Human Development AP Psychology. Chapter Objectives: AP students in psychology should be able to do the following:AP students in psychology should be

Human Human DevelopmentDevelopment

AP PsychologyAP Psychology

Chapter Objectives:Chapter Objectives:• AP students in psychology should be able to do the following:AP students in psychology should be able to do the following:• • • Discuss the interaction of nature and nurture (including cultural variations) inDiscuss the interaction of nature and nurture (including cultural variations) in• the determination of behavior.the determination of behavior.• • • Explain the process of conception and gestation, including factors that influence Explain the process of conception and gestation, including factors that influence

successful fetal development (e.g., nutrition, illness, substance abuse).successful fetal development (e.g., nutrition, illness, substance abuse).• • • Discuss maturation of motor skills.Discuss maturation of motor skills.• • • Describe the influence of temperament and other social factors on attachmentDescribe the influence of temperament and other social factors on attachment• and appropriate socialization.and appropriate socialization.• • • Explain the maturation of cognitive abilities (e.g., Piaget’s stages, informationExplain the maturation of cognitive abilities (e.g., Piaget’s stages, information• processing).processing).• • • Compare and contrast models of moral development (e.g., Kohlberg, Gilligan).Compare and contrast models of moral development (e.g., Kohlberg, Gilligan).• • • Discuss maturational challenges in adolescence, including related familyDiscuss maturational challenges in adolescence, including related family• conflicts.conflicts.• • • Characterize the development of decisions related to intimacy as people mature.Characterize the development of decisions related to intimacy as people mature.• • • Predict the physical and cognitive changes that emerge as people age, including Predict the physical and cognitive changes that emerge as people age, including

steps that can be taken to maximize function.steps that can be taken to maximize function.• • • Describe how sex and gender influence socialization and other aspects ofDescribe how sex and gender influence socialization and other aspects of• development.development.• • • Identify key contributors in developmental psychology (e.g., Mary Ainsworth,Identify key contributors in developmental psychology (e.g., Mary Ainsworth,• Albert Bandura, Diana Baumrind, Erik Erikson, Sigmund Freud, Carol Gilligan,Albert Bandura, Diana Baumrind, Erik Erikson, Sigmund Freud, Carol Gilligan,• Harry Harlow, Lawrence Kohlberg, Konrad Lorenz, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky).Harry Harlow, Lawrence Kohlberg, Konrad Lorenz, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky).

What Are We Doing Today?What Are We Doing Today?

• By the end of this By the end of this lesson I will be able lesson I will be able to:to:1. Discuss the 1. Discuss the

interaction of interaction of nature and nurture nature and nurture (including cultural (including cultural variations) in the variations) in the determination of determination of behavior.behavior.

Introduction: Developmental Introduction: Developmental PsychologyPsychology

• Developmental Developmental PsychologyPsychology – the – the study of physical, study of physical, intellectual, social, intellectual, social, and moral changes and moral changes across the life span across the life span from conception from conception death.death.

Developmental TheoriesDevelopmental Theories

• 1. Nature versus Nurture1. Nature versus Nurture• How much is human development influenced by How much is human development influenced by

our heredity (nature) and how much by our our heredity (nature) and how much by our experience (nurture)?experience (nurture)?

• 2. Continuity versus Discontinuity (Stages)2. Continuity versus Discontinuity (Stages)• Is development gradual and continuous or does it Is development gradual and continuous or does it

proceed through a sequence of separate stages?proceed through a sequence of separate stages? • 3. Stability versus Change3. Stability versus Change

• Do our early personality traits persist through life, Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become different persons as we age?or do we become different persons as we age?

Nature vs. Nurture refresher:Nature vs. Nurture refresher:

• NatureNature = heredity = heredity• NurtureNurture = experiences = experiences• Some argue that we are Some argue that we are

“pre-wired”“pre-wired”• Some argue that life Some argue that life

experiences and experiences and parenting determine parenting determine what we’re like.what we’re like.

• How do we decide?How do we decide?

What we know about Nature vs. What we know about Nature vs. NurtureNurture• What we do know – What we do know – MaturationMaturation – we all – we all

go through orderly changes in behavior, go through orderly changes in behavior, thought, or physical growth, regardless thought, or physical growth, regardless of experience.of experience.

• How do we study this issue – identical How do we study this issue – identical twinstwins

Continuity vs. (Discontinuity) Continuity vs. (Discontinuity) Stages:Stages:

• Change HappensChange Happens..• Is developmental Is developmental

change gradual or change gradual or continuous?continuous?

• Or does it proceed Or does it proceed through a sequence of through a sequence of separate stages.separate stages.

• Do people go through Do people go through stages at different stages at different times? What if they times? What if they “miss” a stage?“miss” a stage?

Cont.Cont.

• Behaviorists often focus Behaviorists often focus on quantitative changes on quantitative changes (ht. and wt.)(ht. and wt.)

• Other theorists focus on Other theorists focus on qualitative changes qualitative changes (stages) – Piaget, (stages) – Piaget, Kohlberg, etc.Kohlberg, etc.

• The resolution of The resolution of conflicts is key – conflicts is key – everyone passes in the everyone passes in the same order but at same order but at different times in life.different times in life.

Stability versus ChangeStability versus Change

• How much do we change?How much do we change?• For many years For many years

psychologists believed psychologists believed that once a person’s that once a person’s personality forms, it personality forms, it hardens like clay.hardens like clay.

• They are now doing They are now doing longitudinal studies to see longitudinal studies to see how much the past how much the past influences a person’s influences a person’s future.future.

Stability versus Change – Cont.Stability versus Change – Cont.

• Are the effects of early Are the effects of early experiences enduring or experiences enduring or temporary? (abuse, starvation, temporary? (abuse, starvation, isolation, etc.)isolation, etc.)

• Will the cranky infant grow up Will the cranky infant grow up to be the irritable adult?to be the irritable adult?

• Do we grow into older versions Do we grow into older versions of our early selves, or do we of our early selves, or do we become new persons?become new persons?

• Social attitudes are more likely Social attitudes are more likely to change than temperament.to change than temperament.

Lesson Two Objectives:Lesson Two Objectives:

• By the end of this lesson, I will be able By the end of this lesson, I will be able to:to:

• 1. Describe several perspectives that 1. Describe several perspectives that aim to show the origin of gender roles.aim to show the origin of gender roles.

• 2. Identify several key terms that relate 2. Identify several key terms that relate to gender roles.to gender roles.

To get us started….To get us started….

• Gender roles play a big part Gender roles play a big part in our lives:in our lives:

• GenderGender – male or female – male or female• Gender Role StereotypesGender Role Stereotypes – –

what is socially acceptable what is socially acceptable for boys and girls (colors, for boys and girls (colors, hobbies, etc.)hobbies, etc.)

• Gender identityGender identity – our – our personal sense of being personal sense of being male or female.male or female.

• AndrogynyAndrogyny – recognizing – recognizing desirable masculine and desirable masculine and feminine characteristics in feminine characteristics in the same individual.the same individual.

The Five Perspectives on Gender The Five Perspectives on Gender Roles:Roles:

• BiologicalBiological• EvolutionaryEvolutionary• PsychoanalyticPsychoanalytic• BehavioralBehavioral• CognitiveCognitive

The Biological Perspective:The Biological Perspective:

• Cites hormonal Cites hormonal differences as the differences as the reason why men reason why men may be more may be more aggressive, aggressive, muscular, and muscular, and bigger in size.bigger in size.

• Therefore, men take Therefore, men take on “hardier” roles in on “hardier” roles in life.life.

The Evolutionary Perspective:The Evolutionary Perspective:

• This perspective This perspective purports that males are purports that males are more likely than more likely than females to be risk females to be risk takers, show takers, show dominance, and dominance, and achieve alpha status.achieve alpha status.

• Our behavioral Our behavioral tendencies prepare us tendencies prepare us to survive and to survive and ultimately, reproduce.ultimately, reproduce.

The Psychoanalytic Perspective:The Psychoanalytic Perspective:

• Freud proposed that Freud proposed that young girls learn to act young girls learn to act feminine from their feminine from their mothers and young mothers and young boys learn to act boys learn to act masculine from their masculine from their fathers.fathers.

• He also argued that He also argued that children will identify children will identify better with their same better with their same sex parent, increasing sex parent, increasing the strength of his the strength of his theory.theory.

The Behavioral Perspective:The Behavioral Perspective:

• Social learning theorySocial learning theory – children respond to – children respond to rewards and rewards and punishments for their punishments for their behavior.behavior.

• They observe, and They observe, and imitate socially imitate socially desirable traits in desirable traits in others.others.

• This helps them to This helps them to acquire their gender acquire their gender identity.identity.

The Cognitive Perspective:The Cognitive Perspective:

• Children have a “social Children have a “social filter” that allows them filter” that allows them to sort out what is to sort out what is appropriate for their appropriate for their gender and what isn’t gender and what isn’t (gender schema). – (gender schema). – Sandra BemSandra Bem

• This theory uses the This theory uses the behavioral perspective behavioral perspective as a stepping stone to as a stepping stone to explain the theory.explain the theory.

Turn and Talk: 5 minutesTurn and Talk: 5 minutes

• 1. Which of the following perspectives do you 1. Which of the following perspectives do you agree most with? Why?agree most with? Why?

• 2. Do you think that our society will ever 2. Do you think that our society will ever become completely androgynous? Why or become completely androgynous? Why or why not?why not?

• 3. Now that you know about gender roles, do 3. Now that you know about gender roles, do you think that you will knowingly channel your you think that you will knowingly channel your children (if you have them) towards children (if you have them) towards “appropriate” gender stereotypes?“appropriate” gender stereotypes?

Lesson Three Objectives:Lesson Three Objectives:

• By the end of this By the end of this lesson, I will be able to:lesson, I will be able to:

• 1. Define the top four 1. Define the top four most widely used most widely used methods of studying methods of studying development.development.

• 2. Identify when each 2. Identify when each method would be method would be applicable for research.applicable for research.

How do Developmental How do Developmental Psychologists gather data?Psychologists gather data?

• Developmental Developmental psychologists used psychologists used naturalistic observations, naturalistic observations, experiments, correlational experiments, correlational studies, and case studies to studies, and case studies to asses change over time.asses change over time.

• They use four basic They use four basic research designsresearch designs::

• 1. Longitudinal studies1. Longitudinal studies• 2. Cross-sectional studies2. Cross-sectional studies• 3. Cohort-sequential studies3. Cohort-sequential studies• 4. Retrospective studies4. Retrospective studies

Longitudinal Studies:Longitudinal Studies:

• Longitudinal studyLongitudinal study – – follows the same group follows the same group of people over a period of people over a period of time (months to of time (months to years)years)

• They evaluate changes They evaluate changes in the individual(s)in the individual(s)

• These studies can be These studies can be quite costly, take a long quite costly, take a long time to produce results, time to produce results, and can lose and can lose participants over time.participants over time.

Cross-Sectional Studies:Cross-Sectional Studies:

• Cross SectionalCross Sectional – – break up age groups break up age groups and give the same test and give the same test to each group (15, 25, to each group (15, 25, 35, 45, 55, etc.)35, 45, 55, etc.)

• These studies are These studies are cheap, quick, and easycheap, quick, and easy

• CohortCohort – those within – those within the same age groupthe same age group

Cohort-Sequential Studies:Cohort-Sequential Studies:

• Cohort-sequentialCohort-sequential – cross – cross sectioned groups are sectioned groups are assessed at least two times assessed at least two times over a span of months or over a span of months or years.years.

• Results from one cohort are Results from one cohort are compared with others at the compared with others at the same age range.same age range.

• This method of study can This method of study can help to eliminate the….help to eliminate the….

• Cohort effectCohort effect. - Differences . - Differences in the experiences of each in the experiences of each age group as a result of age group as a result of growing up in different growing up in different historical times.historical times.

Retrospective Studies:Retrospective Studies:

• Retrospective StudiesRetrospective Studies – case studies that – case studies that investigate investigate development in one development in one person at a time.person at a time.

• It is typical to use older It is typical to use older adults for this method.adults for this method.

• Questions are asked Questions are asked about the past and any about the past and any changes that have changes that have occurred during the occurred during the subject’s lifespan.subject’s lifespan.

A Class Divided:Turn and Talk: 3 A Class Divided:Turn and Talk: 3 minmin• 1. What are you overall reactions to this 1. What are you overall reactions to this

study?study?• 2. From a developmental perspective, 2. From a developmental perspective,

do you think that older/younger do you think that older/younger children/adults would act differently?children/adults would act differently?

• 3. From an ethical standpoint, could this 3. From an ethical standpoint, could this study have been done the same way study have been done the same way today?today?

Lesson Four Objectives:Lesson Four Objectives:

• By the end of this By the end of this lesson, I will be able to:lesson, I will be able to:

• 1. Describe the process 1. Describe the process of physical development of physical development in humansin humans

• 2. Identify several of the 2. Identify several of the social issues that affect social issues that affect pregnancy.pregnancy.

How are we feeling today?How are we feeling today?

0% 0% 0%0%0%

1.1. GreatGreat

2.2. GoodGood

3.3. AverageAverage

4.4. Not so goodNot so good

5.5. BadBad

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Physical Development:Physical Development:

• Physical Physical development development focuses on two focuses on two things:things:

• 1. Maturation – “like 1. Maturation – “like a bulldozer”a bulldozer”

• 2. Critical Periods2. Critical Periods

Prenatal Development:Prenatal Development:

• Prenatal DevelopmentPrenatal Development – – Begins with fertilization Begins with fertilization and ends with birthand ends with birth

• ZygoteZygote – 46 – 46 chromosomes that divide chromosomes that divide again and again until it again and again until it turns into a embryo. turns into a embryo. (between the 3-8(between the 3-8thth week) week)

• While in While in embryonicembryonic stage, stage, organs, placenta, and organs, placenta, and umbilical cord develop.umbilical cord develop.

A critical period refers to:A critical period refers to:

0% 0%0%0%

20

1.1. Newborn Newborn developmentdevelopment

2.2. The initial 2 minutes The initial 2 minutes after a child’s birthafter a child’s birth

3.3. The preoperational The preoperational stagestage

4.4. A restricted time for A restricted time for learninglearning

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Getting Bigger!!Getting Bigger!!

• Once the 8Once the 8thth week hits, week hits, the embryo becomes a the embryo becomes a fetusfetus..

• Organs systems begin Organs systems begin to interact, bone to interact, bone replaces cartilage, sex replaces cartilage, sex organs become defined.organs become defined.

• Head eyes, limbs, and Head eyes, limbs, and cartilage skeleton will cartilage skeleton will develop.develop.

Newborn Behavior:Newborn Behavior:• NeonatesNeonates – newborn babies – newborn babies• Most newborn prefer being with Most newborn prefer being with

mom – odors, touch, voice, etc.mom – odors, touch, voice, etc.• The sense of hearing is The sense of hearing is

dominant for the first few dominant for the first few months of life (they can see months of life (they can see however)however)

• Sight becomes the primary Sight becomes the primary sense at about 6 monthssense at about 6 months

• They get used to repeated They get used to repeated stimulation - stimulation - HabituationHabituation

• ReflexesReflexes• 1. Babinski1. Babinski• 2. Grasping2. Grasping• 3. Moro/Startle/Heisman3. Moro/Startle/Heisman• 4. Rooting4. Rooting

Birth Defects:Birth Defects:

• Can be from a Can be from a malfunctioning gene or malfunctioning gene or environmental stimulusenvironmental stimulus

• Chemicals or viruses can Chemicals or viruses can cause birth defectscause birth defects

• TeratogensTeratogens – Chemicals – Chemicals (alcohol, drugs, tobacco, (alcohol, drugs, tobacco, mercury) or viruses that mercury) or viruses that can cause birth defects.can cause birth defects.

Critical Periods:Critical Periods:

• First 3 monthsFirst 3 months – – Eyes, arms, ears, Eyes, arms, ears, legs, heartlegs, heart

• First and 2First and 2ndnd months months – Reproductive – Reproductive systemsystem

• All threeAll three – Nervous – Nervous system and brainsystem and brain

Which one of the following is not Which one of the following is not considered a dangerous teratogen?considered a dangerous teratogen?

1 2 3 4 5

0% 0% 0%0%0%

1.1. TobaccoTobacco

2.2. AlcoholAlcohol

3.3. HeroinHeroin

4.4. MercuryMercury

5.5. These all are These all are dangerous dangerous teratogensteratogens

20

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Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: (FAS)Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: (FAS)

• Fetal Alcohol SyndromeFetal Alcohol Syndrome – Occurs in babies – Occurs in babies whose mothers drink whose mothers drink alcohol during the early alcohol during the early months of pregnancy.months of pregnancy.

• Leading cause of MR in Leading cause of MR in USAUSA

• Low intelligence / Low intelligence / mental retardationmental retardation

• Small head, flat face, Small head, flat face, misshapen eyesmisshapen eyes

Other Teratogens:Other Teratogens:

• CigarettesCigarettes – – Miscarriage, low Miscarriage, low birth weightbirth weight

• Heroin and CocaineHeroin and Cocaine – Baby goes – Baby goes through withdrawal through withdrawal symptomssymptoms

• Prescription drugsPrescription drugs – – Various birth defectsVarious birth defects

Lesson Five Objectives:Lesson Five Objectives:


• 1. Describe the changes that occur 1. Describe the changes that occur during adolescence.during adolescence.

• 2. Discuss the changes that occur as 2. Discuss the changes that occur as we age.we age.

• 3. Identify the various stages of dealing 3. Identify the various stages of dealing with death.with death.

Introduction:Introduction:

• Children grow up fast! Children grow up fast! • Many brain cells and Many brain cells and

neural networks are neural networks are created within the first created within the first few months of life.few months of life.

• Walking, talking, and Walking, talking, and learning all happen at a learning all happen at a rapid pacerapid pace

Adolescence:Adolescence:

• PubertyPuberty = sexual maturation = sexual maturation• During adolescence, both During adolescence, both

primary and secondary sex primary and secondary sex characteristics develop.characteristics develop.

• Primary sex Primary sex characteristicscharacteristics – – Reproductive organs grow Reproductive organs grow and become “useable”and become “useable”

• Secondary sex Secondary sex characteristicscharacteristics – Body hair, – Body hair, chest development, chest development, deepening of voice, deepening of voice, menstrual cycle (menarche)menstrual cycle (menarche)

• Females develop faster than Females develop faster than boysboys

Getting Older:Getting Older:

• Bad newsBad news – physical – physical output, vision, hearing output, vision, hearing all decreaseall decrease

• Good newsGood news – We can – We can slow down and even slow down and even reverse aging by:reverse aging by:

• 1. Maintaining a good 1. Maintaining a good dietdiet

• 2. Staying physically 2. Staying physically and mentally activeand mentally active

Other Aging Terms / Concepts:Other Aging Terms / Concepts:

• Midlife crisisMidlife crisis – some see – some see this as a last chance to this as a last chance to achieve their goals.achieve their goals.

• ““better to live one day as a better to live one day as a lion, than an eternity as a lion, than an eternity as a sheep.”sheep.”

• Death and Dying – Death and Dying – Kubler-Kubler-RossRoss developed “stages of developed “stages of grief/coping”grief/coping”

• 1. Denial1. Denial• 2. Anger2. Anger• 3. Bargaining3. Bargaining• 4. Depression4. Depression• 5. Acceptance5. Acceptance

Lesson Six: ObjectivesLesson Six: Objectives


• 1. Define each of Erik Erikson’s stages 1. Define each of Erik Erikson’s stages of development.of development.

• 2. Describe how each of these stages 2. Describe how each of these stages applies to our lives.applies to our lives.

Who is Erik Erikson?Who is Erik Erikson?

• Erikson was a developmental Erikson was a developmental psychologist that created a psychologist that created a series of stages he proposed series of stages he proposed we all go through.we all go through.

• He suggested that healthy He suggested that healthy “success” in each stage “success” in each stage would lead to a happy life.would lead to a happy life.

• He hinted at the fact that He hinted at the fact that struggle in any of these struggle in any of these stages can lead to stages can lead to maladaptive behavior that maladaptive behavior that can last a lifetime, therefore can last a lifetime, therefore affecting your overall affecting your overall personality.personality.

Psychosocial Stages of Psychosocial Stages of Personality DevelopmentPersonality Development• CrisisCrisis: must adaptively or : must adaptively or

maladaptively cope with task in each maladaptively cope with task in each developmental stagedevelopmental stage• Respond Respond adaptivelyadaptively: acquire strengths : acquire strengths

needed for next developmental stageneeded for next developmental stage• Respond Respond maladaptivelymaladaptively: less likely to be : less likely to be

able to adapt to later problemsable to adapt to later problems

Something to Remember:Something to Remember:

• Stages 1-4Stages 1-4, children are mostly , children are mostly dependent on their parents or guardians dependent on their parents or guardians for successful development.for successful development.

• Stages 5-8Stages 5-8, young adults/Adults are , young adults/Adults are responsible for successful development.responsible for successful development.

Stage 1: Basic Trust vs. Stage 1: Basic Trust vs. MistrustMistrust

• Birth to age 1Birth to age 1• Totally dependent on Totally dependent on

othersothers• Caregiver meets needs: Caregiver meets needs:

child develops trustchild develops trust• Caregiver does not meet Caregiver does not meet

needs: child develops needs: child develops mistrustmistrust

• Basic strength: HopeBasic strength: Hope• Belief our desires will be Belief our desires will be

satisfiedsatisfied• Feeling of confidenceFeeling of confidence

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubtand Doubt

• Ages 1-3Ages 1-3• Child able to exercise Child able to exercise

some degree of choicesome degree of choice• Child’s independence is Child’s independence is

thwarted: child develops thwarted: child develops feelings of self-doubt, feelings of self-doubt, shame in dealing with shame in dealing with othersothers

• Basic Strength: WillBasic Strength: Will

• Determination to exercise Determination to exercise freedom of choice in face of freedom of choice in face of society’s demandssociety’s demands

Stage 3: Initiative vs. GuiltStage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

• Ages 3-5Ages 3-5• Child expresses desire to Child expresses desire to

take initiative in activitiestake initiative in activities• Parents punish child for Parents punish child for

initiative: child develops initiative: child develops feelings of guilt that will feelings of guilt that will affect self-directed activity affect self-directed activity throughout lifethroughout life

• ““Let me do it!”Let me do it!”• Basic strength: PurposeBasic strength: Purpose

• Courage to envision and Courage to envision and pursue goalspursue goals

Stage 4: Industry vs. InferiorityStage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

• Ages 6-11Ages 6-11• Child develops cognitive Child develops cognitive

abilities to enable in task abilities to enable in task completion (school work, completion (school work, play)play)

• Parents/teachers do not Parents/teachers do not support child’s efforts: support child’s efforts: child develops feelings of child develops feelings of inferiority and inadequacyinferiority and inadequacy

• Basic strength:Basic strength:• CompetenceCompetence

• Exertion of skill and Exertion of skill and intelligence in pursuing and intelligence in pursuing and completing taskscompleting tasks

Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Stage 5: Identity vs. Role ConfusionConfusion

• Ages 12-18Ages 12-18• Form ego identity: self-imageForm ego identity: self-image• Strong sense of identity: face Strong sense of identity: face

adulthood with certainty and adulthood with certainty and confidenceconfidence

• Identity crisis: confusion of Identity crisis: confusion of ego identityego identity

• Erikson considered this to be Erikson considered this to be the most CRUCIAL stage.the most CRUCIAL stage.

• Who am I?Who am I?• Basic strength: FidelityBasic strength: Fidelity

• Emerges from cohesive ego Emerges from cohesive ego identityidentity

• Sincerity, genuineness, Sincerity, genuineness, sense of duty in relationships sense of duty in relationships with otherswith others

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. IsolationStage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

• Ages 18-35 (approximately)Ages 18-35 (approximately)• Undertake productive work Undertake productive work

and establish intimate and establish intimate relationshipsrelationships

• Inability to establish Inability to establish intimacy leads to social intimacy leads to social isolationisolation

• Basic strength: LoveBasic strength: Love

• Mutual devotion in a Mutual devotion in a shared identityshared identity

• Fusing of oneself with Fusing of oneself with another personanother person

Billy Mack: When I was young, I was greedy and foolish, and now I'm left with no one. Wrinkled and alone.

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stage 7: Generativity vs. StagnationStagnation

• Ages 35-55 (approximately)Ages 35-55 (approximately)• Active involvement in Active involvement in

teaching/guiding the next teaching/guiding the next generationgeneration

• Stagnation involves not Stagnation involves not seeking outlets for seeking outlets for involvement / being self-involvement / being self-centered.centered.

• Basic strength: CareBasic strength: Care• Broad concern for Broad concern for

othersothers• Need to teach othersNeed to teach others

Stage 8: Integrity vs. DespairStage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

• Ages 55+Ages 55+• Evaluation of entire lifeEvaluation of entire life• Integrity: Look back with Integrity: Look back with

satisfactionsatisfaction• Despair: Review with Despair: Review with

anger, frustrationanger, frustration• Basic strength: WisdomBasic strength: Wisdom

• Detached concern with Detached concern with the whole of lifethe whole of life

Japanese runner Kozo Haraguchi, 95, celebrates after setting the new world record of the 100m dash, 95-99 year-old class, in 22.04 seconds.

According to Erikson, failure to resolve the tasks of middle According to Erikson, failure to resolve the tasks of middle adulthood leads to a sense of __________ involving a adulthood leads to a sense of __________ involving a concern for one's own needs and comforts only.concern for one's own needs and comforts only.

25% 25%25%25%1.1. DespairDespair

2.2. GriefGrief

3.3. StagnationStagnation

4.4. AutonomyAutonomy

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Initiative and independence are Initiative and independence are fostered by fostered by

25% 25%25%25%1.1. Restricting a child’s play Restricting a child’s play and creativityand creativity

2.2. Identity vs. role Identity vs. role confusionconfusion

3.3. Encouragement from Encouragement from parents when a child parents when a child plans to do something plans to do something on their ownon their own

4.4. Mastering psychomotor Mastering psychomotor skillsskills

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A child who is just starting school, trying to learn good habits A child who is just starting school, trying to learn good habits and to do well, is in Erikson's stage of development calledand to do well, is in Erikson's stage of development called

25% 25%25%25%1.1. Initiative vs. GuiltInitiative vs. Guilt

2.2. Identity vs. Role Identity vs. Role ConfusionConfusion

3.3. Industry vs. Industry vs. InferiorityInferiority

4.4. Integrity vs. Integrity vs. DespairDespair

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A toddler learning to use the toilet who sometimes feels bad A toddler learning to use the toilet who sometimes feels bad

when he or she "messes up" is at Erikson's stage calledwhen he or she "messes up" is at Erikson's stage called

25% 25%25%25%1.1. Identity vs. Role Identity vs. Role ConfusionConfusion

2.2. Initiative vs. GuiltInitiative vs. Guilt

3.3. Autonomy vs. Autonomy vs. Shame and DoubtShame and Doubt

4.4. Intimacy vs. Intimacy vs. IsolationIsolation

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According to Erikson, a major conflict in According to Erikson, a major conflict in

the first year of life is that betweenthe first year of life is that between

25% 25%25%25%1.1. Initiative vs. GuiltInitiative vs. Guilt

2.2. Trust vs. MistrustTrust vs. Mistrust

3.3. Autonomy vs. Autonomy vs. Shame and doubtShame and doubt

4.4. Identity vs. role Identity vs. role confusionconfusion

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Contributions of EriksonContributions of Erikson

• Personality develops throughout the Personality develops throughout the lifetimelifetime

• Identity crisis in adolescenceIdentity crisis in adolescence• Impact of social, cultural, personal and Impact of social, cultural, personal and

situational forces in forming personalitysituational forces in forming personality

Lesson Seven Objectives:Lesson Seven Objectives:

• Discuss the four Discuss the four main parenting main parenting stylesstyles

• Define the parenting Define the parenting style(s) you were style(s) you were raised with.raised with.

• The investment in raising a child buys The investment in raising a child buys many years not of only joy and love but many years not of only joy and love but of worry and irritation. Yet for most of worry and irritation. Yet for most parents, a child is one’s biological and parents, a child is one’s biological and social legacy – one’s personal social legacy – one’s personal investment in the human future.investment in the human future.

Myers, 1998Myers, 1998

Parenting Styles:Parenting Styles:

• 4 main parenting 4 main parenting styles were styles were determined by Diane determined by Diane Baumrind.Baumrind.

• 1. Authoritarian 1. Authoritarian • 2. Authoritative2. Authoritative• 3. Permissive3. Permissive• 4. Rejecting-4. Rejecting-

Neglecting, Neglecting, UninvolvedUninvolved

Authoritarian Parenting:Authoritarian Parenting:

• Impose rules and Impose rules and expect obedience.expect obedience.

• Classic Phrases:Classic Phrases:• 1. Don’t interrupt me!1. Don’t interrupt me!• 2. Don’t leave your 2. Don’t leave your

room a mess!room a mess!• 3. Don’t stay out late or 3. Don’t stay out late or

you’ll be grounded!you’ll be grounded!• 4. Why? Because I said 4. Why? Because I said

so!so!• 5. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!5. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Authoritative Parenting:Authoritative Parenting:

• Are both demanding and Are both demanding and responsive.responsive.

• Exert control by setting rules Exert control by setting rules and enforcing them.and enforcing them.

• They also explain the reasons They also explain the reasons why.why.

• ExampleExample: Johnny, I can : Johnny, I can understand you are upset that understand you are upset that you have to go to bed now. you have to go to bed now. That is not a reason throw your That is not a reason throw your toy at daddy though. Because toy at daddy though. Because you misbehaved, your you misbehaved, your consequence will be consequence will be _________ and it IS time to go _________ and it IS time to go to bed.to bed.

Permissive Parenting:Permissive Parenting:

• Submit to their Submit to their children’s desires.children’s desires.

• They make few They make few demands and use little demands and use little punishment.punishment.

• ExampleExample: “Mom, I’m : “Mom, I’m going out to a party with going out to a party with Greg.Greg.

• Mom – yeah sure… see Mom – yeah sure… see you when I see you.you when I see you.

Rejecting-Neglecting Parents:Rejecting-Neglecting Parents:

• These parents just don’t These parents just don’t care.care.

• They invest little time They invest little time with their children.with their children.

• ExampleExample: Mom, I have : Mom, I have Senior Night tonight, are Senior Night tonight, are you going to be there?you going to be there?

• Mom – Probably not, Mom – Probably not, The season finale of The season finale of Biggest Loser is on.Biggest Loser is on.

So, Which Parenting Style is So, Which Parenting Style is Best?Best?

• What do you think?What do you think?• Most research shows that Most research shows that

children with the highest children with the highest self-esteem, self-reliance, self-esteem, self-reliance, and social competence and social competence usually have warm, usually have warm, authoritative parents.authoritative parents.

• These parents control but These parents control but also communicate.also communicate.

• They have standards but They have standards but respect the child’s respect the child’s perspective.perspective.

Why Does it Work the Best?Why Does it Work the Best?

• People who have control in People who have control in their lives are more their lives are more motivated and self-motivated and self-confident.confident.

• Those who experience Those who experience little control often see little control often see themselves as helpless themselves as helpless and incompetent.and incompetent.

• When rules seem more When rules seem more negotiated than imposed, negotiated than imposed, older children feel more older children feel more self-control. (Lewis, 1981)self-control. (Lewis, 1981)

Lesson Eight: ObjectivesLesson Eight: Objectives


Introduction:Introduction:

• Lawrence Kohlberg modified and Lawrence Kohlberg modified and expanded upon Piaget's work to form a expanded upon Piaget's work to form a theory that explained the development theory that explained the development of moral reasoning.of moral reasoning.

• Big IdeaBig Idea: proposed that moral : proposed that moral development is a development is a continual processcontinual process that occurs throughout the lifespan. that occurs throughout the lifespan.

How Did He Conduct His How Did He Conduct His Research?Research?• He based his theory upon research and He based his theory upon research and

interviews with groups of young children.interviews with groups of young children.• A series of moral dilemmas were A series of moral dilemmas were

presented to children (and then later presented to children (and then later young adults, and adults). young adults, and adults).

• Then they were interviewed to determine Then they were interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their judgments of the reasoning behind their judgments of each scenario.each scenario.

To Get Us Started:To Get Us Started:

• Has there ever been a time when you Has there ever been a time when you broke a rule (or law) because you felt it broke a rule (or law) because you felt it was the “right” thing to do?was the “right” thing to do?

• Describe your experience on a half Describe your experience on a half sheet of paper that I will share with the sheet of paper that I will share with the class.class.

Example Scenario:Example Scenario:• ""Heinz Steals the DrugHeinz Steals the Drug

In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug.

The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $ 1,000 which is half of the money, but he could only get together about $ 1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug-for his wife. desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug-for his wife. Should the husband have done that? (Kohlberg, 1963)."Should the husband have done that? (Kohlberg, 1963)."

Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to the question of Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to the question of whether Heinz was wrong or right, but in the whether Heinz was wrong or right, but in the reasoningreasoning for the for the participants decision. The responses were then classified into various participants decision. The responses were then classified into various stages of reasoning in his theory of moral development. stages of reasoning in his theory of moral development.

Level 1. Pre-conventional Level 1. Pre-conventional MoralityMorality• Stage 1 - Obedience and PunishmentStage 1 - Obedience and Punishment

• The earliest stage of moral development is The earliest stage of moral development is especially common in young children, but especially common in young children, but adults are capable of expressing this type adults are capable of expressing this type of reasoning. of reasoning.

• At this stage, At this stage, children see rules as fixed children see rules as fixed and absolute. and absolute.

• Obeying the rules is important because it is Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment.a means to avoid punishment.

Level 1. Pre-conventional Level 1. Pre-conventional MoralityMorality• Stage 2 - Individualism and ExchangeStage 2 - Individualism and Exchange

• At this stage of moral development, children At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs.actions based on how they serve individual needs.

• In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was whichever best-served best course of action was whichever best-served Heinz’s needs. Heinz’s needs.

• Reciprocity is possible, but only if it serves one's Reciprocity is possible, but only if it serves one's own interests.own interests.

Level 2. Conventional MoralityLevel 2. Conventional Morality

• Stage 3 - Interpersonal RelationshipsStage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships • Often referred to as the "good boy-good Often referred to as the "good boy-good

girl" orientation, this stage of moral girl" orientation, this stage of moral development is focused on living up to development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. social expectations and roles.

• There is an emphasis on conformity, being There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.influence relationships.

Level 2. Conventional MoralityLevel 2. Conventional Morality

• Stage 4 - Maintaining Social OrderStage 4 - Maintaining Social Order • At this stage of moral development, people At this stage of moral development, people

begin to consider society as a whole when begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. making judgments.

• The focus is on maintaining law and order The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty, by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.and respecting authority.

Level 3. Post-conventional Level 3. Post-conventional MoralityMorality• Stage 5 - Social Contract and Stage 5 - Social Contract and

Individual RightsIndividual Rights • At this stage, people begin to account for At this stage, people begin to account for

the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people. other people.

• Rules of law are important for maintaining Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards.should agree upon these standards.

Level 3. Post-conventional Level 3. Post-conventional MoralityMorality• Stage 6 - Universal PrinciplesStage 6 - Universal Principles

• Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and based upon universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. abstract reasoning.

• At this stage, people follow these At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.they conflict with laws and rules.

Criticism #1:Criticism #1:

• 1. Does moral reasoning necessarily 1. Does moral reasoning necessarily lead to moral behavior? Kohlberg's lead to moral behavior? Kohlberg's theory is concerned with moral thinking, theory is concerned with moral thinking, but there is a big difference between but there is a big difference between knowing what we knowing what we oughtought to do versus to do versus our actual actions.our actual actions.

Criticism #2:Criticism #2:

• Is justice the only aspect of moral Is justice the only aspect of moral reasoning we should consider? Critics reasoning we should consider? Critics have pointed out that Kohlberg's theory of have pointed out that Kohlberg's theory of moral development overemphasizes the moral development overemphasizes the concept as justice when making moral concept as justice when making moral choices. Other factors such as choices. Other factors such as compassion, caring, and other compassion, caring, and other interpersonal feelings may play an interpersonal feelings may play an important part in moral reasoning.important part in moral reasoning.

Lesson Nine Objectives:Lesson Nine Objectives:


• 1. Describe how researchers developed 1. Describe how researchers developed theories on attachment.theories on attachment.

• 2. Identify several key terms that relate 2. Identify several key terms that relate to developmental psychology.to developmental psychology.

I feel like I understand the I feel like I understand the concepts in this chapter:concepts in this chapter:

20%

20%

20%

20%

20% 1.1. Very muchVery much

2.2. WellWell

3.3. AverageAverage

4.4. Could be betterCould be better

5.5. What chapter are we on?What chapter are we on?

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Early Emotional Attachment:Early Emotional Attachment:

• AttachmentAttachment – The – The close, emotional close, emotional bonds of affection bonds of affection that develop that develop between infants and between infants and their caregivers.their caregivers.

Attachment: (Changes)Attachment: (Changes)

• Attachment consists of two Attachment consists of two parts:parts:

• 1. 1. Secure baseSecure base – From – From which they can explore the which they can explore the world.world.

• 2. 2. Safe HavenSafe Haven – In times – In times of stress.of stress.

• As we get older our secure As we get older our secure base and safe haven shift base and safe haven shift from parents to peers and from parents to peers and partners (husband or wife).partners (husband or wife).

Harlow Review:Harlow Review:

• 1. Physiological needs 1. Physiological needs must be metmust be met

• 2. Body contact is most 2. Body contact is most importantimportant

• Will children respond Will children respond similar to monkeys?similar to monkeys?

What About A Child’s What About A Child’s Attachment?Attachment?

• Some babies seem Some babies seem to more easily form a to more easily form a secure attachment.secure attachment.

• Mary Ainsworth Mary Ainsworth assessed this during assessed this during the 1970’s.the 1970’s.

• On the next slide is a On the next slide is a diagram of the diagram of the “situation.”“situation.”

Harlow’s experiment with the rhesus monkeys and Harlow’s experiment with the rhesus monkeys and surrogate mothers emphasized the importance of:surrogate mothers emphasized the importance of:

20%

20%

20%

20%

20% 1.1. Contact ComfortContact Comfort

2.2. FeedingFeeding

3.3. Aesthetic NeedsAesthetic Needs

4.4. Incentive TheoryIncentive Theory

5.5. Gender SchemaGender Schema

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Strange Situation:Strange Situation:

• http://video.google.com/videoplay?docidhttp://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-3634664472704568591=-3634664472704568591

What Did She Find Out?What Did She Find Out?

• In about 60% of the cases, the child shows a In about 60% of the cases, the child shows a secure attachmentsecure attachment..

• The parent leaves, the child is distressed, The parent leaves, the child is distressed, and when she returns the child seeks contact.and when she returns the child seeks contact.

• The child was also much more likely to The child was also much more likely to explore the room.explore the room.

• Others showed Others showed insecure attachmentsinsecure attachments..• They were less likely to explore their They were less likely to explore their

surroundings, were upset when mom left, but surroundings, were upset when mom left, but indifferent when she came back.indifferent when she came back.

What is the response pattern of securely attached children in the What is the response pattern of securely attached children in the Strange Situation when their mothers return?Strange Situation when their mothers return?

20% 20% 20%20%20%1.1. They tend to ignore their They tend to ignore their

mothers because they are mothers because they are secure about her caresecure about her care

2.2. Sometimes they run over to their Sometimes they run over to their mothers and sometimes the do mothers and sometimes the do not; there’s no consistent pattern not; there’s no consistent pattern in their responsesin their responses

3.3. They tend to go to their mothers They tend to go to their mothers for comfortfor comfort

4.4. They tend to run over to their They tend to run over to their mothers and beg them not to mothers and beg them not to leave again.leave again.

5.5. They hit their mothersThey hit their mothers

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Are Their Different Behaviors Are Their Different Behaviors Inborn?Inborn?• Maybe.Maybe.• TemperamentTemperament – includes the child’s inborn – includes the child’s inborn

emotional reactivity and intensity.emotional reactivity and intensity.• 1. Difficult Babies1. Difficult Babies – More irritable, intense, – More irritable, intense,

and unpredictable.and unpredictable.• 2. Slow to warm up2. Slow to warm up – Take awhile to get – Take awhile to get

there.there.• 3. Easy Babies3. Easy Babies – Cheerful, relaxed, and – Cheerful, relaxed, and

predictable.predictable.

Konrad Lorenz – ImprintingKonrad Lorenz – Imprinting

• Konrad LorenzKonrad Lorenz studied new studied new born ducklings (chicks).born ducklings (chicks).

• He found that the first moving He found that the first moving object a duckling, or a chick object a duckling, or a chick sees during the short hours sees during the short hours after hatching it will perceive after hatching it will perceive as it’s mother.as it’s mother.

• This is called imprinting and is This is called imprinting and is formed during the “critical formed during the “critical period.”period.”

• Critical PeriodCritical Period – The optimal – The optimal period shortly after birth period shortly after birth where events must take place where events must take place if proper development is to if proper development is to occur.occur.

Imprinting:Imprinting:

• ImprintingImprinting – The process by – The process by which certain animals form which certain animals form attachments during a critical attachments during a critical period very early in life.period very early in life.

• He wondered what ducklings He wondered what ducklings would do if HE was the first would do if HE was the first moving “creature” they moving “creature” they observed.observed.

• The ducks followed him The ducks followed him everywhere that he went!!everywhere that he went!!

• Once this attachment is Once this attachment is formed, it is difficult to formed, it is difficult to reverse.reverse.

A critical period is a stage in A critical period is a stage in development when:development when:

20% 20% 20%20%20%1.1. Specific stimuli have a major Specific stimuli have a major

effect on development that they effect on development that they do not produce at other timesdo not produce at other times

2.2. Children are resistant to any Children are resistant to any kind of discipline by their parentskind of discipline by their parents

3.3. New learning is prevented by New learning is prevented by older learningolder learning

4.4. Bonding between the child and Bonding between the child and parent first takes placeparent first takes place

5.5. The child first enters elementary The child first enters elementary school and needs positive school and needs positive reinforcementreinforcement

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Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development:of Cognitive Development:

• Lee Vygotsky emphasized Lee Vygotsky emphasized the role of the environment the role of the environment and gradual growth in and gradual growth in intellectual functioning.intellectual functioning.

• InternalizationInternalization – the – the process of absorbing process of absorbing information from a specified information from a specified social environmental social environmental context.context.

• Children learn from their Children learn from their environment (very quietly environment (very quietly and discreetly at times)and discreetly at times)

More Vygotsky:More Vygotsky:

• Zone of Proximal Zone of Proximal DevelopmentDevelopment – The range – The range between the level at which a between the level at which a child can solve a problem child can solve a problem working alone with difficulty, working alone with difficulty, and when they can solve a and when they can solve a problem with parental or problem with parental or peer assistance.peer assistance.

• When the goal is achieved When the goal is achieved without help, then the ZPD without help, then the ZPD moves up a level and the moves up a level and the child may need assistance.child may need assistance.

• Educators use this to their Educators use this to their advantage in the classroom. advantage in the classroom. (Gradual Release Model)(Gradual Release Model)

Leftover Terms: (part 1)Leftover Terms: (part 1)

• Cognitive Changes in Adults:Cognitive Changes in Adults:• Gerontoligist Warner Schaie came up with Gerontoligist Warner Schaie came up with

these two terms:these two terms:• Fluid IntelligenceFluid Intelligence – those abilities requiring – those abilities requiring

speed (quick thinking) or rapid learning speed (quick thinking) or rapid learning (diminishes with age)(diminishes with age)

• Crystallized IntelligenceCrystallized Intelligence – learned – learned knowledge and skills (improves with age)knowledge and skills (improves with age)

With aging there is a decline of __________ With aging there is a decline of __________

intelligence, but not of __________ intelligence.intelligence, but not of __________ intelligence.

25% 25%25%25%1.1. Fluid; fixedFluid; fixed

2.2. Fixed; fluidFixed; fluid

3.3. Fluid; crystallizedFluid; crystallized

4.4. Crystallized; fluidCrystallized; fluid

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Lesson Ten: ObjectivesLesson Ten: Objectives


• 1. Describe Jean Piaget’s background1. Describe Jean Piaget’s background• 2. Define each of his stages2. Define each of his stages

Cognition: How a Baby Thinks:Cognition: How a Baby Thinks:

• ““Children are active thinkers, constantly Children are active thinkers, constantly trying to construct more advanced trying to construct more advanced understandings of the world.”understandings of the world.”

Jean Piaget – Developmental PsychologistJean Piaget – Developmental Psychologist

The Questions that Piaget Had:The Questions that Piaget Had:

• 1. When and how do 1. When and how do children begin to see children begin to see things from another’s things from another’s point of view?point of view?

• 2. When do they 2. When do they begin to reason begin to reason logically?logically?

• 3. How does a 3. How does a child’s mind grow?child’s mind grow?

Where Did Piaget Start?Where Did Piaget Start?

• In 1920, Piaget began to In 1920, Piaget began to develop questions for develop questions for children’s intelligence tests.children’s intelligence tests.

• He wanted to find out at He wanted to find out at what age children could what age children could answer certain questions.answer certain questions.

• He became interested in He became interested in their wrong answers.their wrong answers.

• He noted that the errors He noted that the errors made by children of any made by children of any given age were very similar.given age were very similar.

What Did He Find Out?What Did He Find Out?

• Young children understand Young children understand the world in radically the world in radically different ways than adults.different ways than adults.

• Children are not “miniature Children are not “miniature adults” – think little Herculesadults” – think little Hercules

• For example an 8 year old For example an 8 year old would understand things that would understand things that a 3 year old couldn’t even a 3 year old couldn’t even come close to come close to understanding.understanding.

• ExampleExample: “Getting an idea is : “Getting an idea is like having a light turn on in like having a light turn on in your head.”your head.”

Video Introduction:Video Introduction:

• PiagetPiaget

Piaget’s BIG CONCEPTS: #1Piaget’s BIG CONCEPTS: #1

• Object PermanenceObject Permanence – When a child – When a child recognizes that objects continue to exist recognizes that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible.even when they are no longer visible.


• ConservationConservation – Physical quantities – Physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in remain constant in spite of changes in their shape and appearance.their shape and appearance.


• CentrationCentration – Focus on one feature of a – Focus on one feature of a problem, neglecting other important problem, neglecting other important features.features.


• IrreversibilityIrreversibility – The inability to envision – The inability to envision reversing an action.reversing an action.


• EgocentrismEgocentrism – Only my viewpoint – Only my viewpoint matters.matters.


• AnimismAnimism – The belief that all things are – The belief that all things are living.living.


• Abstract LogicAbstract Logic – Mathematics and – Mathematics and “outside the box” thinking becomes “outside the box” thinking becomes apparent.apparent.

Documents

Human Development AP Psychology. Chapter Objectives: AP students in psychology should be able to do the following:AP students in psychology should be