Human and Social Science Research- Volume 1

JOURNAL OF HUMAN AND SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH

ISSN: 2331-4974

Human and Social Science Research

HSSR ISSN: 2331-497474

JOURNAL OF HUMAN AND SOCIAL

SCIENCE RESEARCH

HSSR

ISSN: 2331-4974 VOLUME 1, NO. 1-2, 2013

VERSION 1.0

ORIC Publications.2014

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vii | ORIC Publications

EDITORIAL BOARD

(Alphabetically)

Alexandros Psychogios

Affiliation: Academic Research Coordinator, International faculty of the University of

Sheffield, University of Sheffield, Greece

Expertise Fields: Strategic Human Resource Management, Total Quality Management,

Organizational Complexity, Knowledge, Learning & Development, National Business

Systems, Public Management

Arzu ener

Affiliation: Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, Faculty of Economics and

Administrative Sciences, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Ankara, Turkey

Expertise Fields: Family Relations, Consumer Behavior and Education and Family

Economics

Monoranjan Bhowmik

Affiliation: VTT College, VIDYASAGAR UNIVERSITY, INDIA

Expertise Fields: Educational Psychology, Educational Statistics, Educational

Administration, Educational Management, Special Education, Educational Technology.

Muhammad Sabbir Rahman

Affiliation: Business Administration, Graduate School of Management (GSM);

Multimedia University , Cyberjaya Malaysia

Expertise Fields: Structural Equation Modeling, Consumer Behavior, Human Resource

Management

Namita Rajput

Affiliation: Department of Commerce, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India

Expertise Fields: Finance, Marketing, Economics, International Business, corporate

Governance

viii | ORIC Publications

Syed Iftikhar Hussain Shah

Affiliation: Director (Research &Development), Technical Education & Vocational

Training Authority (TEVTA), Government of the Punjab, Pakistan

Expertise Fields: Educational administration and management, TVET

ix | ORIC Publications

REVIEWERS LIST Vol. 1 (1-2), 2013

We thank the following reviewers for the time and energy they have given to Journal of Human and Social Science Research, Vol. 1, 2013:

Sok Foon Yeoh

Muhammad Sabbir Rahman

Nikhila Bhagwat

Monoranjan Bhowmik

Behrooz Gharleghi

Cristina-Georgiana Voicu

Akanksha Khanna

Khaled Nawaser

Ige, A. Kolapo

Sasikala Kugamoorthy

Pouria Jahanbakhshian

Piyal Basu Roy

x | ORIC Publications

TABLE OF CONTENTS

2013 (Vol. 1, No: 1)

Attitude Of Parents And Teachers Towards Home Work Of Their Children At Elementary Level Satyapriya Behera, Nibedita Guru, Monoranjan Bhowmik, Jyosree Banerjee

1-7

An Empirical Study On Revealing The Factors Influencing Online Shopping Intention Among Malaysian Consumers Muhammad Sabbir Rahman, Abdul Highe Khan, Nazrul Islam

9-18

Place Of Positionality, Values, Ethics And Reflexivity In Qualitative Urban Field Work Research Aggrey Daniel Maina Thuo

19-29

Malaysian Young Consumer Preferences In Choosing International Fashion Brand Tee Poh Kiong, Behrooz Gharlegh, Benjamin Chan Yin Fah

31-38

Residents Perception Of Environmental Quality In Judges Quarters Of Makurdi Town, Nigeria Terwase Shabu, Theresa Sewuese Uchi

39-49

An Exploratory Of Airline E-Ticket Purchasing Intention Among Foreign Undergraduates In Malaysia Benjamin Chan Yin-Fah, Aw Yoke Cheng, Damon Yousef

51-61

Economic Freedom And Economic Growth: The Case Of OPEC Mohiddin Ahmadpour, Ahmad Jafarisamimi, Ramiar Refaei

63-71

A Resource-Based Approach To Mergers And Concentration Of The Banking System In Mexico Post Crisis 1994 J.G. Vargas-Hernndez, D. Bernal-Domnguez, L. V. Ovalles-Toledo

73-91

xi | ORIC Publications

2013 (Vol. 1, No: 2)

Factors Influencing On Purchasing Behaviour Of Organic Foods Armin Shamsollahi, Chin Wei Chong, Neda Nahid

93-104

Learning In Group: The Effectiveness Of Collaborative Problem Solving On Pre-University Students' Khoo Yin Yi, Abdul Ghani Kanesan Abdullah

105-111

A Study On Schizophrenic Patients Nima Ganji, Neda Sheikh Zakaryaei, Alireza Bagheri, Davood Shayan, Sarah Vafaee

113-118

Macroeconomic Determinants Of Malaysian Housing Market Tze San Ong, Yee Shan Chang

119-127

Status Of Womens Entrepreneurship In Iran Yousef Ahmadi, Asghar Afshar Jahanshahi , Mohamad Shahabinejad

129-137

Managers Leadership Styles And Employees Job Satisfaction Sumbal Maqsood, Hira Bilal, Sadaf Nazir, Ramla Baig

139-144

Self Discovery Tools For Better Self And Other Leaderships: A Personal Experience With Golemans Five Discoveries Wangari Mwai

145-156

2013, VOL. 1, NO:1 JOURNAL OF HUMAN AND SOCIAL SCIENCE

RESEARCH

All rights reserved. No part of contents of this paper may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without the written permission of ORIC

Publications, www.oricpub.com.

Journal of Human and Social Science Research HSSR

Vol. 1, No. 1 (2013), 1-7

Online available since 2013/Mar/30 at www.oricpub.com (2013) Copyright ORIC Publications

www.oricpub.com

ORICPublications

Received: 08 Mar 2013

Accepted: 21 Mar 2013

Satyapriya Behera

Midnapore Institute of Education, Midnapore, West-Bengal Nibedita Guru Dr. P.M.I.A.S.E., Sambalpur, Odisha Monoranjan Bhowmik

V.T.T.College, Midnapore, West-Bengal Jyosree Banerjee

David Hare Training College, Calcutta

Correspondence: Monoranjan Bhowmik

V.T.T.College, Midnapore, West-Bengal

ATTITUDE OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS TOWARDS HOME WORK OF THEIR CHILDREN AT ELEMENTARY LEVEL

Abstract Homework is generally regarded as school work formally assigned

for completion outside school time. It is seen as embracing a number of

activities including revision and preparation for exams or future class

work. It serves to help the teachers to cope with pupils of different work

rates and finishing off class works. The crowded curricula, cumulative

assessment, competitive examinations, independent assignment and

project based learning cause an over flow of work from school time into

out of school time. On account of these reasons, teachers and pupils

place heavy reliance on homework especially in primary and secondary

schools. They learn how to budget the time and benefit out of it; this will

serve them the rest of their lives. However, there is much controversy

regarding homework. Its advocates claim that it encourages students initiative, develops independent learning skills and allows time for

practice and application of what has been taught in school whereas the

critics argue that it encroaches upon childrens leisure time and denies them access to community activities. It is often considered a dull,

repetitive, sedentary task which makes excessive demands on pupils time and fails to establish its relevance to the in school programme.

1. INTRODUCTION Homework develops certain personality traits and fosters initiative,

independent thinking and responsibility in students. A few studies had

been conducted in this area by Paskal

et.al[3].Padmaja[4],Manjula[2],Shalendra et.al.[6] and Kushwaha[1],yet

the dearth of studied in this area makes it imperative to conduct

research in this neglected area. Salvatore in 1974 [7] studied on

perceptions of students, teachers and parents on homework assignment found that girls spend more time on home work than boys, tenth graders

more than twelve graders, college bound students more than non-college

bound students. Rich, Dorthy, Jones and Cynthia in 1974 [5] pointed out

that homework provides a kind of link between the child, parent and the

teacher and this link is very important for students success in school. Therefore, in the present study an attempt has been made to find out the

attitude of Parents and Teachers towards home works and to analyze the

reasons given by them in favor of or against homework. The problem

under study is of vital significance as the homework enhances the burden

of learning on children and now-a-days steps are being taken to reduce

the learning burden of children.

Satyapriya Behera, Nibedita Guru, Monoranjan Bhowmik, Jyosree Banerjee P a g e | 2

Vol. 1, No. 1 (2013), 1 - 7 ORICPublications www.oricpub.com

NEED AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY: Homework promotes intellectual discipline. Many

teachers believe that homework is a good for students. Parents feel that some is giving on in the school is

taking care of the child. It develops certain personality traits and fosters initiative, independent thinking and

responsibility in students. They learn how to budget the time and benefit out of it; this will serve them the

rest of their lives. Home study facilities and improves learning by providing necessary integration, practice

and application of what they learn in the school.

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF THE TERM: Homework is the time students spend outside the

classroom in assigned activities to practice, reinforce or apply newly-acquired skills and knowledge and to

learn necessary skills of independent study.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY: The study will be undertaken with the following objectives:

(i)To study the attitude of teachers towards giving homework at the elementary level.

(ii)To study the attitude of parents towards giving homework at the elementary level.

HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY: The present study has the following hypothesis:

There exists significant difference between the attitude of parents and teachers towards giving homework

of their children at the elementary level.

DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY: The present study was conducted only on V-VII class students of

Deogarh District,Odisha. The variable selected for the study is attitude towards homework. The total sample

consisted of 100 teachers and 50 parents who were stratified and randomly selected from 10 Elementary schools of Deogarh district represently urban, rural areas.

2. METHODOLOGY The investigator employed the survey method for the collection of data regarding on attitude of parents

and teachers towards at elementary level in both rural and urban areas of Reamal block, Deogarh district.

SAMPLE OF THE STUDY: A sample is a small proportion of a population selected for observation and

analysis. So, a sample in other words is a smaller representation of a larger whole.

For the study about the attitude of parents and teachers towards homework at elementary levels, it was

decided to select randomly 10-elementary schools representing 100-teachers and 50 parents of Reamal block,

Deogarh district. In order to get relevant information about the attitude towards homework. The details are

given below.

Table1. Details of the sample selected schools for the study

Sl. No. Name of the Elementary school No. of teachers No. of parents Total no. of parents and

teachers

1. Badabahal P.U.P. School. 10 5 15

2. Medinipur Primary School. 10 5 15

3. Dharampur P.U.P. School. 10 5 15

4. U.P. School, Tinkbir. 10 5 15

5. Reamal Centre School. 10 5 15

6. Budida U.G.M.E. School. 10 5 15

7. Ratan Khalinali U.P. School 10 5 15

8. Timur P.U.P. School. 10 5 15

9. Babarakot U.P. School. 10 5 15

10. Malahipada U.G.M.E. School. 10 5 15

TOOLS USED FOR DATA COLLECTION: The researcher was used an Attitude Scale in the form of questionnaire to collect data from the elementary school teachers and parents of Reamal block, Deogarh

district. The attitude test consists of 30 items related to homework. The details items of the test are appeared

at the end.

SCORING PROCEDURE: The questions were prepared on the basis of three point scale. The rating

categories scored from 3 to 1 were entitled (1) for A (Agree), (2) for I (Indifferent) and (3) D for (Disagree)

respectively.

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY: The reliability of the questionnaire was identified by using the survey

method. The reliability value was found to be 0.95 which is above the normal level and the work is said to

have high reliability. The second measure of validation is called validity. The investigator established

content validity by using scientific procedure in the present study.

STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES EMPLOYED: In order to analyze the raw data suitable statistical

techniques like percentage within three categories viz; Agree, Indifferent, Disagree have been applied so as

P a g e | 3 ATTITUDE OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS TOWARDS HOME WORK OF THEIR CHILDREN AT ELEMENTARY LEVEL

HSSR Journal of Human and Social Science Research ORICPublications www.oricpub.com

to arrive at concrete conclusion.

Table2. Attitude of teachers towards giving homework

SL. No. Items Responses

Agree Indifferent Disagree Total no. of

Teachers

1. Homework is given to evaluate child

learning.

98=98% 0=0% 2=2% 100

2. Homework motives the child to

learn.

100=100% 0=0% 0=0% 100

3. Homework makes the proper

utilization of childs time. 86=86% 11=11% 3=3% 100

4. Homework restricts the natural

development of child.

82=82% 10=10% 8=8% 100

5. Homework does not help in the

intellectual/ cognitive development

of the child.

49=49% 31=31% 20=20% 100

6. Homework makes the regular study

habit.

94=94% 6=6% 0=0% 100

7. The child gets an opportunity to

practice through homework.

82=82% 11=11% 7=7% 100

8. Homework encourages the creative

ability of the child.

86=86% 10=10% 4=4% 100

9. Homework develops independent

learning skills.

75=75% 12=12% 13=13% 100

10. Homework makes the child

tense/anxiety.

69=69% 25=25% 6=6% 100

11. Homework develops self-confidence

and responsibility in child.

82=82% 13=13% 5=5% 100

12. The child does not get time to play

because of homework.

66=66% 24=24% 10=10% 100

13. Without homework, child is less

motivated to learn.

75=75% 17=17% 8=8% 100

14. Child completes the homework out

of fear.

83=83% 11=11% 6=6% 100

15. Homework presents the child from

bad company.

64=64% 20=20% 16=16% 100

16. Homework gives information to

parents about the childs academic progress.

61=61% 27=27% 12=12% 100

17. Homework disturb the childs time. 79=79% 14=14% 7=7% 100 18. Homework interferes with childs

freedom.

85=85% 9=9% 6=6% 100

19. Homework denies the child from

participating in community function.

60=60% 36=36% 4=4% 100

20. Homework gives self evaluation to

child.

91=91% 6=6% 3=3% 100

21. Homework provides opportunity to

child to practice what has been

learned in school.

74=74% 20=20% 6=6% 100

22. Homework curtails childs freedom and leisure time.

75=75% 18=18% 7=7% 100

23. Homework is an important part of

curriculum.

83=83% 12=12% 5=5% 100

24. Homework crates learning

environment in home.

80=80% 12=12% 8=8% 100

25. Homework put burden on child to

learn.

80=80% 9=9% 11=11% 100

26. Homework evaluates the child to

make good results.

86=86% 7=7% 7=7% 100

27. Homework establishes good

relationship between parents and

teachers.

54=54% 40=40% 6=6% 100

28. Teacher gives homework to reduce

their teaching load.

83=83% 13=13% 4=4% 100

29. Homework should be given daily. 91=91% 4=4% 5=5% 100

30. Homework helps the child in

revising the lesson.

97=97% 2=2% 1=1% 100



3. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION Analysis of data is the most important and crucial steps in educational research. After data has been

collected, it has to be processed and analyzed to draw proper influence.

Analysis requires as alert, flexible and open mind. It is worthwhile to prepare of analysis before the actual

collection of data. Analysis of data means studying organized materials in order to discover inherent facts.

However, valid, reliable and adequate the data may be, it does not serve any work unless carefully edited,

systematically classified and tabulated scientifically, analyzed, intelligently interpreted rationally and draw

conclusion in an effective manner.

Analysis of data means to make raw data meaningful or to draw some results from the data after the

proper treatment. To analyze the tabulated material is studied in order to determine inherent facts. It involves

breaking down existing complex factors into simple parts and putting the parts together in new arrangements

for purpose of interpretation. Interpretation calls for a careful logical and critical examination of the results

attained after analysis, keeping in view the limitation of the sample chosen, the tools selected and used in the

study. The details of the analysis are given in Table2.

In the Table2 teachers are of the opinion that home work is an essential aspect of child learning. It is

given to evaluate childs learning (98 percent), motivates the child to learn (100 percent), makes proper utilization of childs time (86 percent), makes regular study habit( 94 percent), gives child an opportunity to practice and revise the lesson already taught in schools (82 percent), an important means to inform parents

about their words progress (61 percent), develops self-confidence (82 percent), essential in subjects of curriculum importance (83 percent) enable the child to evaluate her/his own performance (91 percent),

develops independent learning skills (75 percent), and creates learning environment in home (80 percent) etc.

respectively.

As regards to the arguments against homework, a low percentage of teachers deny that homework makes

the child tense (6 percentage), restricts natural development of the child (8 percent), does not help in the

intellectual development (20 percent), interferences with childs freedom (6 percent), wastes the childs valuable time (7 percent), denies the children from participating in community activities (4 percent),

encroaches upon childs leisure time (7 percent), places heavy burden on child to learn (11 percent), reduce their teaching lead (4 percent), does not allow child to revise their lesson (1 percent) and hampers the

creative ability of the child (4 percent), etc. respectively.

On the basis of the result, it can be concluded that most of elementary school teachers have a favorable

attitude towards giving homework and they consider that it as an important aspect of child learning. Thus the

efforts made by the Government to reduce the learning burden of the school children would be in vain.

Therefore, the effort should be made to change the attitude of teachers towards not giving home works rather

they should be encouraged to give homework.

The parents are of the views that home work is an essential aspect of child learning. It is given to evaluate

childs learning (76 percent), motivates the child to learn (90 percent), makes proper utilization of childs time (90 percent), makes regular study habit (84 percent), gives child an opportunity to practice and revise

the lesson already taught in schools (70 percent), an important means to inform teachers about their words progress (66 percent), develops self-confidence (80 percent), essential in subjects of curriculum importance

(72 percent), enable the child to evaluate her/his own performance (74 percent), and develops independent

learning skills (70 percent), and creates learning environment in home (60 percent), etc. respectively.

As regards to the arguments against homework, a low percentage of teachers deny that homework makes

the child tense (24 percentage), restricts natural development of the child (28 percent), does not help in the

intellectual development (24 percent), interferences with childs freedom (14 percent), wastes the childs valuable time (24 percent), denies the children from participating in community activities (32 percent),

encroaches upon childs leisure time (26 percent), places heavy burden on child to learn (14 percent), reduce their teaching load (24 percent), does not allow child to revise their lesson (18 percent) and hampers

the creative ability of the child (14 percent), etc. respectively.

On the basis of the result, it can be concluded that most of elementary school parents have a favorable

attitude towards giving homework and they consider it as an important aspect of child learning. Thus the

efforts made by the Government to reduce the learning burden of the school children would be in vain.

Therefore, the effort should be made to change the attitude of parents towards home work.

Table3. Attitude of parents towards giving homework



Sl. No. Items Responses

Agree Indifferent Disagree Total no. of

parents

1. Homework is given to evaluate child

learning.

38=76% 6=12% 6=12% 50

2. Homework motives the child to learn. 45=90% 3=6% 2=4% 50

3. Homework makes the proper

utilization of childs time. 45=90% 4=8% 1=2% 50

4. Homework restricts the natural

development of child.

26=52% 10=20% 14=28% 50

5. Homework does not help in the

intellectual/ cognitive development of

the child.

20=40% 18=36% 12=24% 50

6. Homework makes the regular study

habit

42=84% 3=6% 5=10% 50

7. The child gets an opportunity to

practice through homework.

35=70% 6=12% 9=18% 50

8. Homework encourages the creative

ability of the child.

38=76% 5=10% 7=14% 50

9. Homework develops independent

learning skills.

35=70% 9=18% 5=10% 50

10. Homework makes the child

tense/anxiety.

24=48% 14=28% 12=24% 50

11. Homework develops self-confidence

and responsibility in child.

40=80% 8=16% 2=4% 50

12. The child does not get time to play

because of homework.

23=46% 8=16% 19=38% 50

13. Without homework, child is less

motivated to learn.

38=76% 7=14% 5=10% 50

14. Child completes the homework out of

fear.

39=78% 3=6% 8=16% 50

15. Homework presents the child from

bad company.

22=44% 17=34% 11=22% 50

16. Homework gives information to

parents about the childs academic progress.

33=66% 9=18% 8=16% 50

17. Homework disturbs the childs time. 34=68% 4=16% 12=24% 50 18. Homework interferes with childs

freedom.

39=78% 4=8% 7=14% 50

19. Homework denies the child from

participating in community function.

25=50% 9=18% 16=32% 50

20. Homework gives self evaluation to

child.

37=74% 8=16% 5=10% 50

21. Homework provides opportunity to

child to practice what has been

learned in school.

39=78% 6=12% 5=10% 50

22. Homework curtails childs freedom and leisure time.

29=58% 8=16% 13=26% 50

23. Homework is an important part of

curriculum.

36=72% 4=8% 10=20% 50

24. Homework crates learning

environment in home.

30=60% 4=8% 16=32% 50

25. Homework put burden on child to

learn.

33=66% 10=20% 7=14% 50

26. Homework evaluates the child to

make good results.

42=84% 5=10% 3=6% 50

27. Homework establishes good

relationship between parents and

teachers.

30=60% 7=14% 13=26% 50

28. Teacher gives homework to reduce

their teaching load.

24=48% 14=28% 12=24% 50

29. Homework should be given daily. 41=82% 7=14% 2=4% 50

30. Homework helps the child in revising

the lesson.

38=76% 3=6% 9=18% 50

4. FINDINGS OF THE STUDY The investigator has analyzed and interpreted the data. A number of findings were observed in this study.

But only the major findings of the study are highlighted. The major findings are as follows:



TEACHERS VIEWS ON HOME WORK: Homework provides an opportunity to explore and understand

new issues. It develops certain personality traits and fosters initiative, independent thinking and

responsibility in students. It promotes intellectual discipline and provides training in scientific method. It

contributes to students and parents understanding that the school holds high expectations of students. It

provides parents with an opportunity to share in their Childs learning. Homework provides opportunities for

broad enrichment activities to the learning of students and promoting wise and orderly use of time.

PARENTS VIEWS ON HOMEWORK: Homework allows the pupils to apply previous learning and

develops problem solving skills.

It provides additional practice, increasing the amount of time students are actively engaged in learning

and extending time on task.

Giving homework as a regular basis increases achievement and improve attitudes toward learning.

It provides time and encouragement for their children to do good work in the school. It helps the students

for understanding of concepts and verifies the tasks. It provides the pupil with practice in aspects of class

work, enable to become independent learners, encourage pupils to manage their time, foster a partnership

between home and school.

It facilitates the development of organizational skills and good work habits. It supports students self-regulation skills, strategies, personnel responsibility and personal thinking.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS: The findings of the study are relevant in the field of education in the

following ways.

Homework task assigned to students by school teachers that are intended to be carried out during

nonschool hours is of great value. Hence home task must be given to students.

Educators and Parents became concerned that homework give social experience, outdoor recreation, and

creative activities among students. Hence must be given to accelerate knowledge acquisition.

Homework assignment should include tasks that are varied, challenging and differentiated to meet the

needs of all pupils.

It is, in general, an important pupil activity which contributes to the educative process. It may serve to tie

the school more closely to the home. It is a demonstration of teacher expectations to both pupil and parent.

Homework is a task initiated and/or motivated in the classroom related to the objective of the course studied

which is normally completed during out of class time. It may take the form of additional practice on a

expertise, reading of material on a specified subject, in depth follow up of classroom activities, or

independent project work related to the subject.

As a result, of which both teachers and parents will create favorable attitude among students towards

homework of their children.

5. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION FOR FUTURE RESEARCH Student homework creates opportunities for important interactions among schools, families, students, and

other adults who take care of children. Well designed homework helps students to learn; and offers parents

to see what students are learning. Teachers play a critical role in helping parents to become effectively

involved in student homework. The most direct positive effect of homework is to improve retention and

understanding study skill and attitude towards school, and teach the students that learning can take place

anywhere. The non-academic benefits of homework include fostering independence and responsibility in

students mind. Finally, homework improves between parents and teachers in the school process, enhancing

their appreciation of education, and allowing them to express positive attitude towards the value of school

success.

After having some experience in the field of study, the following suggestions can be made for further

research in this field. The present study was confined to 100 teachers and 50 parents. It can be extended by

increasing the size of the sample. Similar studies can be done by taking secondary and higher secondary

school teachers and parents. Similar studies can be conducted taking rural and urban teachers and parents in

government and private schools in the state.

The investigators reveled about the research work in his opinions to make broad areas in the sample

studies. Home work is the one type of assignment which will be reflected in the minds of students in

different stage of education. Whereas I affirmly suggested for the coming research scholar to be

conducted for his/her own ways of investigation in the concern areas.



REFERENCES [1] Kushwaha, M. (2002). Attitude of parents towards homework given to the children at the primary

stage, unpublished Masters Degree. Thesis submitted to Allahabad University, Allahabad.

[2] Manjula, V. (1993): Attitude of Teacher Towards Homework Unpublished Master Degree Thesis,

S.V. University, Tirupati.

[3] Paskal, et.al. (1985). The Effect of Homework on Learning- A Quantitative. Analysis of

Educational Research.

[4] Padmaja, K. (1991). Homework and Elementary school children, Unpublished Thesis, S.V.

University, Tirupati.

[5] Rich, Dorothy, Jones and Cynthia (1974). The home-school new educational partnership: A hand

book of teacher-tested techniques and activities for parents home involvement in childrens learning. [6] Shalendra, et.al. (1997). Learning Without Tears. Children and Homework, Discovery Publishing

House, New Delhi.

[7] Scaglione, Salvatore F. (1974), Student, teacher and parents perceptions of home work assignments

at the high school level in white plains, N.Y. Ed. D. dissertation, Ball State University.

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Journal of Human and Social Science ResearchVol. 1, No. 1 (2013), 9-18


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Received: 12 Mar 2013Accepted: 19 Mar 2013Muhammad Sabbir RahmanGraduate School of Management;Multimedia University, MalaysiaPersiaran Multimedia, 63100CyberjayaSelangor Darul Ehsan, MalaysiaAbdul Highe KhanGraduate Research Student, Facultyof Economics and ManagementSciences,International Islamic UniversityMalaysiaNazrul IslamFaculty of Business Administration,Eastern University, Dhaka,Bangladesh

Correspondence:Muhammad Sabbir RahmanGraduate School of Management;Multimedia University, MalaysiaPersiaran Multimedia, 63100Cyberjaya Selangor Darul Ehsan,Malaysia.

AN EMPIRICAL STUDY ON REVEALING THE FACTORS INFLUENCINGONLINE SHOPPING INTENTION AMONG MALAYSIAN CONSUMERS

AbstractThe growth of online shopping is increasing at a rapid rate in Malaysia by replacingtraditional store shopping habit of the substantial number of consumers. The purposeof the research is to investigate the factors that are influencing consumers onlineshopping intention in Malaysia. This research proposes a research framework on onlineshopping by refereeing various influential factors which are antecedents of onlineshopping in Malaysia. The framework of this study was based on the constructsgenerated from Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). In total 250 valid respondentsresponse were gathered through self-administered survey. Exploratory factor analysis(EFA) and multiple regression analysis were employed to identify the factors that areinfluencing online shopping under Malaysian context. From the statistical results it wasdiscovered that perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEOU) havepositive influenced on online shopping in Malaysia. It is expected that result from thisstudy can help online vendors to draw the further strategy to attract more consumersthrough online shopping under Malaysian context.Keywords: Online Shopping, Perceived Usefulness (PU), Perceived Ease of Use(PEOU), Perceived Risk, Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), Malaysia.

1. INTRODUCTIONOnline shopping also called internet shopping or electronic shopping,

defined as the shopping process where consumers purchase goods orservices from any vendors through online (Mastercard WorldwideInsights, 2008). In addition online shopping also defined as observing,searching, and browsing internet for purchasing any product or service(Kim, 2004). Due to the technological advancement and increasing thenumber of internet users, Malaysian consumers are interested to do onlineshopping. It is estimated that, in 2014 Malaysia's online shopping marketwill be RM 5 billion where as it was only RM 1.8 billion in 2010. As aresult in Malaysia more than 70% of the total online shopping spends bythe middle income consumers and on average they spend more than RM4,000. Out of the RM 1.8 billion, RM 825 million or more was spent onlocal websites, local merchants. However still there is significant researchgap exist to identify the significant factors to stimulate online shoppingbehavior among Malaysian consumers. In Technology Acceptance Model(TAM) Davis (1989) explained perceived usefulness and perceived easeof use are influenced significantly to use any technology related business.In was also revealed that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of useinfluence consumers to perform online shopping. Beside that in previousresearch in different western countries under specific sample it was foundthat perceived risk is related with consumer trust on technology relatedtransaction Bahmanziari et al. 2003; Ng, 2003; Pavlou, 2003. For thisreason this research would like to test how perceived usefulness,perceived ease of use, and perceived risk affect online shopping behaviorunder Malaysian consumers perspective.

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It is fact that there are some other factors also that might be influenced consumers online shoppingbehavior, for instance subjective norm, consumer technology using experience, gender, race so on so forthwhich could be suggested for future research. As whole the proposed research try to answer what are thesignificant factors are influencing online shopping behavior among Malaysian consumers? As a result theobjective of this study is to empirically test the factors that are influencing consumers online shoppingintention under Malaysian consumers perspective.2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Davis (1989) developed Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). This model has been widely employed byresearchers to explain user acceptance of technology in different types (Bahmanziari et al. 2003; Ng, 2003;Pavlou, 2003). Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) theorizes that Perceived Usefulness (PU) is asignificant factor-affecting acceptance of an information system (Davis et al., 1989).There are five parts in thismodel for instance Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU), Perceived Usefulness (PU), Attitude towards Using (ATU),Behavioral Intention to Use (BI), and Actual Usage (AU). Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) considerthat consumers do transaction through technology mainly for two reasons (1) Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU)and (2) Perceived Usefulness (PU). Consumers prefer online shopping then traditional store shopping forvarious reasons. In particular there is no time constraint of online shopping, consumers can order for anyproducts or services whenever they want. For this reason consumers get sufficient time to think and then givethe order (Morganosky and Cude 2000; Kim & Kim, 2004; McKinney, 2004; Harn et al., 2006; Delafrooz etal., 2009). Not only consumer can order from any place where they can use internet (home, office, caf etc.)but also they can save their time. In fact in online shopping context there vendors can display thousands ofproducts on website and for this reason consumers can buy product from lots of choice and with less price thantraditional store shopping (Khatibi et al. 2006; Delafrooz &Paim, 2011). Thus, based on the above discussionfollowing hypothesis can be proposed:H1. Perceived Usefulness is Positively Related with Online Shopping

Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) is defined as the degree to which a person believes that using a particularsystem would be free of effort (Davis, 1989). Ease of use is also defined as any persons perception that usingthe new technology will be free of effort (Davis, 1989, 1993). Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) has a positiveand significant influence on consumers attitude on online shopping (Bisdee, 2007; Yulihasri & Daud,2011).The component of Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) are the process, easy system, elastic and easy tobecome skillful. Selamat et al. (2009) mentioned that easier technology is always accepted by the consumersrather using complex technology for online shopping. Usually consumers do not like to use complextechnology for buying any product or service from online. Meanwhile website characteristics play animportant role in determining perceived ease of use in online shopping (Zeithaml et al., 2002; Beldona et al.2005). Thus, based on the above discussion following hypothesis can be proposed:H2. Perceived Ease of Use is Positively Related with Online Shopping

Perceived risk is defined as the consumers subjective belief of suffering a loss in pursuit of a desiredoutcome. It has a stronger correlation with willingness to shop online than convenience (Zhou et al., 2007:Van Noort et al. 2007). Kim et. al. (2007) defines perceived risk as a consumers belief about potentialuncertain negative outcomes from anyelectronic transaction.Wang et al. (2006) indicated on their study thatpersonal privacy, safety, and product or service quality are the necessary concerns of the consumer who like todo on-line transaction. Liao and Shi (2009) stated that perceived risk has a significant and negative influenceon consumer attitude towards e-shopping, for instance e-retailing. Li & Zhang (2002) mentioned perceivedrisk is an important element of consumer attitude towards online shopping behavior. There are two elementsof perceived risk related to the process of online shopping: risk associated with the product or service and riskassociated with the context of online transaction. According to Liebermann & Stashevsky (2002) there are twoelements of perceived risk related to the process of online shopping: Internet credit card stealing andconfidentiality of consumers personal information. Consumer perceived risk cannot be eliminated becausethere is no physical interaction but it can be reduced by the association with transaction processes (Pavlou,

11 | AN EMPIRICAL STUDY ON REVEALING THE FACTORS INFLUENCING ONLINE SHOPPING INTENTION AMONG MALAYSIAN CONSUMERSP a g e

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2003; Koufaris and Hampton-Sosa, 2004) or consumer online trust (Culnan and Armstrong, 1999; Warrington,et al., 2000; Park and Jun, 2003; Koufaris and Hampton-Sosa, 2004; Gefen and Pavlou, 2006; Mukherjee andNath, 2007). Thus, based on the above discussion following hypothesis can be proposed:H3. Perceived Risk is Positively Related with Online Shopping3. MATERIALS AND METHODSTo collect the data this research used convenient sampling procedure on various places from Klang Valleyarea in Malaysia. In this study, primary data were collected through distribution of survey questionnaires.Self-structured questionnaire was developed to collect the required primary data. As self-structuredquestionnaire is convenient for the target respondents. In addition self-structured questionnaire also easy todistribute to the respondents. The form of self-structured questionnaire is shorter and easier to follow by theresearchers point of view.

The principal component analysis was comprised with 250 respondents. Apart from that demographicinformation, respondents were also asked to rate their opinion according to five point rating scale, with arating five being Strongly Agree and one being Strongly Disagree. Figure 1 below shows the conceptualmodel proposed for hypothesis testing.

Figure 1: Proposed Research and measurement models3.1 Research Sample

In order to reach the actual online shoppers and test the hypothesized research model shown in Figure 1, aself-completed questionnaire was employed. Questionnaires were distributed to 350 online shoppers. A totalof 250 effective responses were obtained which represents more than 71 percent response rate. The samplecharacteristics are provided in Table 1. The demographic information of the respondents was analyzedthrough frequency distribution. Among the respondents 54 percent were male and 46 percent were female.Largest number of participants 36 percent, ranged in age 25-34. Majority of online user are married whichaccounted for 56 percent. Among the participants Malays accounted for 44 percent followed by Chinese 32percent and Indians 24 percent. This is shown in table 1 below. Out of total respondents 38 percent of theparticipants had a college graduate degree. Last but not least, the monthly personal income of 38 percent of theparticipants was between RM 1000- RM 2999. For online product purchase behavior the results shows thatmajority of respondents buy air ticket from online and their percentage is 36 percent followed by 26 percentand 22 percent of the participants buy computer/electronics items and movie ticket respectively.3.2 Data Analysis and Results

Cronbachs Alpha was chosen to analyze the degree of consistency among the items in a construct. Thestudy by Hair et al., (2010) indicates that the cronbach alpha must be at least 0.70 for the results to be deemedas reliable. The value for each variable is above 0.70 and it indicates that the variables are reliable. The resultof reliability analysis is given below.

Perceived Usefulness

Perceived Ease of Use

Perceived Risk

Online Shopping



Table 1: Demographic Information of the RespondentsDescriptions Frequency Percentage

Gender:Male 135 54%Female 115 46%Age:24 and below 70 28%25-34 90 36%35-44 60 24%45 and above 30 12%Marital Status:Single 110 44%Married 140 56%Ethnic Group:Malay 110 44%Chinese 80 32%Indian 60 24%

Table 2: Demographic Information of the RespondentsDescriptions Frequency PercentageAcademic Qualification:Certificate/ Diploma 70 28%College Graduate (Bachelor) 95 38%Masters Degree 65 26%Doctoral Degree 20 08%Profession:Student 75 30%Job Holder 90 36%Business Owner 55 22%Academician 30 12%Monthly Income:Below RM 1000 45 18%RM 1000-RM 2999 95 38%RM 3000-RM 4999 80 32%RM 5000 and Above 30 12%Online Product Purchase ExperienceAir ticket 90 36%Computer/Electronics items 65 26%Movie ticket 55 22%Book/DVD/CD 25 10%Others 15 06%

3.3 Exploratory Factor AnalysisApplying Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) 16 version, the principal component analysis

(PCA) was carried out to explore the underlying factors associated with the items. The construct validity wastested through Bartletts Test of Sphericity and The Kaiser-Mayer-Olkin Measure of sampling adequacy. TheKaiser-Mayer-Olkin measures of sampling adequacy (KMO) were first computed to determine the suitabilityof using factor analysis. The value of KMO varies from 0 to 1, and KMO overall should be 0.60 or higher. Infactor analysis, the KMO value is quite satisfactory which 0.865 is. The result shows five (3) significantcomponents in initial Eigen values. A first component is 7.333 and its variance is 28.203 and second



component of total is 2.869 with 11.033 of variance. The cumulative percentage is 58.069. Exploratory factoranalysis also confirmed the construct validity of the scales. The factor loading for all items exceeding theminimum value of 0.50 were considered in this study.

Table 3: Reliability AnalysisVariables/ Dimensions Mean Standard Deviations Cronbach alphaPerceived Usefulness 4.76 0.776 0.773Perceived Ease of Use 4.57 0.798 0.834

Perceived Risk 4.35 0.922 0.888

Table 4: KMO and Bartletts TestParameters Value

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy .829Bartlett's Test of Sphericity: Approx. Chi-Square 1836.209

df 186Sig .000

3.4 Hypothesis testingThe results from the analysis reflected that association between perceived usefulness and online shopping

are positive. The multiple regression result also shows perceived usefulness has a beta of 0.106 and significantp value is .047. The finding of this research shows that perceive usefulness has positive relationship towardsonline shopping. The results from this research also reflected that the association between perceived ease ofuse and online shopping is positive. The multiple regression result shows perceived ease of use has a beta of0.154 and significant p value is 0.007. The significant value is smaller than alpha at 0.05 and hypothesis isaccepted. As supported by previous studies (Bisdee, 2007; Yulihasri & Daud, 2011). The result of this studyindicates that Standardized coefficient (Beta) of H3 is -0.356and significance p-value is 0.000. It indicates thatour proposed hypothesis is not supported. It means there is a negative relationship between perceived riskand online shopping. Studies also identified the negative relation between perceived risk and Online shopping(Liao & Cheung, 2001; Parks et al., 2004; Pires et al., 2004).4. CONCLUSION AND MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS

Effectiveness of online shopping can be maintained by increasing Malaysian consumers perceivedusefulness. Previous studies identified perceived usefulness have an impact on attitude towards onlineshopping (Lu et al. 2005; Hassanein & Head, 2004). This research developed to create a deeper understandingof the Malaysian consumer perception of using online shopping by adopting Technology acceptance model(TAM). The result of this research indicates that almost all the hypothesized relationships in the model wereaccepted except relationship of perceived risk and online shopping.

It is necessary to recognize the limitations of this study. First of all, survey of this research was conductedmostly in Klang valley area which can impact the generalizability of the findings from this research onMalaysian consumers context. Secondly the sample size of the survey was comparatively lesser. Its better tohave larger sample size to get better output. A more detailed empirical analysis can be done on consumersatisfaction on online shopping, by using gender, race, and educational level as a mediating role. Furtherresearch can be examine the causal relationships among the factors for instance: perceived ease of use,perceived usefulness, trust, perceived risk, online shopping. In terms of managerial implication, the findingsof this research do provide feedback for the online shopping vendors in drafting various managerial policieson to increase the shoppers online purchase intention. Vendors should plan to increase the perceivedusefulness of online shopping and make online shopping easy for all level of consumers (easy website surfing,provide necessary information of product or service). Another direction for vendors that they have tominimize online shopping perceived risk (enhancing privacy and protection of consumer data , increase truston online shopping for the purpose of increasing the likelihood of shopper online purchase intention.



Table 5: Exploratory Factor AnalysisVariables Components

1 2 3PEOU1 Easy to do online shopping .698

PEOU 2 Quick and easy transaction .546

PEOU 3 Easy to become skillful in using internet .708PEOU 4 Interaction through web pages clear and understandable. .717PEOU 5 Web based online transaction easy .730PEOU 6 Comfortable in surfing websites to shop online .685PU1 Broader selection of products and services .566PU2 Save time in online shopping .687PU3 Product price is cheaper in online .645PU4 Order product from any part of the world .777PU5 Order product from lots of options .670PU6 Prefer online shopping for its convenience .516PR1 I feel confident in my ability to shop online. .595PR2 I have trust in online shopping .773PR3 Credit card number is secured .685PR4 Reliability of the internet vendors .661PR5 Personal information will not be hampered .767PR6 Confidence that orders will be delivered on time .603PR7 Trust on digital signature .737

Table 6: Causal Relationship of the ConstructsHypothesis Hypothesis Variables Standardized

coefficient (Beta)Significance Remarks( p value)

H1 Perceived Usefulness has a positiveeffect on Online Shopping

0.106 .047 Supported

H2 Perceived Ease of Use has a positiveeffect on Online Shopping

0.154 0.007 Supported

H3 Perceived Risk has a positive effect onOnline Shopping

-0.356 0.000 Notsupported



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Received: 10 Mar 2013

Accepted: 24 Mar 2013

Aggrey Daniel Maina Thuo Senior Lecturer, Department of Land Resources Planning and Management, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology P. O. Box 62000, 00200, Nairobi, Kenya.

Correspondence: Aggrey Daniel Maina Thuo, Ph.D Senior Lecturer, Department of Land Resources Planning and Management, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology.

PLACE OF POSITIONALITY, VALUES, ETHICS AND REFLEXIVITY IN QUALITATIVE URBAN FIELD WORK RESEARCH

Abstract This paper details my field work experiences during my doctoral research in Nairobi

rural-urban fringe, Kenya. The field work was conducted before, during and after a

period of election related violence. The paper details the choice of my methodology and

also enumerates various decisions that I had to take during the field work when the

situation was visibly bleak. The paper provides lessons and insights on how to negotiate

different fields and positions in situations of instability and uncertainty during field

work.

Keywords: Reflexivity, ethics, rural-urban fringe, qualitative research, field work.

INTRODUCTION The process of urbanization is one of the most important drivers of

economic, social and physical change in developing countries such as

those in Sub-Saharan Africa (Pieterse 2008). Rapid urban population

growth has led not only to an increasing demand for urban land,

particularly for housing, but also for other various urban uses. And that in

many countries, the increasing demand for land is affecting rural-urban

fringes, where urban expansion is already encroaching into the

agricultural lands and small villages (Maconachie 2007). Maconachie

(2007) further indicates that the conversion of agricultural land to urban

uses is leading to rapid transformations in agricultural production, spatial

structure, social structure, land ownership and land markets in the

rural-urban fringe.

My research focused on the responses/actions of the community within

the Nairobi rural-urban fringe and how they manoeuvre through

environmental consequences of changes occasioned by urbanisation. This

paper details my field work experiences during my doctoral research in

Nairobi rural-urban fringe, Kenya. It is based experiences from a field

work which was inductive, in-depth and qualitative.

This paper reflects on the choice of the methodology adopted in

enhancing access, continued participation of my research

participant/informants. The paper details the role of researchers reflexivity, positionality and ethics in enhancing trust and confidence

among the participants, especially in situations of conflicts and political

uncertainties.

Aggrey Daniel Maina Thuo P a g e | 20


THE CHOICE OF MY METHODOLOGY The choice of my methodological approach was influenced by recognition of knowledge as being situated

and partial. Specifically, the major influence was from Marshall and Rossman (1989, 11), who describe

qualitative research as a process of designing research that entails entering into the everyday life of the social

setting, where informants' perspectives are valued in their own worlds and attempts are made to discover those

perspectives. Therefore I did not set out to search for a universal truth but to uncover perceptions, aspirations

and opinions from multiple sources/voices to provide one of many possible accounts/explanations concerning

land use conversions in the Nairobi rural-urban fringe.

The approach adopted allowed me to go beyond empirical descriptions and penetrate the appearances of

social life to unearth normalised but often unequal relations and hegemonic interests in land ownership and

use. Madge et al., (1997, 92) argue qualitative approaches offer interpretations of causal processes that have wide conceptual relevance. Additionally, face-to-face methods common in qualitative methodologies allow the researcher to draw on empathy and to validate informants knowledge and experiences. I therefore realised (in the process of my research) that other than providing data for this research, using a qualitative

approach served as an emancipatory tool for improving society through creating understanding about issues

affecting it or part of it, through various discussions with informants during field work.

An inquiry of this kind is thus seen as an interactive process between the researcher and the informants. It is

primarily descriptive and relies on people's words as the primary data. However, I did not take qualitative

research as simply quantitative research without numbers. I took it as a methodology that can stand on its own

and which allows the researcher to get into underlying aspects on different issues being studied.

Bryman (1989) reported several strengths of using a qualitative approach: First, it allows for the adoption

of an insider's stance to the study issues and settings. After multiple visits to the sites where I was conducting

my research, I started to have a feeling of an insider. I started to share in the concern of the participants (though

to a limited extent). I started to commune in some of their local discourses. In short, qualitative methods with

an emphasis on multiple visits and on in-depth interviews allowed me to have some insider perspective to land

use problems and issues.

Secondly, a qualitative approach creates a strong sense of contextualization of research issues and data.

Meeting participants in their life setting allowed me to see things in their natural settings. For example, during interviews with local government officials, I managed to observe ways in which they were dealing with

members of the public who came to their offices in need of various services. Also while meeting informants in

their villages I was able to observe how various issues are manifested or are affecting them in their respective

localities. In this regard I had a first-hand experience of some of the issues and I better understood how

different views and perceptions held by informants came to vary from one place to the other. This added

richness to the data I got from such settings.

Thirdly, a qualitative research methodology emphasizes the process more than the outcome. The way

research is conducted is crucial for the outcome of that research. The focus on the process rather than the

outcome is what gives legitimacy to qualitative research. Rather than following blueprints on how field work

is done or should be done, I thought deeply about the circumstances and situations at hand. I however ensured

that I documented the prevailing circumstances during various interview encounters and how that had the

likelihood of influencing/affecting the responses I was getting from my participants.

Fourthly, a qualitative approach allows for the adoption of the unstructured approach where the researcher

had little prior practical and/or theoretical orientation and no presupposed hypotheses. Though I had a rough

idea of my study setting and themes, my ideas were still formative and my theoretical

orientation/conceptualization was still rudimental. This is due to inadequate past studies done on my research

topic and particularly on that specific area of the Nairobi rural-urban fringe. The chosen approach allowed me

to develop concepts and themes during the research process. These concepts and themes were incrementally

developed as I advanced day by day in the field. This was further strengthened by adoption of multiple

interviews and field visits.

Fifthly, a qualitative approach allows for the generation and consideration of a variety of data sources such

as field notes, photographs, newspapers, interview transcripts and documents. This, as has already been

explained, was made possible by my adoption of various dimensions of triangulation. This allowed me to

make connections and cross-validate on various issues and cases as they unfolded in the field.

21 | P a g e PLACE OF POSITIONALITY, VALUES, ETHICS AND REFLEXIVITY IN QUALITATIVE URBAN FIELD WORK RESEARCH


Another case for the use qualitative approach is its ability to obtain and retain close proximity to the

phenomenon under study. I tried to emphasize data authorizing1 with the participants rather than data

collection. I made the participants feel part and parcel of the study rather than adapting a

client-master/client-server stance. At times however, I expressed empathy on some of the issues affecting the

participants, sometimes feeling like I should adopt the status of an agent of change which social researchers

sometimes are. All the same, due to the ethical requirements/considerations in my study I tried to suppress

emotions and activism aspects of my life during the entire research process.

In qualitative research, the researcher is the instrument. The validity and authenticity of the qualitative

research approach thus needs to be examined. Validity here is used to mean truthfulness in research activities.

Validity in qualitative methods, hinges largely on the skill, competence and rigor of the person doing the

fieldwork. Authenticity and validity entail giving an honest and balanced account of events and phenomena

from the perspective of those who experience it every day. This search for validity has led to a range of

innovations in research methodology. Qualitative research methodologies have adopted diverse approaches

such as reflexivity, multiple voicing and verbatim representations. Reflexivity entails a researcher historically,

culturally and personally situating himself/herself within their research and letting their informants and

audience know it. In doing so, subjectivity is accommodated in trying to explain and justify truth. Regarding

embracement of multiple voices, I made attempts to relativize the voices in this research by incorporating

multiple voices. A mixed methodology allowed me to use different methods to gather data so as to look at

research issues from different angles.

Within the practice of qualitative research certain metaphors have been used to describe a qualitative

researcher. Denzin and Lincoln (2007, 5-6) described the researchers as a bricoleur, as a maker of quilts, or as in film making, a person who assembles images into montages, among others. A researcher is further portrayed as one drawing materials from many elements and in different forms using different methods and

paradigms in an iterative and interpretive process to construct a representation of a complex social situation.

Adoption of a bricoleur standpoint allowed me to keep my research options open (although the open-approach

was more applicable during initial stages of the field work) and thus gave me more chances not only to

discover a few isolated facts but also some more profound truths. At the beginning, adoption of different sources and perspectives, seemed to blur, but as I continued with my study these diverse genres began to

interbreed into a storyline. As a bricoleur, I was also able to make on the spot decisions and to employ a range of strategies, techniques and methods to obtain empirical material.

As will be explained later, the metaphor of a bricoleur became handy during my fieldwork for this research.

The realities on the ground defied the anticipated research protocol/processes and focus. This was because

issues under study were not as clear-cut as originally imagined and also due to other issues (violent conflict

after disputed Kenyas presidential election) that emerged and which warranted a shift in the original fieldwork plan.

Adopting a bricoleur approach in research requires that one should move from one method to another

depending on the nature of encounters. I tried different techniques in developing different lines of enquiry,

identifying the participants or organisations to approach and further refining ways of conducting the fieldwork

and getting information. This approach is advantageous for research on issues such as land use phenomena in

the peri-urban areas due to their complex nature. Furthermore, it enables the researcher to remain open to

drawing upon new research methodologies if new and unexpected scenarios arise.

Selection of Research Participants for In-Depth Interviews At the start of my field work I was guided by de Vries (1992, 47-84) who gave various considerations

which are pertinent for a successful fieldwork research. These considerations were not rules in the real sense

but throughout my fieldwork they served as a guide. First, these encompassed issues of negotiating access into

the life world of my research participants or informants. This was a bit tricky given the central theme of my

research revolved around land, which is a most controversial and hotly contested aspect of life in Kenya.

1 During my field work, I valued my informants capacity to teach me about their reality, I also believed in my capacity to

break into that reality, reflect on it, make it my own, and ultimately share my lived experiences as a researcher and rural-urban

fringe resident. I took into account the ability of the informant to explain his/her activities as well as my ability to understand

and translate those explanations. This accords with Giddens (1984) that the discursive consciousness is the level at which

humans express their thoughts, emotions and reasons for action.

Aggrey Daniel Maina Thuo P a g e | 22


As such 'getting in to the participants called for a lot of sensitivity and caution; failure to do so had the potential of generating bad feelings and subsequent backlash to my field work. To avoid this backlash I took

time to explain to my participants what my research entailed and the purpose of my study. I tried all means to

assure them that my research was purely academic and was not meant to adjudicate over land grievances that

had beset many community members for a long time.

Participants were not selected through random sampling, they were referred via snowballing. I had also

done some homework, during the initial days of my field work, to know the individuals who serve as opinion leaders and shapers within the community in the study area. This information about opinion leaders and

shapers was obtained from public officers working in the area, who I first reported to after acquiring the

research permit. I made some informal contacts with individuals whom I had known before the study began

but were still living in the study area. I was thus referred to the gatekeepers of various study sites/areas (these sites/areas were chosen after a reconnaissance visits. I chose them as critical cases to answer my

research questions) and through their contacts I gained acceptance from members of those respective villages.

However, to avoid bias, after the first days of introduction I tried to disentangle from such gatekeepers. All the same I found it hard to completely avoid them as I had to keep referring to their names whenever I met new

people from whom I needed to get information. Such reference was framed in the following manner: I have talked to so and so [gatekeeper] and they are aware about what I am doing in this area. This introductory statement kept coming up in my frequent encounters with new people who could recognise a stranger within their locality.

I would, however, say that opportunism also played a key role by the end of each day during my field work.

I had to make on-the-spot decisions when I was confronted by some issues or opportunity for interview. I

was influenced by Bresnens (1988, 47) argument that most methods used in getting data, in some cases, rely upon some degree of slyness, artfulness, opportunism and perseverance on the part of the researcher. Although

I tried to be open as possible about the true purpose of my study, I never let any opportunity be wasted, even if

the situation was not initially set for the interview. For example, I attended a friends party which was meant as the preparation for his wedding. I met several people from the area with whom I informally discussed several

aspects of my research. Since these people were both born and still residing in the area, I had a good

opportunity to get much information in a relaxed atmosphere. From these people I selected some for further

interviews in the following days.

Secondly, I considered aspects of social relationships between myself and research participants as equally

important for getting on' with the research process. I made it my goal to allow research participants to understand in detail the goals and aim of my field work. In doing so, I developed some sense of feeling of

trustworthy to the participants. I tried not to portray any characteristics of elitism. However, I tried to show a

sincere curiosity to my informants by showing interest in their issues and the locality. I did this by showing

that I had a prior understanding of their area such as knowing various names of villages, natural features (e.g

Rivers) and various locations. This showed my participants that I was one of them and that I had them in my heart (in the words of some of the informants). I also exercised my interpersonal skills and good public relation in all circumstances. Challenges were high especially where interviews took place at the residence of

participants. Here, food or drinks were offered. It could not have been practical to accept food or drinks in

every residence I visited, on the basis of my capacity. What I did was to politely appreciate the offer and use

the opportunity to state and promise that I will take something next time thus getting myself an opportunity for

further interviews or to get clarification on issues that were not well captured in the previous interviews. I also

promised to share my preliminary findings with participants, which I did where the time and situations

allowed.

Thirdly, I considered the aspect of exiting or withdrawal from the interview site. I had to devise a strategy

to withdraw from the interview set up without jeopardising chances of my return to the participants for further

interviews. Cotterill (1992, 599) advises that a "...close friends do not usually arrive with a tape-recorder,

listen carefully and sympathetically to what you have to say and then disappear." In my case therefore, I tried

not to appear extractive in my approach and thus exploitative during my field work. I tried to promote a feeling

we are together all the time. This was to be useful even after the field work (that is, during transcription, data sorting and analysis), in that I kept in touch with my participants through telephone in cases where some issues

needed further clarification.

Personal relations trust building and informal networks were used in the selection and confirmation of

participants rather than consent forms. Once trust and confidence was built, each participant had his/her

23 | P a g e PLACE OF POSITIONALITY, VALUES, ETHICS AND REFLEXIVITY IN QUALITATIVE URBAN FIELD WORK RESEARCH


unique way of participating. In this way, I interacted with them as individuals who deserved respect and not as

homogenised groups or categories. In entering the field, therefore, I used a more personalized approach through reference and informal networks that I had earlier established while in Kenya. I was further guided by

the research protocols stipulated in the Kenyan government Research Authorisation Permit and The

University of Waikato, New Zealand (where I was PhD student) Social Sciences Research Ethics Guidelines.

These protocols required me not to harm the participants, or perpetuate extractive research practices.

Rather than sending letters or making phone calls to book an interview (as the University of Waikato,

Social Sciences research ethics guidelines recommends), I tried to establish more face-to-face contacts and

rapport with participants. Since I wanted in-depth contacts with my participants, I chose to concentrate on the

few whom I believed, from first encounters and reference, held essential information and had a good

recollection of local history on land use in the Nairobi peri-urban areas. This afforded me more time to

establish rapport and thus building interest in my participants beyond the mere one-off extraction of data

through a questionnaire. Where appropriate I reciprocated my

Documents

Human and Social Science Research- Volume 1