planting of g u m arabic trees by far­mers?

Policy recommendations. Im­mediate increases in planting of g u m arabic can be effected most efficient­ly by concerted effort to supply rural credit to fanners, through co-opera­tive schemes. The high risk of crop failure due to adverse environmental conditions, lack of alternative credit sources to those provided by local merchants and the lack of personal re­source tenure among farmers con­strain market forces alone encouraging anything more than token planting of g u m arabic. G o v ­ernment efforts to raise tax revenues by increasing tax levied on profits from G u m Arabic Company and/or local merchants m a y have the nega­tive effect of the burden of the tax-raise being ultimately transferred d o w n to the farmer level. The govern­ment could also investigate estab­lishing co-operative schemes where it m a y provide tax-incentives to G u m Arabic Company and local merchants and set up mechanisms for transfer­ring their gains in revenue to pro­ducer (farmer) benefits and planting of g u m arabic.

Planting is the only way to in­crease the stock of the resource (the g u m arabic) available for current and future use. Tax incentives, in­stitutional arrangements (co-opera­tive schemes) , legislative and regulatory measures, and funds, spent by the government or other in­terested groups, directly on replant­ing schemes or indirectly through subsidies on seeds, fertilizers and other materials essential for replant­ing, together constitute the invest­m e n t to alter resource use and management patterns. along desir­able directions.

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Intervention purchases lor removing products from E C domestic market

Variable Import levy for raising price of foreign products

C E C providing mechanisms and pricing policies to avoid unpleasantness

G D P more associated with retailing-processing than farming

Population static

Pressure of politicians to avoid adjustments which are unpalatable

Any increase in food expenditures not for extra quantities, but rather in terms of 'quality1 (convenience, variety, novelty)

Inadequate growth of d e m a n d

UNDERLYING CAUSES OF OVER PRODUCTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

Economic conditions making fertilizer application appear profitable (even essential for survival)

Growth of output resulting from new technologies (technological motor")

Acceptance of n e w technologies by farmers

Market risk of production transferred to public purse

Role of agricultural extension services (private and government) In offering free advice to farmers

Flow of ideas from research

Self conscious pursuit of discoveries Important for agriculture (e.g. n e w crop varieties)

Application of discoveries not targetted on agriculture (e.g. n e w plastics)

Fig. 4. Schematic representation of underlying causes of over-production and environmen­tal degradation associated with agriculture within the European Community. [Adapted from Marsh (1987) and other sources.]

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courage farmers to preserve the environmental integrity of sensitive areas are likely to be increased. Similarly, and at the same time, it is likely that greater use will be m a d e of income support payments which do not induce production, particularly in economically less favoured areas. If any or all of these changes occur, n e w investments will be m a d e and the value of old ones is expected to alter with substantial consequences for resource use and the environment.

From an environmental integrity viewpoint, careful consideration will need to be given to the effects of any resultant land-use changes on flora, fauna, quality of air, water and soils and landscape amenity values. A s the resources available to achieve regional development are scarce, the pursuit of economi­cally efficient policy solutions will be advantageous to local people, the envi­ronment and society in general. Equity considerations already have a dominant position within this policy area as all the above changes are likely to have a sub­stantial impact on the relative wealth and welfare of local resource users. In contrast, price support in the past has been of greatest benefit to large efficient producers.

K e y policy questions which need to be addressed within the context of agri­cultural production within mid-temperate agricultural areas include: • W h a t will be the effects of agricultural price reduction on Mediterranean landscapes and ecosystems?

• W h a t policy incentives and other measures are likely to be most effective in preserving environmental integrity within this mid-temperate zone? • W h a t types of land-use change should be promoted? • H o w will these changes affect the welfare of people in rural areas and what policies are likely to promote investments which will stimulate efficient re­gional development and sustainable resource use? • Which areas and landscape types are most susceptible to adverse environ­mental and/or socio-economic changes?

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F U T U R E D E V E L O P M E N T

Bringing together specialists from natural and social sciences disciplines has always been one of the main features of M A B efforts directed towards finding practical solutions to problems of sustainable development. Efforts at such in­tegration have met with many obstacles; the behavioural and psychological characteristics of individual scientists, differences in scientific method, and bot­tlenecks of a more administrative, institutional, political and financial nature (di Castri and Hadley 1986). But a fair number of examples within M A B have demonstrated that interdisciplinary approaches can be m a d e to work and can re­sult in a unique array of products, given the correct mix of ingredients. A n u m ­ber of interdisciplinary projects within M A B have entailed the participation of specialists from a wide range of natural and social sciences, including econo­mics, and have a m o n g other issues, examined economic forces that drive change and the economic implications of different development options. S o m e exam­ples of this economic dimension within past and on-going M A B projects are given in Table 2.

This being said, it must be recognized that the socio-economic dimension has tended to be absent or peripheral in much M A B work in the past. It is within this perspective that H I R U provides a new opportunity for demonstrating inno­vative combinations of thought and action from the natural and social sciences. The emphasis that H I R U work places upon addressing issues relevant to policy makers and making recommendations within relatively short time frames is an element that has often been advocated in M A B , but all-too-rarely achieved in practice. Perhaps this shortfall between advocacy and accomplishment is in part explained by the general absence of economics and policy-making consider­ations in the conception and detailed formulation of M A B projects. Hence, it is hoped that M A B - H I R U projects will be catalytic in establishing fresh links be­tween the conventional biological/ecological constituency of M A B and the new

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emerging networks of environmental and resource economists and environmen­tal policy analysts to benefit the work of the M A B National Committees. A start has already been made in this process in some countries, such as Poland (Boch-niarz and Ginsbert-Gebert 1988). M A B National Committees m a y wish to con­vene special workshops to develop the H I R U orientation within their o w n na­tional contexts.

Future activities foreseen as part of the elaboration of this new research orientation of M A B include:

• Preparation of a state-of-the-art report on the relationships between decision making processes, governmental policies, investment choice, resource use and environmental quality; • Commissioning of several pilot projects based on ideas and proposals to be elaborated in collaboration with M A B National Committees; and • Continuous reassessment and review of key concepts elaborated in this re­port to update them in light of recent developments in related fields of natural and social sciences.

Since the publication of the report of the World Commission on Environ­ment and Development, namely 'Our C o m m o n Future', several U N and other international agencies have initiated projects and programmes to strengthen links between the environmental and economic dimensions of development. The M A B - H I R U work m a y have parallels with many such initiatives, such as the work of the World Bank on environment and development. These parallels offer important advantages for the rapid identification of appropriate policy solutions. The M A B Secretariat in Unesco should take all appropriate measures to ensure that H I R U work is co-ordinated with and gains from the experiences of such parallel efforts. The Secretariat should also help the M A B National Committees in locating and mobilizing the necessary technical and financial resources necessary to launch initiatives within the perspective of H u m a n Investment and Resource Use.

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R E F E R E N C E S

Baker, I. & P. Kaeoniam. 1985. Manual of Coastal Development Planning and Management for Thailand. Thailand Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (TISTR), Bangkok and Unesco, Jakarta.

Barbier, E . B . 1988. New Approaches in Environmental and Resource Eeconomics: Towards an Economics of Sustainable Development. International Institute for Environment and Development, London.

Barbier, E . B . 1989. Economics, Natural Resources Scarcity and Development: Conventional and Alternative Views. Earthscan, London.

Bochniarz, Z . & A . Ginsbert-Gebert (Eds). 1988. The Economic Problems of En­vironmental Protection. An Expertise of the Polish Team of Experts MAB-13a. Ossolineum (Publishing House of the Polish Academy of Sciences), Warsaw.

di Castri, F . & M . Hadley. 1986. Enhancing the credibility of ecology: is interdis­ciplinary research for land use planning useful? Geo Journal 13.4:299-32S.

Frost, P . , E . Medina, J.C. Menaut, O . T . Solbrig, M . Swift & B . H . Walker (Eds). 1986. Responses of Savannas to Stress and Disturbance. Biology Interna­tional, Special Issue 10. IUBS, Paris.

George, S. 1988. A Fate Worse than Debt. Penguin Books, London. Hadjej, M . S . , A . Hadji & T . Bouhawach. 1984. Integration of market and subsist­

ence economies and its ecological consequences in grazing and marginal lands of the arid zones of Tunisia. In: F. di Castri, F . W . G . Baker & M . Hadley (Eds), Ecology in Practice. Vol. 1. Ecosystem Management, 228-305. Tycooly, Dublin and Unesco, Paris.

Heydemann, B & H . von Meyer. 1983. Auswirkungen der Intensivkultur auf die Fauna in den Agrarbiotopen. In: Landschaftspflege und landwirtschaftlich in­tensive genutzte Gebiete. Schriftenreihe des Deutschen Rates für Landespflege. 42:174-191.

Kartawinata, K . , H . Soedjito, T . Jessup, A P . Vayda & C.J.P. Golfer. 1984. Impact of development on interactions between people and forests in East Kalimantan:

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a comparison of two areas of Kenyan Dayak. IUCN Occasional Papers 4 (Sup­plement 7): 87-95.

Lena, P . 1984. Le développement des activités humaines. In: JJL. Guillaumet, G . Couturier & H . Dosso (Eds), Recherche et aménagement en milieu forestier tropical humide: le Projet Tai de Côte d'Ivoire, 59-112. Notes techniques du M A B 15. Unesco, Paris,

Maini, J. 1988. Impact of National/Regional Fiscal Policy of Resource Use and En­vironmental Quality. Discussion paper presented at the M A B Task Force Meet­ing on ' H u m a n Investment and Resource Use ' . Unesco, Paris, 29-31 March 1988.

Marsh, J.S. 1987. The economic background. In: D.J.L. Harding (Ed.), Agricultu­ral Surpluses? Environmental Implications of Changes in Farming Policy and Practice in the UX., 1-9. Institute of Biology, London.

Messerli, P. 1987. The development of tourism in the Swiss mountains: Economic, societal and environmental effects. Experience and recommendations from the Swiss M A B Programme. Mountain Research and Development 7:13-24.

Moser, P & W . Moser. 1986. Reflections on the M A B - 6 Obergurgl project and tour­ism in an alpine environment Mountain Research and Development 6:101-118.

Nelson, R . 1988. Future Strategies for Dryland Management: Some World Bank Approaches. Paper prepared for 3rd Ad Hoc Meeting of Inter-Agency W o r k ­ing Group on Desertification, Ashkhabad, April 1988. World Bank, Washington, D . C .

Newcombe, K . & T . Pohai. 1981. The Lae project: an ecological approach to Third World urbanization. Ambio 10:73-78.

Pearce, D . 1988a. Natural resources management and anti-desertification policy in the Sahel-Sudan zone: A case study of gum arabic. Geo Journal 17.3: 349-355.

Pearce, D . 1988b. Economists befriend the earth. New Scientist 1639: 34-39. S R U (Rat von Sachverstandigen für Umweltfragen), 1985. Umweltprobleme der

Landwirtschaft. Sondergutachten. BT-Drucksache 10/3613,3 July 1985. Swift, M J. (Ed.). 1987. Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility (TSBF). Inter-Regional

Research Planning Workshop. Biology International, Special Issue 14. IUBS, Paris.

Unesco, 1984. Action Plan for Biosphere Reserves. Nature & Resources 20.4:1-12. von Meyer, H . 1988. Impact of Agricultural Price Policy on Natural Resources and

Environmental Quality in the European Community. Discussion paper presented at the M A B Task Force Meeting on ' H u m a n Investment and Resource Use*. Unesco, Paris, 29-31 March 1988.

Warford, J. & D . Pearce. 1987. Research Issues in Environment and Development: A Keynote Paper. Environment Policy and Management Division, Environment Department, World Bank, Washington, D . C .

W C E D (World Commission on Environment and Development). 1987. Our Com­mon Future. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

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A N N E X

Task Force on 'Human Investment and Resource Use' (Unesco, Paris, 29-31 March 1988)

Ust of participants

Brigitte D E S A I G U Ë S Editions Siray Revue d'économie politique 22,rueSoufflot 75005 Paris France

VilmaERI Institute of Economies Hungarian Academy of Sciences Budaorsiut45 Budapest 11 H-l 112 Hungary

Oss iLINDQVIST University of Kuopio P . O . Box 6 70211 Kuopio Finland

Gilbert L O N G C N R S , Centre d'écologie fonctionnelle et évolutive C E P E Louis Embeger B.P.5051 34033 Montpellier Cedex France

Ernst L U T Z Division of Environmental

Economies and Policy Environment Department World Bank 1818 " H " Street, N . W . Washington, D . C . 20433 United States of America

J a g M A I N I Assistant Deputy Minister, Policy Canadian Forestry Service Place Vincent Massey 351, St. Joseph Boulevard, 21st Floor Hull, Quebec K 1 A 1G5 Canada

Heino von M E Y E R Institut fur Landliche

Strukturforschung an der Universitât Frankfurt

Zeppelinallee31 D-6000 Frankfurt a.Main 1 Federal Republic of Germany

Michael Y O U N G Environment Directorate Organization for Economic

Development and Cooperation (OECD)

2, rue André Pascal 75775 Paris Cedex France Present address: C S I R O Division of Wildlife and Ecology P . O . Box 84 Lyneham A C T 2602 Australia

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M A B Secretariat

Bemd VON DROSTE Division of Ecological Sciences Pier G . D ' A Y A L A Unesco Malcolm H A D L E Y 7, place de Fontenoy NatarajanlSHWARAN 75700 Paris Mireille J A R D I N France K a r i m a K A S S A B PIRES Michèle D E M A I S T R E Thomas S C H A A F

Titles of discussion papers

Methodological questions related to valuing environmental items, by Brigitte D E S A I G U E S .

Resource use and conservation in a centrally-administered economy, by Vilma ERI.

Concepts and issues in ecology-economics interrelations with special reference to fisheries management, by Ossi L I N D Q V I S T .

The World Bank programme on environment and development, by Ernst L U T Z .

Impact of national/regional fiscal policy of resource use and environmental quality, by J. S. M A I N I .

Impact of agricultural price policy on natural resources and environmental quality in the European Community, by Heino V O N M E Y E R .

Some criteria for prioritizing natural resource economics issues and themes for project development in international scientific programmes, by Michael Y O U N G .

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