Human Development 1. Development is the sequence of age related changes that occur as a person...
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Human Development 1
Human Development 1. Development is the sequence of age related changes that occur as a person progresses from conception to death. It encompasses changes
Development is the sequence of age related changes that occur
as a person progresses from conception to death. It encompasses
changes in physical, cognitive and social behaviors. Major issues
A. Nature versus nurture are we more affected by heredity or
environment? B. Continuity versus discontinuity is developmental
change gradual, or do we progress through distinct stages ? 2
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Developmental Research Methods A. Cross-sectional research
involves studying a variety of ages at a given point in time. B.
Longitudinal research follows the same group of subjects for many
years. C. In cohort-sequential research, several age groups are
studied periodically. D. Historical research revolves around the
particular historical circumstances of an era. 3
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PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT 4
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The prenatal period extends from conception to birth, usually
nine months. It is divided into 3 phases (these are NOT the same as
trimesters) The germinal stage (first 2 weeks) The embryonic stage
(2 weeks to 2 months) The fetal stage (2 months to birth) 5
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The germinal stage The zygote is formed by the union of sperm
and egg. The zygote moves through the fallopian tubes to uterus. 7
th day, the mass of cells implants itself in the uterine wall As
many as 1 in 5 pregnancies end at this point if implantation is not
successful. Placenta starts to form 6
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Embryonic Stage Vital organs and bodily systems begin to form
Heart, spine, and brain emerge 1 inch long but arms, hands, feet,
fingers, toes, eyes and ears are discernable. This is a time of
great vulnerability All of the basic systems are forming and
interference or damage at this time will have wide ranging and
permanent effects Most miscarriages occur at this time. 7
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Fetal Stage The baby becomes capable of movement Organs grow
and begin to function Sex organs start to develop in the 3 rd month
Final three months Brain cells multiply Respiratory and digestive
systems mature Layer of fat deposited under the skin for insulation
Between 22 and 26 weeks the fetus becomes viable or able to live
outside the womb. 8
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ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS IN PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT. 9
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Maternal nutrition Severe malnutrition at this time increases
the risk of birth complications and neurological defects. These
effects can last for years or the entire lifetime. This has been
linked to schizophrenia, heart disease, diabetes 10
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Maternal Drug Use Most drugs consumed by the mother pass
through the placenta Heroin: babies are born addicted, increased
risk of early death, birth defects Cocaine: birth complications and
cognitive/learning problems in childhood Marijuana: cognitive
issues, attention and impulse control issues and problem solving
difficulties 11
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Alcohol: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome- a collection of physical and
psychological problems including irritability, hyperactivity and
delayed mental and motor development, depression, suicide, drug
problems and criminal behaviour Tobacco: SIDS, slower cognitive
development, attention deficit, hyperactivity and behaviour issues.
Many presciption drugs also can affect the fetus. 12
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Maternal Illness The fetus has a very weak immune system so
therefore is basically defenseless against infections All of this
damage depends, in part, on when the mother is exposed to the
danger, Generally speaking an embryo will be much more damaged than
a fetus. 13
Infancy: 1. Growth rate declines throughout infancy but is
faster than during any other postnatal period. 2. Maturation and
learning combine to determine skill development and replace
reflexes. 16
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Motor/co-ordination development Humans develop in two ways 1.
Cephalocaudal (head to tail) developmentCephalocaudal Babies gain
control over the upper part of their bodies before the lower part
2. Proximodistal (from the center outward) development Babies gain
control over their torso before their extremities Motor development
is based on the infants experimentation and learning and
remembering of the consequences of their behaviour However each
baby has their own genetic rate of maturation determined in part by
their genetic make up. 17
Temperament: Easy vs Difficult Babies Temperament refers to the
characteristic mood, activity level and emotional reactivity Babies
exhibit their own characteristic temperament by between 2 and 3
months. This is a very good predictor of their personality at age
10. Temperament can be described in several ways 19
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Temperament is heavily influenced by heredity and tends to be
stable over time HOWEVER it is not unchangeable. Parental reactions
and other social experiences can gradually shape childrens
personality. Temperament IS NOT destiny. 20
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Temperament: Thomas and Chess 1977 Easy: happy, regular
sleeping and eating patterns, adaptable to change and not easily
upset. 40% Slow to warm up: less cheery, predictable and adaptable.
Dont like new experiences. 15% Difficult; glum, erratic sleepers
and eaters, resistant to change, irritable 10% 35% of babies are
combinations of all three 21
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Social and emotional development Attachment The close,
emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and
caregivers. By 6-8 months most babies will show a preference for
the primary caregiver and protest when separated Separation Anxiety
Emotional distress seen in many infants when they are separated
from those people they have formed an attachment with. 22
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Social and emotional development 1. Harry Harlow's surrogate
mother research with monkeys demonstrated the importance of contact
comfort. 2. Attachment style a. Secure attachment means the infant
seeks proximity, contact and interaction with the caregiver after
separation. b. Insecure attachment means the infant cannot be
calmed or ignores the caregiver after separation. 3. Stranger
anxiety peaks at about 6 months; separation anxiety peaks at about
18 months. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OrNBEhzjg8I
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OrNBEhzjg8I 23
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INFANCY: Cognitive development 1. Infants show a preference for
face-Iike patterns. 2. Visual cliff experiments suggest that
infants perceive depth by the time they are able to crawl.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1VPaBcT1KdY&list=PLE8ACCF549E785776
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1VPaBcT1KdY&list=PLE8ACCF549E785776
These also demonstrate the influence of other peoples reactions on
behaviour.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p6cqNhHrMJA&list=PLE8ACCF549E785776
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p6cqNhHrMJA&list=PLE8ACCF549E785776
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CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE 25
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I. Childhood A. Physical Development 1. More extensive neural
networks continue to develop in the brain. 2. Growth rate continues
to decline. B. Social development 1. Interaction with the
environment provides a sense of gender identity. 2. A greater sense
of independence develops as peer relationships begin td become more
important. C. Cognitive development continues at a rapid rate.
There are advances in the areas of 1. Learning 2. Language 3.
Thinking skills 26
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Feral Children 1 Feral Children Feral Children 2 Feral Children
3 Feral Children 4 Feral Children 5 Genie Child of Rage 27
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II. Adolescence A. Physical/sexual development-puberty B.
Social development 1. Peer groups take on an increasingly important
role. 2. Opposite-sex relationships gradually become less
recreational and more intimate. C. Cognitive development 1.
Capability for logical, hypothetical and introspective thinking
develops. 2. Growing awareness of one's own mental processes
develops-metacognition. D. Adolescent development relates to many
important societal problems, such as suicide, teen pregnancy and
eating disorders. 28
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ADULT AND LATER YEARS 29
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I. Adulthood A. Physical changes 1. Abilities peak and begin a
gradual (1 percent a year) decline. 2. Women undergo menopause with
its hormonal and reproductive changes. B. Social changes center
around such issues as: 1. Mate selection 2. Parenting 3. Career
selection C. Cognitive changes vary significantly with some people
showing declines and others not. 1. Reaction time appears to
decline. 2. Some adults show a decline in memory. 30
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II. Later years A. Physical changes 1. There is a general
decline in muscle tone and sensory abilities. 2. Senile dementia
and Alzheimer's disease are two disorders that may develop. B.
Social issues include: 1. Retirement 2. Social isolation, which may
be caused by loss of spouse and others, lack of mobility and
declining health C. Cognitive declines are likely to continue.
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PIAGET, KOHLBERG AND ERIKSON Important Developmental
Psychologists 32
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I. Piaget's theory of cognitive development Essential Processes
a. Cognitive structures/schema are the means by which humans
acquire and apply knowledge about their world. b. Assimilation is
the use of available cognitive structures to gain new information.
c. Accommodation is the process of modifying cognitive structures
in the face of newly realized complexities in the environment.
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A. Sensorimotor stage, birth to 18 months 2. Developmental
achievements a. Circular reactions are repetitive motions babies
engage in as they gradually learn to explore their environment
nonreflexively. b. Object permanence is the understanding that
objects continue to exist even when hidden from view. 34
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B.Preoperational stage, 18 months to 6 years 1. Characteristics
a. Egocentrism is a limited ability to comprehend a situation from
a perspective one has not experienced. b. Animism is the tendency
to attribute life to inanimate things. c. Artificialism is the
tendency to believe everything is the product of human action. 2.
Developmental achievements a. Symbolic representation and language
b. Readiness for operational thought 35
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C. Concrete-operational stage, 6 years to early adolescence 1.
Characteristics a. Use of simple logic b. Use of simple mental
manipulations c. Decline in egocentrism 2. Developmental
achievements a. Conservation is the principle that matter does not
increase or decrease because of a change in form. b. Reversibility
is the understanding that mathematical operations and other actions
can be undone. d. Decentration : ability to focus on more than one
aspect of a problem at once 36
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D. Formal-operations stage, adolescence and adulthood 1.
Characteristics a. Hypothetical/ What if thinking? and deductive
reasoning How or Why did this happen ? b. Propositional logic: If
this then that c. Abstract thought: Symbolism, discussing Big Ideas
2. Developmental achievement indicates a readiness for adult
intellectual tasks. 3. Piaget believed that not all adolescents or
adults achieve formal operational reasoning ability. 37
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Kohlberg Theory of Moral Development Heinzs Dilemma Heinzs
Dilemma 38
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Heinzs Dilemma Heinz's wife was near death, and her only hope
was a drug that had been discovered by a pharmacist who was selling
it for an exorbitant price. The drug cost $20,000 to make, and the
pharmacist was selling it for $200,000. Heinz could only raise
$50,000 and insurance wouldn't make up the difference. He offered
what he had to the pharmacist, and when his offer was rejected,
Heinz said he would pay the rest later. Still the pharmacist
refused. In desperation, Heinz considered stealing the drug. Would
it be wrong for him to do that? 39
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Kohlberg: Moral development: The ability to tell right from
wrong and behave accordingly. Kohlberg believed that there were
levels and 6 stages in the development of moral behaviour. Kohlberg
studied Piaget and tried to apply his ideas to morality. 40
Slide 41
A. Preconventional level : toddler and preschool Stage 1:Right
and wrong are determined by what is punished, so a child does the
right thing to avoid something bad. Stage 2, Right and wrong are
determined by what is rewarded So a child does the right thing in
order to get a something good 41
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B. Conventional level: school age Stage 3, Right and wrong are
determined by the approval or disapproval of the people close to us
We want our loved ones to see us as good Stage 4, Right and wrong
are determined by society's rules and laws which should be obeyed
at all times We do whats right because its the law even if it could
hurt our close friends and family 42
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C. Postconventional level : begins in teens but may never be
attained Stage 5, There are general rule about what is right and
wrong but sometimes exceptions need to be made Stage 6, Each
individual must have their own moral code. Right and wrong are
characterized by universal ethical principles that emphasize
equality and justice for all people, not just the ones close to us.
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Issues It is not unusual for a person to be operating on more
than one level depending on the situation. These stages tend to
represent Western cultural values of individual human rights and
are not always the same across the globe. Some believe that
Kohlberg did not do enough research on the differences between men
and women 44
Slide 45
It appears that males are more interested in the morality of
justice: Is this fair? and women are more interested in the
morality of care: How will this affect other people? 45
Vocabulary CRISIS: the developmental challenge that must be met
at each stage Basic Strength: the personality characteristics and
beliefs that derive from successful resolution of crisis in each
stage 50
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Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development 8 successive
stages over the lifespan The result of each crisis must be met
adaptively or maladaptively. If the child responds adaptively: s/he
will acquire strengths needed for next developmental stage
maladaptively: s/he is less likely to be able to adapt to later
problems
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II. The stages A. Trust versus mistrust infants B. Autonomy
versus shame and doubt toddlers C. Initiative versus guilt young
children D. Industry versus inferiority older children E. Identity
versus role confusion adolescents F. Intimacy versus isolation
young adults G. Generativity versus stagnation adults 52
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Stage1CRISIS: Basic Trust vs. Mistrust Birth to age 1 Totally
dependent on others Caregiver meets needs: child develops trust
Caregiver does not meet needs: child develops mistrust Basic
strength: Hope Belief our desires will be satisfied Feeling of
confidence
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Stage 2 CRISIS: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Ages 1-3 Child
able to exercise some degree of choice Childs independence is
thwarted: child develops feelings of self-doubt, shame in dealing
with others Basic Strength: Will Determination to exercise freedom
of choice in face of societys demands
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Stage 3 CRISIS: : Initiative vs. Guilt Ages 3-5 Child expresses
desire to take initiative in activities Parents punish child for
initiative: child develops feelings of guilt that will affect
self-directed activity throughout life Basic strength: Purpose
Courage to envision and pursue goals
Slide 56
Stage 4 CRISIS: Industriousness vs. Inferiority Ages 6-11 Child
develops cognitive abilities to enable in task completion (school
work, play) Parents/teachers do not support childs efforts: child
develops feelings of inferiority and inadequacy Basci strength:
Competence Exertion of skill and intelligence in pursuing and
completing tasks
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Stages 1-4 Largely determined by others (parents, teachers)
Stages 5-8 Individual has more control over environment Individual
responsibility for crisis resolution in each stage
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Stage 5 CRISIS: Identity vs. Role Confusion Ages 12-18 Form ego
identity: self-image Strong sense of identity: face adulthood with
certainty and confidence Identity crisis: confusion of ego identity
Basic strength: Fidelity Emerges from cohesive ego identity
Sincerity, genuineness, sense of duty in relationships with
others
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Stage 6 CRISIS: : Intimacy vs. Isolation Ages 18-35
(approximately) Undertake productive work and establish intimate
relationships Inability to establish intimacy leads to social
isolation Basic strength: Love Mutual devotion in a shared identity
Fusing of oneself with another person
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Stage 7 CRISIS: : Generativity vs. Stagnation Ages 35-55
(approximately) Generativity: Active involvement in
teaching/guiding the next generation Stagnation involves not
seeking outlets for generativity Basic strength: Care Broad concern
for others Need to teach others
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Stage 8 CRISIS: : Ego Integrity vs. Despair Ages 55+ Evaluation
of entire life Integrity: Look back with satisfaction Despair:
Review with anger, frustration Basic strength: Wisdom Detached
concern with the whole of life
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III. Critique of Erikson A. There is no agreed-upon set of
measures for the various stages. B. The stages imply a rigidity of
development that may not exist. C. The theory may not reflect
differences in personality development between men and women.
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