HPCR Manual (AirWar)

8/9/2019 HPCR Manual (AirWar)

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Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Researchat Harvard University

Manual on International Law

Applicable to Air and Missile Warfare

Bern, 15 May 2009


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2009 The Presidentand Fellowsof Harvard College

ISBN: 978-0-9826701-0-1

No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in aretrievalsystem, ortransmitedinanyform withoutthe priorconsent of the Program on Humanitarian Policy and Con-flict Researchat Harvard University. Thisrestrictionshallnotapplyfornon-commercialuse.

A product of extensive consultations, this document wasadopted byconsensusofaninternationalgroup ofexpertson15 May 2009 in Bern , Switzerland. Thisdocumentdoesnotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsofthe Programon HumanitarianPolicyand Conflict Researchorof Harvard University.

Programon Humanitarian Policyand Conflict ResearchHarvard University1033 Massachusets Avenue, 4th FloorCambridge, MA 02138United Statesof AmericaTel.: 617-384-7407

Fax: 617-384-5901E-mail: [email protected]


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Foreword

Itismy pleasureandhonorto presenttheHPCR Manual onInternational Law Applicable to Air and Missile Warfare. ThisManual provides the most up-to-date restatement of exist-ing international law applicable to air andmissile warfare,as elaborated by an international Group of Experts. As anauthoritativerestatement, theHPCR Manualcontributestothepracticalunderstandingofthisimportant international legalframework.

TheHPCR Manualistheresultofasix-yearlongendeavorled

bythe Programon Humanitarian Policyand Conflict Researchat Harvard University (HPCR), during whichitconvenedaninternational Group of Experts to reflectonexisting rulesofinternational law applicable toairandmissile warfare. ThisGroup of Experts, under theguidanceof HPCR Senior Aca-demic Advisor, Professor Dr. Yoram Dinstein, hasconducted,since 2004, a methodical and comprehensive reflection oninternational legal rules applicable to air and missile war-fare, drawing fromvarioussourcesof international law. Theenclosed Black-leter RulesoftheHPCR Manual wereadoptedbyconsensus bythe Group of Expertsin Bern, Switzerlandon15 May 2009. A separate Commentaryonthe Black-leter Rules

wasdrafed byselectedexpertsfromtheoriginalGroup, underthesupervisionof Professor Dinsteinand HPCR Project Coor-dinator, Bruno Demeyere. While the HPCR Manual restatescurrentapplicable law, the Commentary clarifies the promi-nentlegalinterpretationsandindicatesdiffering perspectives.

The HPCR Manual is the product of a collective effort. Wewouldlike, firstandforemost, toacknowledgetheremarkableroleof Professor Yoram Dinsteinthroughoutthis process. Hisinternationally recognized expertise and analytical engage-menthave been instrumental inmaintainingthemomentumandauthorityofthisinitiativeovertheyears. Membersofthe

Group of Experts (pleasesee Appendix I in the Introductionto the Commentary for the full list) have individuallymadeimportantcontributionstoeachstep ofthe process bystudying


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a particularareaofthelaw ofairoperationsand by providingcommentsontheoverallexercise. We wouldliketorecognize,particularly, themembersof the Drafing Commitee (pleasesee Appendix IV inthe Introductiontothe Commentary) whohave invested countless hours in summarizing the variousinterpretationsofthe Black-leter Rulesdiscussedamongtheexperts. HPCR Project Coordinator Bruno Demeyeremanagedthis process inanadeptanddiligentmannerthat wasmuchappreciated byhiscolleagues.

As ever, this project would not have been possible withoutthesubstantialfinancialsupportandgenerosityofitsdonors,

primarily the Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs.In addition, several governments supported the conveningofthe Group of Experts intheirvariousmeetings, as wellasregional consultations, namely Australia, Belgium, Canada,Germany, the Netherlands, and Norway. The InternationalSociety for Military Law andthe Law of Waralso facilitatedconsultations withmilitaryexpertsatregularintervalsduringthe project. Wordsofgratitudearealsoinorderforthe FritzThyssen Foundationand the Max Planck Institute for Com-parative Public Law and International Law for theirsupportinthehostingof Group of Expertsmeetings. Finally, a wordofspecialthanksgoesto Barbara Fontana, fromthe Political Divi-

sion IV of the Swiss Federal Departmentof Foreign Affairs,who kepta watchfulandconstructiveeyeonthis processsinceitsinception.

Throughthe publicationofthis Manual, HPCR hopesthatlegaladvisors andmilitary officers will benefit from an in-depthpresentation andinterpretation ofinternationallaw appli-cabletoairandmissilewarfare. Agreaterclarityofthelaw willalsoenhancethe protectionofciviliansinarmedconflict.

Claude BruderleinDirector, ProgramonHumanitarianPolicyandConflictResearch

February 2010


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Table of Contents

Section A: Definitions .............................................................. 1Rule 1

Section B: General Framework ............................................... 6Rules 24

Section C: Weapons ..................................................................... 7Rules 59

Section D: Attacks ...................................................................... 9Rules 1021I. Generalrules 9

II. Specificsofairormissileoperations 11

Section E: Military Objectives .............................................. 12Rules 2227I. Generalrules 12II. Specificsofairormissileoperations 13

Section F: Direct Participation in Hostilities................. 14Rules 2829

Section G: Precautions in Attacks ...................................... 16Rules 3041I. Generalrules 16II. Specificsofairormissileoperations 17III. Specificsofatacksdirectedataircrafintheair 18

Section H: Precautions by the Belligerent Party

Subject to Attack ...................................................................... 19Rules 4246

Section I: Protection of Civilian Aircraft ...................... 20Rules 4757I. Generalrules 20II. Enemycivilianaircraf 21III. Neutralcivilianaircraf 21IV. Safetyinflight 21

Section J: Protection of Particular Types of Aircraft ......23Rules 5870

I. Civilianairliners 23II. Aircrafgrantedsafeconduct 24III. Provisionscommontocivilianairlinersandaircrafgrantedsafeconduct 25


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Section K: Specific Protection of Medical and ReligiousPersonnel, Medical Units and Transports ..........................26Rules 7174

Section L: Specific Protection of Medical Aircraft ......... 28Rules 7587

Section M: Specific Protection of the Natural

Environment ............................................................................... 32Rules 8889I. Generalrule 32II. Specificsofairormissileoperations 32

Section N: Specific Protection of Other Persons and

Objects .......................................................................................... 32Rules 9099I. Civildefence 32II. Cultural property 33III. Objectsindispensabletothesurvivalofthecivilian population 35IV. UN personnel 35V. Protection byspecialagreement 36

Section O: Humanitarian Aid ................................................ 36Rules 100104I. Generalrules 36II. Specificsofairormissileoperations 37

Section P: Exclusion Zones and No-Fly Zones ............. 37

Rules 105110I. Generalrules 37II. Exclusion zones ininternationalairspace 38III. No-fly zonesin belligerentairspace 39

Section Q: Deception, Ruses of War and Perfidy ............ 39Rules 111117I. Generalrules 39II. Specificsofairormissileoperations 40

Section R: Espionage ................................................................ 42Rules 118124I. Generalrules 42II. Specificsofairormissileoperations 42

Section S: Surrender ............................................................... 43Rules 125131I. Generalrules 43II. Specificsofairormissileoperations 43


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Section T: Parachutists from an Aircraft in Distress .....44Rules 132133

Section U: Contraband, Interception, Inspection and

Capture ......................................................................................... 45Rules 134146I. Enemyaircrafandgoodson boardonsuchaircraf 45II. Neutralcivilianaircraf 46III. Safeguards 47IV. Determinationofenemycharacter 47

Section V: Aerial Blockade .................................................... 48Rules 147159

Section W: Combined Operations ........................................ 51Rules 160164

Section X: Neutrality .............................................................. 52Rules 165175I. Scopeofapplication 52II. Generalrules 52III. Specificsofairormissileoperations 53


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Section A:Definitions

1. Forthe purposesofthis Manual

(a) Air or airspace means the air up to thehighestaltitudeat whichanaircrafcanflyandbelow the lowest possible perigeeofanearthsatellite inorbit. Under international law, air-space is classified as either national airspace(that over the land, internal waters, archipe-lagic waters, and territorialseasofany State)

orinternationalairspace (thatovercontiguouszones, exclusiveeconomic zones, thehighseas,andterritorynotsubjecttothesovereigntyofany State).

(b) Air or missile operations mean militaryoperationsinarmedconflictinvolvingtheuseofaircraformissilesofall types; whether inoffenceordefence; and whetherornotovertheterritoryofoneofthe Belligerent Parties.

(c) Air ormissile combat operations mean air

ormissileoperationsdesigned to injure, kill,destroy, damage, capture or neutralize tar-gets, thesupportofsuchoperations, oractivedefenceagainstthem.

(d) Aircraf means any vehiclewhethermannedorunmannedthatcanderivesup-port in the atmosphere from the reactionsof theair (other than the reactionsof theairagainsttheearthssurface), includingvehicleswitheitherfixedorrotary wings.

(e) Atack meansanactofviolence, whetherinoffenceorindefence.

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(f) Belligerent Party meansa State Party toaninternationalarmedconflict.

(g) Cartelaircraf meansanaircrafgrantedsafeconduct byagreement betweenthe BelligerentPartiesforthe purposeof performingaspecificfunction, suchasthetransportof prisonersofwaror parlementaires.

(h) Civilian aircraf means any aircraf otherthanmilitaryorother Stateaircraf.

(i) Civilian airliner means a civilian aircrafidentifiable as such and engaged in carryingcivilian passengersinscheduledornon-sched-uledservice.

(j) Civilianobjects meanallobjects whicharenotmilitaryobjectives, asdefinedin Rule 1 (y).

(k) Civil defence means the performance ofsomeor allof thehumanitarian tasksmen-tioned below, intendedto protectthecivilianpopulationagainst thedangers, and tohelp

it to recover from the immediate effects, ofhostilitiesordisastersandalsoto providetheconditions necessary for its survival. Thesetasks are: (i) warning; (ii) evacuation; (iii)management of shelters; (iv) managementof blackoutmeasures; (v) rescue; (vi) medi-calservices, includingfirstaid, andreligiousassistance; (vii) fire-fighting; (viii) detectionandmarkingofdangerareas; (ix) decontami-nation and similar protective measures; (x)provisionofemergencyaccommodationandsupplies; (xi) emergency assistance in the

restorationandmaintenanceoforder indis-tressedareas; (xii) emergencyrepairofindis-pensable public utilities; (xiii) emergencydisposalof thedead; (xiv) assistance in the


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preservationofobjectsessentialforsurvival;(xv) complementary activities necessary tocarryoutanyof the tasksmentionedabove,including, but not limited to, planning andorganization.

(l) Collateraldamage means incidental lossofcivilianlife, injurytociviliansanddamagetocivilianobjectsorother protectedobjectsoracombinationthereof, caused byanatack onalawfultarget.

(m) Computer network atack means opera-tionstomanipulate, disrupt, deny, degrade, ordestroyinformationresidentincomputersandcomputernetworks, orthecomputernetworkitself, ortogaincontroloverthecomputerorcomputernetwork.

(n) Contraband means goods which are ulti-mately destined for territory under the con-trolofanenemy Belligerent Partyand whicharesusceptibleforuse in internationalarmedconflict.

(o) Cultural property means, irrespective oforiginorownership:

(i) Movableor immovable propertyofgreatimportance to the cultural heritage ofeverypeople, suchasmonumentsofarchi-tecture, art or history, whether religiousorsecular; archaeologicalsites; groupsofbuildings which, asa whole, areofhistori-calorartisticinterest; worksofart; manu-scripts, booksandotherobjectsofartistic,

historicalorarchaeologicalinterest; aswellasscientificcollectionsandimportantcol-lectionsof booksorarchivesorofrepro-ductionsofthe propertydefinedabove;


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(ii) Buildings whosemainandeffective pur-poseisto preserveorexhibitthemovablecultural property defined in sub-para-graph (i) suchasmuseums, largelibrariesanddepositoriesofarchives, andrefugesintendedtoshelter, intheeventofarmedconflict, the movable cultural propertydefinedinsub-paragraph (i);

(iii) Centres containing a large amount ofcultural propertyasdefinedinsub-para-graphs (i) and (ii).

(p) Electronicwarfare meansanymilitaryactioninvolving the use of electromagnetic anddirectedenergytocontroltheelectromagneticspectrumortoatack theenemy.

(q) Feasible means that which is practicableorpractically possible, takingintoaccountallcir-cumstances prevailing at the time, includinghumanitarianandmilitaryconsiderations.

(r) Internationalarmedconflictmeansanarmed

conflict betweentwoormore States.

(s) Law ofinternationalarmedconflict meansallthe principlesandrulesoftreatyandcustom-ary international law binding on a State andgoverning armed conflict between States; theterm law of international armed conflict issynonymous with internationalhumanitarianlaw relatingtointernationalarmedconflict.

(t) Means of warfare mean weapons, weaponsystems or platforms employed for the pur-

posesofatack.

(u) Medical aircraf means any aircraf per-manently or temporarily assignedby


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the competent authorities of a BelligerentPartyexclusivelytoaerialtransportationortreatment of wounded, sick, or shipwreckedpersons, and/or the transportofmedical per-sonnelandmedicalequipmentorsupplies.

(v) Methodsof warfare meanatacksandotheractivitiesdesignedtoadverselyaffecttheene-mysmilitaryoperationsormilitary capacity,as distinct from the means of warfare usedduringmilitaryoperations, suchas weapons.Inmilitary terms, methodsof warfareconsist

ofthevariousgeneralcategoriesofoperations,suchas bombing, as wellasthespecifictacticsusedforatack, suchashighaltitude bombing.

(w) Militaryadvantage meansthose benefitsofa military nature that result from an atack.Theyrelatetotheatack consideredas wholeandnotmerelytoisolatedor particular partsoftheatack.

(x) Military aircraf means any aircraf (i)operated by the armed forcesof a State; (ii)

bearing the military markings of that State;(iii) commanded byamemberof thearmedforces; and (iv) controlled, mannedor prepro-grammed byacrew subjecttoregulararmedforcesdiscipline.

(y) Militaryobjectives, asfarasobjectsarecon-cerned, arethoseobjects which bytheirnature,location, purposeoruse,makeaneffectivecon-tributiontomilitaryactionand whosetotalorpartialdestruction, captureorneutralization,inthecircumstancesrulingatthetime, offersa

definitemilitaryadvantage.

(z) Missiles mean self-propelled unmannedweaponslaunched from aircraf, warships


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or land-based launchersthat are eitherguidedor ballistic.

(aa) Neutral meansa Statenota Belligerent Partyinaninternationalarmedconflict.

(bb) Precisionguided weapons mean weaponsthat can be directed against a target usingeitherexternalguidanceoraguidancesystemoftheirown.

(cc) State aircraf means any aircraf owned or

used bya Stateservingexclusivelynon-com-mercialgovernmentfunctions.

(dd) Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) meansanunmannedaircrafofanysize whichdoesnotcarry a weapon and which cannot control aweapon.

(ee) Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle (UCAV)means an unmannedmilitary aircraf of anysize whichcarriesand launchesa weapon, orwhich canuseon-board technology todirect

sucha weapontoatarget.

(ff) Weapon meansameansof warfareused incombat operations, including a gun, missile,bomb or other munitions, that is capable ofcausingeither (i) injuryto, ordeathof, persons;or (ii) damageto, ordestructionof, objects.

Section B:General Framework

2. (a) Theobjectiveof this Manual is to produce arestatement of existing law applicable to airor missile operations in international armedconflict. This is without prejudice to the pos-


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sibleapplicationof someof the Rules in thisManual to non-international armed conflicts(fordetails, seethe Commentary).

(b) Nothinginthis Manualaffectsexistingobliga-tionsof Statesundertreatiesto whichtheyareContracting Parties.

(c) Incasesnotcovered bythis Manual, civiliansand combatants remainunder the protectionandauthorityofthe principlesofinternationallaw derivedfromestablishedcustom, fromthe

principlesofhumanityandfromthedictatesofpublicconscience.

3. (a) Subject to bindingdecisions adopted by theSecurity Council under Chapter VII of theCharter of the United Nations, the Rulesreflected in this Manualalsoapply toallairor missile operations conducted by UnitedNations forces when in situations of armedconflict theyareengaged thereinascombat-ants, totheextentandforthedurationoftheirengagement.

(b) The Rulesreflectedinthis Manualalsoapplytoarmedconflicts involvinganyother inter-nationalgovernmentalorganization, globalorregional.

4. The fundamental principle is that, in any armedconflict, therightofthe Belligerent Partiestochoosemethodsormeansof warfareisnotunlimited.

Section C:

Weapons5. Weapons used in air and missile warfare must

comply with:


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(a) The basic principle of distinction betweenciviliansandcombatantsand betweencivilianobjectsandmilitaryobjectives.

Consequently, it is prohibited to conductairormissile combat operations which employweaponsthat (i) cannot bedirectedataspe-cificlawfultargetandthereforeareofanaturetostrikelawfultargetsandciviliansorcivilianobjects withoutdistinction; or (ii) theeffectsof whichcannot belimitedasrequired bythelaw ofinternationalarmedconflictand which

thereforeareofanature tostrike lawfultar-getsand civiliansor civilianobjects withoutdistinction;

(b) The prohibition of unnecessary suffering orsuperfluousinjury.

Consequently, it is prohibited to conduct airor missile combat operations which employweaponsthatarecalculated, orofanature, tocause unnecessary suffering or superfluousinjurytocombatants.

6. Specific weapons are prohibited in air or missilecombatoperations. Theseinclude:

(a) Biological, including bacteriological, weapons.

(b) Chemical weapons.

(c) Laser weapons specificallydesigned, as theirsolecombatfunctionorasoneoftheircombatfunctions, to cause permanent blindness tounenhancedvision, thatistothenakedeyeor

totheeye withcorrectiveeyesightdevices.

(d) Poison, poisoned substances and poisonedweapons.


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(e) Small arms projectiles calculated, or of anature, to causeexplosionon impact withorwithinthehuman body.

(f) Weapons the primary effect of which is toinjure byfragments whichinthehuman bodyescapedetection by x-ray.

7. The use of any weapon not expressly mentionedunder this Sectionof the Manual is subject to thegeneralrulesand principlesofcustomaryandtreatylaw of international armed conflict (in particular

the principleofdistinction and the prohibitionofunnecessarysuffering), as wellastoanyothertreatylaw applicablefor Contracting Parties.

8. Thereisnospecificobligationon Belligerent Partiestouse precisionguided weapons. Theremayhow-ever besituationsin whichthe prohibitionofindis-criminateatacks, ortheobligationtoavoidor, inanyevent, minimizecollateraldamage, cannot befulfilled withoutusing precisionguided weapons.

9. Statesareobligatedtoassessthelegalityof weapons

beforefieldingtheminordertodetermine whethertheir employment would, in some or all circum-stances, be prohibited.

Section D:Attacks

I. Generalrules

10. (a) Inaccordance withthe basic principleofdis-tinction, atacks must be confined to lawfultargets.

(b) Lawfultargetsare:

(i) Combatants;


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(ii) Military objectives (as defined in Rules1 (y) and 22);

(iii) Civiliansdirectly participatinginhostili-ties (seesection F ofthis Manual).

11. Atacksdirectedagainstciviliansorcivilianobjectsare prohibited.

12. (a) Incaseofdoubtas to whethera person isacivilian, that person shall be considered acivilian.

(b) Incaseofdoubtasto whetheranobject whichis ordinarilydedicated to civilian purposes isbeingused formilitary purposes, itmayonlybeatackedif, basedonalltheinformationrea-sonablyavailabletothecommanderatthetime,therearereasonablegrounds to believethat ithas becomeandremainsamilitaryobjective.

13. (a) Indiscriminateatacksare prohibited.

(b) Indiscriminate atacks are those that cannot

beorarenotdirectedagainst lawful targets(as defined in Rule 10 (b)) or the effects ofwhich cannot be limited as required by thelaw ofinternationalarmedconflict, and whichthereforeareofanaturetostrike lawfultar-getsand civiliansor civilianobjects withoutdistinction.

(c) Atacksmustnottreatasasinglelawfultargeta number of clearly separated and distinctlawfultargets located inacity, town, villageorareacontainingasimilarconcentrationof

civiliansorcivilianobjects.

14. Anatack thatmay beexpectedtocausecollateraldamage which would be excessive in relation to


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theconcreteanddirectmilitaryadvantageantici-patedis prohibited.

15. (a) Itis prohibitedtoorderthatthereshall benosurvivorsincombatoperations, tothreatenanadversarytherewith, ortoconducthostilitiesonthat basis.

(b) Persons who are hors de combateitherbecausetheyhaveclearlyexpressedaninten-tion to surrender or as a result of sickness,woundsorshipwreckmustnot beatacked,

provided that they abstain from any hostileactandnoatemptismadetoevadecapture.

16. (a) Atalltimes, and particularlyaferanengage-ment, Belligerent Partiesmust, withoutdelay,takeall possiblemeasures to search forandcollect the wounded, sick and shipwrecked,to protect them against pillage and ill-treat-ment, andtosearchforthedeadand preventtheir beingdespoiled.

(b) The wounded, sick and shipwrecked must

receive, to the fullest extent practicable andwiththeleast possibledelay, themedicalcareandatentionrequired bytheircondition. Nodistinctionmay bemadeamongthemfoundedonanygroundsotherthanmedicalones.

II. Specificsofairormissileoperations

17. (a) Onlymilitary aircraf, including UCAVs, areentitledtoengageinatacks.

(b) Thesame Ruleappliestotheexerciseofother

belligerentrights, suchasinterception.

18. Actsor threatsofviolence in the courseofairormissileoperations cannot be pursued for the sole


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or primary purposeofspreadingterroramongthecivilian population.

19. Belligerent Partiesconducting, orsubject to, airormissileoperations:

(a) Must take all possible measures to searchfor and collect the wounded, sick and ship-wrecked, ensure their adequate care, permittheir removal, exchange and transport, andsearchforthedead;

(b) Must, whenevercircumstances permit, arrangecease-fires, ifnecessarythroughaneutralinter-mediary, tofacilitatetheactivitiesdescribedinparagraph (a);

(c) Ought to accept the assistance of impartialhumanitarianorganizationsandfacilitatetheirwork infavourofthe woundedandothervic-timsofairormissileatacks.

20. Airormissileatacksmust beconducted inaccor-dancewiththosefeasibleprecautionsrequiredunder

Section G ofthis Manualdesignedtoavoidor, inanyevent, minimizecollateraldamage.

21. The application of the general Rules prohibitingatacksdirectedagainstciviliansorcivilianobjects,as wellasindiscriminateatacks, isconfinedtoairormissileatacksthatentailviolenteffects, namely, actsresultingindeath, injury, damageordestruction.

Section E:Military Objectives

I. Generalrules

22. Inthedefinitionofobjectsasmilitaryobjectives (seeRule 1 (y)), thefollowingcriteriaapply:


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(a) The nature ofanobjectsymbolizesitsfunda-mental character. Examplesofmilitaryobjec-tivesbynatureincludemilitaryaircraf (includ-ing military UAV/UCAVs); military vehicles(other than medical transport); missiles andother weapons; military equipment; militaryfortifications, facilities and depots; warships;ministriesofdefenceandarmamentsfactories.

(b) Application of the location criterion canresultinspecificareasoflandsuchasamoun-tain pass, a bridgeheador jungletrail becom-

ingmilitaryobjectives.

(c) The purpose of an objectalthough notmilitary by natureis concerned with theintendedfutureuseofanobject.

(d) The use of an object relates to its presentfunction, with theresult thatacivilianobjectcan becomeamilitaryobjectiveduetoitsusebyarmedforces.

23. Objects which may qualify as military objectives

throughthedefinitioninRules 1 (y) and22 (a) include,but arenot limited to, factories, linesandmeansofcommunications(suchasairfields, railwaylines, roads,bridgesand tunnels); energy producing facilities; oilstoragedepots; transmissionfacilitiesandequipment.

24. The connection between a military objective andmilitaryactionmay bedirectorindirect.


25. Aircrafmay betheobjectofatack onlyiftheycon-

stitutemilitaryobjectives.

26. All enemy military aircraf constitute militaryobjectives, unless protectedunder Section L ofthis


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Manual, orasotherwiseagreed by the BelligerentPartiesunder Section N (V).

27. Without prejudice to Sections I, J and L of thisManual, the following activities may render anyotherenemyaircrafamilitaryobjective:

(a) Engaging inhostileactions in supportof theenemy, e.g. interceptingoratackingotherair-craf; atacking personsorobjectson landorsea; beingusedasameansofatack; engagingin electronic warfare; or providing targeting

informationtoenemyforces.

(b) Facilitatingthemilitaryactionsoftheenemysarmedforces, e.g., transportingtroops, carry-ingmilitarymaterials, or refuellingmilitaryaircraf.

(c) Being incorporated into or assisting theenemys intelligence gathering system, e.g.,engaging in reconnaissance, early warning,surveillanceorcommand, controlandcommu-nicationsmissions.

(d) Refusingtocomply withtheordersofmilitaryauthorities, including instructions for land-ing, inspectionand possiblecapture, orclearlyresistinginterception.

(e) Otherwisemakinganeffectivecontributiontomilitaryaction.

Section F:Direct Participation in Hostilities

28. Civilianslosetheir protectionfromatack ifandforsuchtimeastheytakeadirect partinhostilities.


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engagein, or whichisengagedin, airormissilecombatoperations.

(x) Servicing or repairing of a military aircrafwhich is about to engage in, or which isengagedin, airormissilecombatoperations.

(xi) Loadingmission controldata tomilitary air-craf/missilesofwaresystems.

(xii) Combat training of aircrews, air techniciansandothersforspecificrequirementsofa par-

ticularairormissilecombatoperation.

Section G:Precautions in Attacks

I. Generalrules

30. Constant caremust be taken to spare the civilianpopulation, civiliansandcivilianobjects.

31. All feasible precautionsmust be taken tospareall

persons and objects entitled to specific protectionunder Sections K, L, M and N ofthis Manual.

32. Constantcareincludesin particularthefollowingprecautions:

(a) Doing everything feasible toverify, basedoninformationreasonablyavailable, thatatargetis a lawful target and does not benefit fromspecific protection;

(b) Doing everything feasible to choose means

andmethodsof warfare withaview toavoid-ingor, in any event, minimizingcollat-eraldamage; and


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(c) Doing everything feasible to determinewhetherthecollateraldamageto beexpectedfrom the atack will be excessive in relationtotheconcreteanddirectmilitaryadvantageanticipated.

33. Whenachoiceis possible betweenseveralmilitaryobjectives for obtaining a similar military advan-tage, the objective to be selectedmust be the onewheretheatack may beexpectedtocausetheleastdangertocivilianlivesandtocivilianobjects, ortoother protected personsandobjects.


34. Constantcaremust be taken byall those involvedin planning, orderingandexecutingairormissilecombatoperationstosparethecivilian population,civiliansandcivilianobjects.

35. Incarryingoutairormissilecombatoperations, anatack must becancelledorsuspendedifit becomesapparent:

(a) Thatthetargetisnotalawfultarget; or

(b) Thatthetargetisandremainsentitledtospe-cific protectioninaccordance with Sections K,L, M and N ofthis Manual; or

(c) That theexpectedcollateraldamage isexces-siveinrelationtotheconcreteanddirectmili-taryadvantageanticipated.

36. Inorder to avoid the release ofdangerous forcesand consequent severe losses among the civilian

population, particularcaremust betakenif worksand installations containing dangerous forces,namelydams, dykesandnuclearelectricalgenerat-


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ingstations (as wellasinstallationslocatedintheirvicinity) areatacked.

37. Whentheatack ofalawfultarget byairormissilecombatoperationsmayresultindeathorinjurytocivilians, effectiveadvancewarningsmust beissuedtothecivilian population, unlesscircumstancesdonot permit. Thismay bedone, forinstance, throughdropping leaflets or broadcasting the warnings.Such warnings ought to be as specific as circum-stances permit.

38. Effective advance warnings must also be givenbefore atacking persons and objects entitled tospecific protectionunder Section K, L and N (I andII), as provided for in these Sections, as well asunder Section J.

39. Theobligationtotakefeasible precautionsinatackappliesequallyto UAV/UCAV operations.

III. Specificsofatacksdirectedataircrafintheair

40. Beforeanaircrafisatackedintheair, allfeasible

precautions must be taken to verify that it con-stitutes amilitaryobjective. Verificationought tousethe bestmeansavailableunderthe prevailingcircumstances, havingregardtotheimmediacyofany potentialthreat. Factorsrelevanttoverificationmayinclude:

(a) Visualidentification.

(b) Responsestooral warningsoverradio.

(c) Infraredsignature.

(d) Radarsignature.

(e) Electronicsignature.


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(f) Identificationmodesandcodes.

(g) Numberandformationofaircraf.

(h) Altitude, speed, track, profileandotherflightcharacteristics.

(i) Pre-flightandin-flightairtrafficcontrolinfor-mationregarding possibleflights.

41. Belligerent Partiesand Neutrals providingairtraf-fic control service ought to establish procedures

whereby military commandersincluding com-manders of military aircraf are informed on acontinuous basisofdesignatedroutesassignedto,andflight plansfiled by, civilianaircrafintheareaofhostilities (including informationon communi-cation channels, identification modes and codes,destination, passengersandcargo).

Section H:Precautions by the Belligerent Party

Subject to Attack

42. Belligerent Parties subject toairormissileatacksmust, tothemaximumextentfeasible, avoidlocat-ingmilitaryobjectives withinorneardensely popu-lated areas, hospitals, cultural property, places ofworship, prisonerof warcamps, andotherfacilitieswhichareentitledtospecific protectionas per Sec-tions K, L and N (II).

43. Belligerent Partiessubjecttoairormissileatacksmust, to the maximum extent feasible, endeav-

ourtoremovethecivilian population, individualciviliansandother protected personsandobjectsunder their control from thevicinityofmilitaryobjectives.


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44. Belligerent Partiessubject toairormissileatacksmust, tothemaximumextentfeasible, takeneces-sary precautionsto protectthecivilian population,individualciviliansandcivilianobjectsundertheircontrolagainstthedangersresultingfrommilitaryoperations.

45. Belligerent Parties actually or potentially subjecttoairormissileoperationsmustnotuse the pres-ence or movements of the civilian population orindividualcivilianstorendercertain pointsorareasimmunefromairormissileoperations, in particu-

lar theymustnotatempt to shield lawful targetsfromatacksortoshield, favourorimpedemilitaryoperations. Belligerent Partiesmustnotdirect themovementof thecivilian populationor individualciviliansinordertoatempttoshieldlawfultargetsfromatacksortoshieldmilitaryoperations.

46. Boththe Belligerent Partylaunchinganairormis-sileatack andthe Belligerent Partysubjecttosuchan atack have obligations to take precautions.Nevertheless, thelatersfailuretotake precaution-arymeasuresdoesnotrelievethe Belligerent Party

launchinganairormissileatack ofitsobligationtotakefeasible precautions.

Section I:Protection of Civilian Aircraft

I. Generalrules

47. (a) Civilianaircraf, whetherenemyorneutral, arecivilianobjectsandassuchareentitledto pro-tectionfromatack.

(b) Civilianaircrafcan betheobjectofatack onlyiftheyconstitutemilitaryobjectives.


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48. (a) Allenemycivilianand Stateaircrafotherthanmilitaryaircrafmay beintercepted, inspectedordivertedinaccordance with Section U.

(b) Neutralcivilianaircraftmay beintercepted,inspected or diverted in accordance withSection U.

II. Enemycivilianaircraf

49. Enemycivilianaircrafareliabletocaptureas prizeinaccordance with Rule 134.

50. Subjecttothespecific protectionof Sections K andL ofthis Manual, enemycivilianaircrafareliabletoatack ifengagedinanyoftheactivitiessetforthin Rule 27.

III. Neutralcivilianaircraf

51. Neutralcivilianaircrafareliabletocaptureas prizeifengagedinanyoftheactivitiesenumeratedinRule140 andiftherequirementsof Rule 142 aremet.

52. Neutralcivilianaircrafmaynot beatackedunlesstheyareengagedinanyoftheactivitiesenumeratedin Rule 174.

IV. Safetyinflight

53. (a) Inorder toenhance their safety whenever inthevicinityofhostilities, civilianaircrafmustfile withtherelevantairtrafficcontrolservicerequiredflight plans, which willincludeinfor-mation as regards, e.g., registration, destina-tion, passengers, cargo, identification codes

andmodes (includingupdatesenroute).

(b) Civilian aircraf ought not to deviate from adesignated air traffic service route or flight


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57. Intheabsenceofa NOTAM (and, wheneverfeasible,incaseofnon-compliance witha NOTAM) militaryforcesconcernedoughttouseallavailablemeanstowarnthecivilianorotherprotectedaircrafthroughradiocommunicationoranyotherestablished proce-duresbeforetakinganyactionagainstit.

Section J:Protection of Particular

Types of Aircraft

I. Civilianairliners58. Civilianairlinersarecivilianobjects whichareenti-

tledto particularcareintermsof precautions.

59. Incaseofdoubt, civilianairlinerseitherinflightor on the ground in a civilian airportare pre-sumednotto bemakinganeffectivecontributiontomilitaryaction.

60. While civilian airliners (whether enemy or neutral)oughttoavoidenteringano-flyoranexclusionzone,ortheimmediatevicinityofhostilities, theydonotlose

theirprotectionmerelybecausetheyentersuchareas.

61. Anycivilianairlinersuspectedonreasonablegroundsofcarryingcontrabandorotherwise beingengagedinactivities inconsistent with itsstatus issubject toinspection bya Belligerent Partyinanairfieldthatissafeforthistypeofaircrafandreasonablyaccessible.

62. Enemycivilianairlinersmay becapturedas prizebutonlyonconditionthatall passengersandcrewsaresafelydeplanedand the papersof theaircrafare preserved.

63. Subjectto Rule 68, activitiessuchasanyofthefol-lowing may render a civilian airliner a militaryobjective:


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(a) Beingonthegroundinamilitaryairfieldoftheenemy incircumstances whichmakethatair-crafamilitaryobjective.

(b) Engaging inhostileactions in supportof theenemy, e.g. interceptingoratackingotherair-craf; atacking personsorobjectson landorsea; beingusedasameansofatack; engagingin electronic warfare; or providing targetinginformationtoenemyforces.

(c) Facilitatingthemilitaryactionsoftheenemys

armedforces, e.g. transportingtroops, carry-ingmilitarymaterials, or refuellingmilitaryaircraf.

(d) Being incorporated into or assisting theenemys intelligence gathering system, e.g.,engaging in reconnaissance, early warning,surveillanceorcommand, controlandcommu-nicationsmissions.

(e) Refusingtocomply withtheordersofmilitaryauthorities, including instructions for land-

ing, inspectionand possiblecapture, orclearlyresistinginterception.

(f) Otherwisemakinganeffectivecontributiontomilitaryaction.

II. Aircrafgrantedsafeconduct

64. Aircrafgrantedsafeconduct byagreement betweenthe BelligerentPartiessuchascartelaircrafareentitledtospecific protectionfromatack.

65. (a) Aircrafgranted safe conduct lose their spe-cific protectionfromatack inanyoneofthefollowinginstances:


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(i) Theydonot comply with thedetailsoftheagreement, includingavailability forinspectionandidentification.

(ii) Theyintentionallyhamperthemovementsof combatants and are not innocentlyemployedintheiragreeduponrole.

(b) Lossofspecific protection willonlytake placeif the circumstances of non-compliance aresufficientlygravethattheaircrafhas becomeormay reasonably beassumed to beamili-

taryobjective.

66. In case of doubt whether an aircraf granted safeconduct qualifiesasamilitaryobjectiveas per Rule27, it will be presumednotto qualifyassuch.

67. Aircrafgrantedsafeconductareexemptfromcap-tureas prize, providedthatthey:

(a) Areinnocentlyemployedintheirnormalrole;

(b) Immediatelysubmittointerceptionandidenti-

fication whenrequired;

(c) Do not intentionally hamper the movementofcombatantsandobeyorderstodivertfromtheirtrack whenrequired; and

(d) Arenotactingin breachofa prioragreement.

III. Provisionscommontocivilianairlinersandaircrafgrantedsafeconduct

68. Civilianairlinersandaircrafgrantedsafeconduct

mayonly beatacked if theyhave lost their pro-tectionas per Rules 63 and 65 andifthefollowingcumulativeconditionsarefulfilled:


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(a) Diversionforlanding, inspection, and possiblecapture, isnotfeasible;

(b) No other method is available for exercisingmilitarycontrol;

(c) Thecircumstancesleadingtothelossof pro-tection are sufficiently grave to justify anatack; and

(d) The expected collateral damage will not beexcessiveinrelationtothemilitaryadvantage

anticipated and all feasible precautions havebeentaken (see Section G ofthis Manual).

69. Anydecision toatack acivilianairlineroranair-crafgrantedsafeconduct pursuantto Rule 68 oughtto betaken byanappropriatelevelofcommand.

70. In caseof lossof protection pursuant to this Sec-tion, a warning must be issuedwhenever cir-cumstances permittothecivilianairlinerortheaircrafgranted safe conduct inflight before anyactionistakenagainstit.

Section K:Specific Protection of Medical

and Religious Personnel, MedicalUnits and Transports

71. Subjectto Rule 74, medicalandreligious personnel,fixedormobilemedicalunits (includinghospitals)and medical transports by air, land, at sea or onother watersmust berespectedand protectedatalltimes, andmustnot betheobjectofatack.

72. (a) Medicalandreligious personneloughtto weara water-resistant armlet bearing adistinctiveemblem provided by the law of international


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(c) A temporary medical aircraf whichcannoteitherfor lack oftimeor becauseofits characteristicsbe marked with the dis-tinctiveemblem, ought touse themosteffec-tivemeansofidentificationavailable.

(d) Means of identification are intended only tofacilitate identification and do not, of them-selves, confer protectedstatus.

77. In and over areas controlled by friendly forces,thespecific protectionofmedicalaircrafofa Bel-

ligerent Partyisnotdependentontheconsentoftheenemy.

78. (a) Inandoverareas physicallycontrolled bytheenemy, as wellasinandoverthose partsofthecontact zone whichare physicallycontrolledby friendly forcesor the physical controlofwhich isnot clearly established, the protec-tionofmedicalaircrafcan befullyeffectiveonly byvirtueof priorconsentobtainedfromtheenemy. Although, intheabsenceofsuchconsent, medicalaircraf in thecontact zone

operateattheirownrisk, theymustneverthe-less berespectedoncetheyhave beenidenti-fiedassuch.

(b) Theconsentoftheenemyas per paragraph (a)hasto besought inadvance (or immediatelyprior to thecommencementof theoperationof amedical aircraf) by a Belligerent Partyemploying a medical aircraf. The requestfor consent ought to be accompanied by adetailedflight plan (assetforthinthe Interna-tional Civil Aviation Organization Flight Plan

form).

(c) Whengiven, consentmust beexpress. Consentforactivitiesconsistent withtheaircrafsmed-


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icalstatus, e.g. evacuationofthe wounded, sickorshipwrecked, andtransportationofmedicalpersonnelormaterial, oughtnotto berefused,unlessonreasonablegrounds.

79. Anyconditionsofconsentobtainedfromtheenemyfor the protection of a medical aircraf must beadheredtostrictly.

80. (a) Whileflyingoveranareacovered in Rule 78(a), medicalaircrafmay beorderedtolandortoalighton waterto permitinspection. Medi-

calaircrafmustobeyanysuchorder.

(b) If inspection reveals that themedical aircrafhas beenengagedinactivitiesconsistent withitsmedicalstatus, itmust beauthorizedtocon-tinueitsflight withoutdelay.

(c) However, ifthemedicalaircrafhasengagedin activities inconsistent with its medicalstatus, orifithasflown withoutorin breachofa prioragreement, thenitmay beseized. Itsoccupantsmustthen betreatedinaccordance

withtherelevantrulesofthelaw ofinterna-tionalarmedconflict.

(d) Anyaircraf seized whichhad beenassignedasa permanentmedicalaircrafmay beusedthereaferonlyasamedicalaircraf.

81. Amedicalaircrafmustnot possessoremployequip-menttocollectortransmitintelligenceharmfultotheenemy. Itmay, however, beequipped withencryptedcommunicationsequipmentintendedsolelyfornavi-gation, identificationandcommunicationconsistent

withtheexecutionofitshumanitarianmission.

82. A medicalaircrafmay beequipped withdeflectivemeansofdefence (suchaschafforflares) andcarry


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light individual weapons necessary to protect theaircraf, themedical personnel and the wounded,sick or shipwrecked on board. Carrying of theindividual weaponsof the wounded, sick orship-wreckedduringtheirevacuationdoesnotentaillossof protection.

83. Subjectto Rule 74, amedicalaircraflosesitsspecificprotectionfromatack ifitisengagedinactsharm-fultotheenemy.

84. Except by prioragreement witha Neutral, a bellig-

erentmedicalaircrafmustnotflyoveror land inthe territoryofthat Neutral, unless it isexercisingtherightoftransit passagethroughstraitsusedforinternationalnavigationortherightofarchipelagicsealanes passage.

85. (a) Should a belligerent medical aircraf, in theabsenceofa prioragreement withthe Neutralor in deviation from the terms of an agree-ment, entertheneutralairspace, eitherthroughnavigationalerroror becauseofanemergencyaffectingthesafetyoftheflight, itmustmake

everyefforttogivenoticeandtoidentifyitself.Oncetheaircrafisrecognizedasamedicalair-craf bythe Neutral, itmustnot beatacked butmay berequiredtolandforinspection. Onceithas been inspected, and if it isdetermined infactto beamedicalaircraf, itmust beallowedtoresumeitsflight.

(b) Iftheinspectionrevealsthattheaircrafisnotamedicalaircraf, itmay beseized. Anycombat-antson board will beinterned bythe Neutralinaccordance with Rule 170 (c).

86. (a) Search-and-rescueaircrafusedtorecovermil-itary personnel, even if they arenotmilitaryaircraf, arenotentitledto protection.


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(b) Medicalaircrafmustnot beusedtosearchforthe wounded, sick and shipwrecked withinareasofcombatoperations, unless pursuanttopriorconsentoftheenemy. Ifmedicalaircrafneverthelessoperateforsuch purposestheydosoattheirownrisk.

87. Without prejudicetothestatusofmedical personnelundertherelevant provisionsofthelaw ofinterna-tionalarmedconflict, membersofthecrew ofmedi-calaircrafmustnot becaptured bytheenemyandmust beallowedtocarryouttheirmission.

Section M:Specific Protection of the

Natural Environment

I. Generalrule

88. Thedestructionofthenaturalenvironmentcarriedout wantonlyis prohibited.


89. When planningandconductingairormissileopera-tions, due regardought to begiven to thenaturalenvironment.

Section N:Specific Protection of Other

Persons and Objects

I. Civildefence

90. (a) Specific protectionmust be provided to civildefence organizations and their personnel,whethercivilianormilitary. Theymust beenti-


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tledto performtheircivildefencetasksexceptinthecaseofimperativemilitarynecessity.

(b) Specific protectionmust also be provided tobuildingsandmaterielused for civildefencepurposesandtoshelters providedforthecivil-ian population. Objectsusedforcivildefencepurposes may not be destroyed or divertedfromtheir properuseexcept bythe BelligerentPartyto whichthey belong.

91. Belligerent Parties have to endeavour to ensure

thatwhile exclusively devoted to the perfor-mance of civil defence taskstheir civil defenceorganizations, personnel, buildings andmaterials,as wellasshelters providedtothecivilian popula-tion, areidentifiedassuch bytherecognizedinter-nationaldistinctive sign for civildefenceand anyotherappropriatemeansofidentification.

92. The protection to which civilian civil defenceorganizations, their personnel, buildings, sheltersand materiel are entitled does not cease unlesstheycommitorareusedtocommit, outsidetheir

propertasks, actsharmfultotheenemy. Protectionmay, however, ceaseonlyafera warninghas beengivenseting, wheneverappropriate, areasonabletime-limit, andafer such warninghas remainedunheeded.

II. Culturalproperty

(i) Useofculturalproperty

93. (a) Belligerent Partiesmustrefrainfromanyuseofcultural propertyanditsimmediatesurround-

ings, oroftheappliancesinuseforits protec-tion, for purposes whicharelikelytoexposeittodestructionordamage.


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(b) Cultural propertyorits immediatesurround-ingsmayonly beused formilitary purposesincases wheremilitarynecessityimperativelysorequires. Suchdecisioncanonly be imple-mented afer the emblems identifying theobject in question as cultural property havebeenremoved.

94. Belligerent Partiesoughttofacilitatetheidentifica-tionand protectionofcultural propertyundertheircontrol, bymarkingit withtheinternationallyrec-ognizedemblemand by providingtheenemy with

timelyandadequateinformationaboutitslocation.However, the absence of suchmeasures does notdeprivecultural propertyofits protectionunderthelaw ofinternationalarmedconflict.

(ii) Atacksagainstculturalproperty

95. (a) Subject to paragraph (b) and to Rule 96, Bel-ligerent Partiesmust refrain from any act ofhostilitydirectedagainstcultural property.

(b) Cultural property, oritsimmediatesurround-

ings, mayonly beatackedincases wheremili-tarynecessityimperativelysorequires.

(c) In atacking, through air or missile atacks,military objectives in the immediate sur-roundingsofcultural property, the BelligerentPartiesmusttakefeasible precautionstoavoiddamagetothecultural property (see Section Gofthis Manual).

96. Whenevercultural propertyhas becomeamilitaryobjective, thedecisiontoatack theobjectmust be

taken by an appropriate level of command, andwithdue considerationof its special characterascultural property. An effective advance warningshould be given whenever circumstances permit


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and an atack should only be conducted if thewarningremainsunheeded.

III. Objectsindispensabletothesurvivalofthecivilianpopulation

97. (a) Starvationofciviliansasamethodof warfareisprohibited.

(b) It is prohibited toatack, destroy, remove, orrender useless objects indispensable to thesurvival of the civilian population, such as

foodstuffs, agricultural areas for the produc-tion of foodstuffs, crops, livestock, drinkingwaterinstallationsandsuppliesandirrigationworks, forthespecific purposeofdenyingthecivilian populationtheiruse.

(c) The prohibitionsin paragraph (b) donotapplytosuchoftheobjectscovered byitasareusedbytheenemy:

(i) assustenance solely for themembersofitsarmedforces; or

(ii) ifnotassustenance, thenindirectsupportof military action, provided, however,thatinnoeventcanactionsagainsttheseobjects be taken whichmay beexpectedtoleavethecivilian population withsuchinadequate foodor wateras tocause itsstarvationorforceitsmovement.

IV. UN personnel

98. (a) UN personnelmustberespectedandprotected.

(b) Directingatacksagainst UN personnelis pro-hibited, aslongastheyareentitledtothe pro-tectiongiventocivilians.


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(c) Directing atacks against material, installa-tions, unitsandvehiclesofthe UN is prohib-ited, unlesstheyconstitutemilitaryobjectives.

V. Protectionbyspecialagreement

99. Belligerent Partiesmayagreeatanytimeto protectpersons or objects not otherwise covered by thisManual.

Section O:

Humanitarian Aid

I. Generalrules

100. (a) If the civilian population of any territoryunderthecontrolofa Belligerent Partyisnotadequately provided with food, medicalsup-plies, clothing, bedding, means of shelter orother supplies essential to its survival, reliefactions whicharehumanitarianandimpartialincharacterandconducted withoutadversedistinctionshould be undertaken, subject

to agreement of the Parties concerned. Suchagreement cannot be withheld in occupiedterritories.

(b) Relief actions may be undertaken either byStatesor byimpartialhumanitarianorganiza-tions such as the International Commiteeofthe Red Cross.

101. The Partiesconcernedmustallow andfacilitaterapidandunimpededpassageofreliefconsignments, equip-mentandpersonnelinaccordancewithRule 100, sub-

jecttotechnicalarrangementsincludingsearch.

102. (a) Humanitarian relief personnel, acting withinthe prescribed parameters of their mission,


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must berespectedand protected. The protec-tionextendstohumanitariantransports, instal-lationsandgoods.

(b) Each Belligerent Partyinreceiptofreliefcon-signmentsmust, to the fullest extent practi-cable, assist the relief personnel referred toin paragraph (a) in carrying out their reliefmission. Only in caseof imperativemilitarynecessitymay theactivitiesof therelief per-sonnel belimitedortheirmovementstempo-rarilyrestricted.


103. Whenevercircumstances permit, Belligerent Partiesconductingairormissileoperationsought to sus-pendairormissileatacksinorderto permitthedis-tributionofhumanitarianassistance.

104. Technicalarrangements asusedin Rule 101 mayincludesuchmatersas:

(a) Establishmentofaircorridorsorairroutes.

(b) Organizationofairdrops.

(c) Agreementonflightdetails (i.e. timing, route,landing).

(d) Searchofreliefsupplies.

Section P:Exclusion Zones and No-Fly Zones

I. Generalrules

105. (a) A Belligerent Partyisnotabsolvedofitsobli-gationsunder the law of internationalarmed


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conflict by establishing exclusion zones orno-fly zones.

(b) Zonesdesignated forunrestrictedairormis-sileatacksare prohibited.

106. Nothing in this Sectionof the Manualought to bedeemedasderogatingfromtherightofa BelligerentParty:

(a) tocontrolcivilaviationintheimmediatevicin-ityofhostilities; or

(b) to takeappropriatemeasuresof force protec-tion in the formof, e.g., theestablishmentofwarning zones.

II. Exclusion zones ininternationalairspace

107. Should a Belligerent Party establishan exclusionzone ininternationalairspace:

(a) The same rules of the law of internationalarmedconflict willapply bothinsideandout-

sidethe exclusion zone.

(b) Theextent, locationanddurationofthe exclu-sion zone andthemeasuresimposedmustnotexceed whatisreasonablyrequired bymilitarynecessity.

(c) The commencement, duration, location andextentof the exclusion zone, as wellas therestrictions imposed, must be appropriatelynotifiedtoallconcerned.

(d) Theestablishmentofan exclusion zone mustneither encompassnor completely baraccesstotheairspaceof Neutrals.


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(e) Dueregardmust begiventothe lawfuluseby Neutrals of their Exclusive EconomicZones and continental shelf, in particularartificialislands, installations, structuresandsafety zones.

III. No-fly zonesinbelligerentairspace

108. A Belligerent Party may establish and enforcea no-fly zone in its own or in enemy nationalairspace.

109. Thecommencement, duration, locationandextentoftheno-fly zonesmust beappropriatelynotifiedtoallconcerned.

110. Subjecttothe Rulessetoutin Sections D and G ofthis Manual, aircrafenteringano-fly zone withoutspecific permissionareliableto beatacked.

Section Q:Deception, Ruses of War and Perfidy

I. Generalrules

111. (a) Itis prohibitedto killorinjureanadversary byresort to perfidy. Acts inviting theconfidenceofanadversarytoleadhimto believethatheisentitled to, or isobliged toaccord, protec-tionundertherulesofthelaw ofinternationalarmed conflict, with the intent to betray thatconfidence, constitute perfidy.

(b) Thefollowingactsareexamplesof perfidyasper paragraph (a): feigningofcivilian, neutralorother protectedstatus.


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112. Without prejudicetotherulesofnaval warfare, thefollowingactsare prohibitedatall times irrespec-tiveof whetherornottheyare perfidious:

(a) Improper use of the distinctive emblem ofthe Red Cross, Red Crescentor Red Crystal,orofother protectiveemblems, signsorsig-nals providedfor bythelaw ofinternationalarmedconflict.

(b) Improperuseoftheflagoftruce.

(c) Improper use by a Belligerent Party of theflags or military emblems, insignia or uni-formsoftheenemy.

(d) Use bya Belligerent Partyoftheflagsormili-taryemblems, insigniaoruniformsofNeutrals.

(e) Use by a Belligerent Party of the distinc-tiveemblemof the United Nations, exceptasauthorized bythat Organization.

113. Rusesof warare permitted. Such rusesareacts

whichareintendedtomisleadanadversaryortoinducehim to act recklessly but which infringenoruleofthe law ofinternationalarmedconflictand whichdonot meetthedefinitionof perfidyin Rule 111 (a).


114. In airormissile combatoperations, the followingactsareexamplesof perfidy (subject to thedefini-tionin Rule 111 (a)):

(a) Thefeigningofthestatusofa protectedmedi-calaircraf, in particular bytheuseofthedis-tinctiveemblemorothermeansof identifica-tionreservedformedicalaircraf.


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(b) Thefeigningofthestatusofacivilianaircraf.

(c) Thefeigningofthestatusofaneutralaircraf.

(d) Thefeigningofanother protectedstatus.

(e) Thefeigningofsurrender.

115. Irrespectiveof whetherornottheyare perfidious, inairormissilecombatoperations, thefollowingactsare prohibitedatalltimes:

(a) Improperuse byaircrafofdistresscodes, sig-nalsorfrequencies.

(b) Useofanyaircrafotherthanamilitaryaircrafasameansofatack.

116. In airormissile combatoperations, the followingareexamplesoflawfulrusesof war:

(a) Mock operations.

(b) Disinformation.

(c) Falsemilitarycodesandfalseelectronic, opticaloracousticmeans todeceive the enemy (pro-vided that theydonot consistofdistress sig-nals, donotinclude protectedcodes, anddonotconveythe wrongimpressionofsurrender).

(d) Useofdecoysanddummy-constructionofair-crafandhangars.

(e) Useofcamouflage.

117. Aircrews conducting combat operations on landoron wateroutside theiraircrafmustdistin-guish themselves from the civilian population, asrequired bythelaw ofinternationalarmedconflict.


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124. The use of civilian aircraf and State aircrafotherthanmilitaryaircrafofa Belligerent Party,flyingoutsidetheairspaceoforcontrolled bytheenemyin order to gather, intercept or other-wisegaininformationisnotto beregardedasespionage, althoughtheaircrafmay beatackedatsuchtimeasit iscarryingoutitsinformation-gatheringmission.

Section S:Surrender

I. Generalrules

125. Enemy personnelmayoffertosurrenderthemselves(andthemilitaryequipmentundertheircontrol) toa Belligerent Party.

126. Itis prohibitedtodeny quartertothosemanifestingtheintenttosurrender.

127. Surrender is contingent on three cumulativeconditions:

(a) Theintentiontosurrenderiscommunicatedinaclearmannertotheenemy.

(b) Thoseofferingtosurrendermustnotengageinanyfurtherhostileacts.

(c) Noatemptismadetoevadecapture.


128. Aircrewsofamilitaryaircraf wishingtosurrenderought todoeverything feasible toexpressclearlytheir intention todo so. In particular, theyought


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tocommunicatetheirintentiononacommonradiochannelsuchasadistressfrequency.

129. A Belligerent Partymayinsistonthesurrender byanenemymilitaryaircraf beingeffected ina pre-scribedmode, reasonableinthecircumstances. Fail-uretofollow anysuchinstructionsmayrendertheaircrafandtheaircrew liabletoatack.

130. Aircrewsofmilitary aircraf wishing to surrendermay, in certain circumstances, have to parachutefromtheaircrafinordertocommunicatetheirinten-

tions. The provisionsofthis Sectionofthe Manualare without prejudice to the issueof surrenderofaircrewshavingdescended by parachute from anaircrafindistress (see Section T ofthis Manual).

131. Subject to Rule 87, surrendering combatants, aswellascapturedciviliansaccompanyingthearmedforces (suchascivilianmembersofmilitaryaircrafcrews) andcrewsofcivilianaircrafofthe Belliger-ent Parties whodonot benefit fromamore favor-abletreatment, areentitledto prisonerof warstatus.

Section T:Parachutists from anAircraft in Distress

132. (a) No persondescending by parachute fromanaircraf indistressmay bemade theobjectofatack duringhisdescent.

(b) Upon landing ina territorycontrolled by theenemy, a person who descended by para-chute from an aircraf in distress is entitled

to begivenanopportunitytosurrender priorto beingmadetheobjectofatack, unlessitisapparentthatheisengaginginahostileact.


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133. This Sectiondoesnotapplytoairbornetroops.

Section U:Contraband, Interception,

Inspection and Capture

I. Enemyaircrafandgoodsonboardsuchaircraf

134. Enemycivilianaircrafandgoodson boardmay becapturedas prizeon thegroundorwhenflying

outside neutral airspacebe intercepted andordered to proceed toa reasonablyaccessible bel-ligerentairfield that issafe for the typeofaircrafinvolved. Priorexerciseofinspectionisnotrequired.

135. Asanexceptionalmeasure, capturedenemycivilianaircrafandgoodson boardmay bedestroyedwhenmilitarycircumstances preclude taking theaircraffor prizeadjudication, providedthatall personsonboard have first been placed in safety and docu-mentsrelatingtothe prizehave been preserved.

136. (a) Enemymilitary, law-enforcementandcustomsaircrafare bootyof war. Prize proceduresdonotapplytocapturedenemymilitaryaircrafand other State aircraf, inasmuch as theirownership immediately passes to the captorgovernment byvirtueofcapture.

(b) If a military aircraf becomes disabled orexperiencestechnical problemsthatrequireittolandinenemyterritory, theaircrafmay beseizedanddestroyedorconvertedforuse bytheenemy.

(c) Capturedaircrewsofmilitaryaircrafcoveredunderthis Ruleare prisonersof war.


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II. Neutralcivilianaircraf137. (a) Belligerent Parties are entitled to intercept

neutral civilian aircraf outside neutral air-space, provided that due regard is given tothesafetyofcivilaviation.

(b) If, afer interception, reasonable grounds forsuspecting that a neutral civilian aircraf issubject to captureexist, itmay beordered toproceed for inspectionata reasonablyacces-sible belligerentairfieldthatissafeforthetypeofaircrafinvolved.

(c) Asanalternativetocaptureas prize, aneutralcivilian aircraf may consent to be divertedfromitsdeclareddestination.

138. Inordertoavoidtheneedforinterception, Belliger-ent Partiesareallowedtoestablishreasonablemea-suresfortheinspectionofthecargoofneutralcivil-ianaircrafandthecertificationthatanaircrafisnotcarryingcontraband.

139. Thefactthataneutralcivilianaircrafhassubmit-

tedtosuchmeasuresofsupervisionastheinspec-tionof its cargo andgrantof certificates of non-contrabandcargo byone Belligerent Partyisnotanactofunneutralservice withregardtotheoppos-ing Belligerent Party.

140. Neutral civilian aircraf are subject to capture asprizeoutsideneutralairspace, ifitisdeterminedasaresultofinspectionor byothermeansthatanyoneofthefollowingconditionsisfulfilled:

(a) Theyarecarryingcontraband.

(b) Theyareonaflightespeciallyundertaken totransportindividual passengers whoaremem-bersoftheenemysarmedforces.


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(c) Theyareoperatingdirectlyunderenemycon-trol, orders, charter, employment ordirection.

(d) They present irregular or fraudulent docu-ments, lack necessarydocuments, or destroy,defaceorconcealdocuments.

(e) Theyareviolatingregulationsestablished byaBelligerent Party withinthe immediateareaofmilitaryoperations.

(f) Theyareengagedin breachofanaerial block-

ade (see Section V ofthis Manual).

141. Goods on board neutral civilian aircraf outsideneutral airspace are subject to capture as prize inanyoneofthefollowingcases:

(a) Theyconstitutecontraband.

(b) Theneutralcivilianaircrafisengagedinactiv-ities rendering it a military objective underRule 174.

142. ThecaptureofneutralcivilianaircrafandofgoodsonboardcanbeexercisedonlyinthecasesprovidedforinRules 140 and 141 andissubjectto prizeadjudication.

III. Safeguards

143. In all circumstances of capture of a civilian air-craf whetherneutralorenemythe safetyofpassengersand crew on boardmust be providedfor. Documentsand papersrelatingtotheaircrafmust besafeguarded.

IV. Determinationofenemycharacter

144. The fact thata civilianaircraf bears themarksofan enemy Belligerent Party is conclusive evidence


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of itsenemycharacter. Enemycharacterofacivil-ianaircrafcanalso bedetermined byregistration,ownership, charterorotherappropriatecriteria.

145. For the purposesof capture and prize, a civilianaircraf bearing no marks is presumed to haveenemycharacter.

146. (a) If the commander of a military aircraf sus-pectsthatacivilianaircraf withneutralmarksin fact has enemy character, the commanderis entitled to exercise the right of intercep-

tionand, ifcircumstancesrequire, therighttodivertforthe purposeofinspection.

(b) If it is established, afer inspection, that thecivilian aircraf with neutralmarks does nothave enemy character, itmust be allowed toproceed withoutdelay.

Section V:Aerial Blockade

147. Anaerial blockadeisa belligerentoperationto pre-ventaircraf (including UAVs/UCAVs) fromenter-ing or exiting specified airfields or coastal areasbelongingto, occupied by, orunderthecontroloftheenemy.

148. (a) Anaerial blockademust bedeclared bya Bel-ligerent Partyandnotifiedtoall States.

(b) Thedeclarationmust specify the commence-ment, duration, location, and extent of theaerial blockadeandthe period in whichneu-

tralaircrafmayleavethe blockadedarea.

(c) Whenever feasible, a Notice to Airmen(NOTAM) abouttheestablishmentoftheaerial


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blockadeought to be issued by the BlockadingPartyinaccordancewithRule 55.

149. (a) The cessation, temporary lifing, re-estab-lishment, extensionorotheralterationofanaerial blockademust bedeclaredandnotifiedtoall States.

(b) Whenever feasible, a Notice to Airmen(NOTAM) aboutanychangesunder paragraph(a) oughtto beissued bythe Blockading Partyinaccordance with Rule 55.

150. Anaerial blockademustnot baraccess to theair-spaceof Neutrals.

151. Anaerial blockademust beeffective. The questionwhethersucha blockadeiseffectiveisa questionoffact.

152. The force maintaining the aerial blockade maybedeployed at adistancedetermined bymilitaryrequirements.

153. (a) Anaerial blockademay beenforcedandmain-tained by a combination of lawful means ofwarfare, provided that thiscombinationdoesnotresult inacts inconsistent with the law ofinternationalarmedconflict.

(b) Aircraf indistressmust be allowed to enterthe blockadedarea whennecessary.

154. Totheextentthatanaerial blockadeismaintainedand enforced exclusively by military aircraf, theconditionofeffectiveness (Rule 151) requiresasuf-

ficientdegreeofairsuperiority.

155. Anaerial blockademust beenforcedimpartiallyasregardstheaircrafofall States.


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156. For an aerial blockade to be considered effectiveunder Rule 151, it is required that civilianaircrafbelievedonreasonablegroundsto be breaching, oratemptingto breach, anaerial blockade, beforcedto land, inspected, capturedordiverted. Ifcivilianaircrafclearlyresist interception, anorderto landand capture, they are at risk of atack afer priorwarning. Asforcivilianairliners, Section J applies.

157. Theestablishmentormaintenanceofanaerial block-adeis prohibitedinanyoneofthefollowingcases:

(a) Its sole or primary purpose is to starve thecivilian populationortodenythat populationotherobjectsessentialforitssurvival.

(b) Thesufferingof thecivilian population is, ormay be expected to be, excessive in relationto the concreteanddirectmilitaryadvantageanticipatedfromtheaerial blockade.

158. Subjectto Rule 100, ifthecivilian populationoftheblockadedareaisinadequately provided withfoodorotherobjectsessentialforitssurvival, the Block-

ading Partymust provide for free passageofsuchfoodstuffsorother essential supplies, forexamplebyestablishingahumanitarianaircorridor, subjecttothefollowingconditions:

(a) The Blockading Partyretainstherightto pre-scribe the technical arrangements, includ-ing inspection, under which such passage ispermited.

(b) Thedistributionofsuchsuppliesmay bemadesubjectto theconditionthat it will becarried

outunderthelocalsupervisionofa ProtectingPowerorahumanitarianorganization whichoffers guarantees of impartiality, such as theInternational Commiteeofthe Red Cross.


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159. The Blockading Partymust allow the passage ofmedicalsuppliesforthecivilian populationorforthe woundedand sick membersofarmed forces,subjecttotherightto prescribetechnicalarrange-ments, including inspection, under which suchpassageis permited.

Section W:Combined Operations

160. A combinedoperationisanoperationin whichtwo

ormore States participateon the same sideof aninternationalarmedconflict, eitherasmembersofapermanentallianceoranad hoccoalition.

161. A Statemay not invoke its participation in com-bined operations as justification for its failure toperform its obligationsunder the law of interna-tionalarmedconflict.

162. Thelegalobligationsofa State participatingincom-bined operations do not change when its armedforcesareoperatinginamultinationalforceunder

thecommandorcontrolofamilitarycommanderofadifferentnationality.

163. A Statesobligationsunderthelaw ofinternationalarmedconflictdonotchange when itsairormis-sileforcesareoperatingfromtheterritoryofaco-belligerent, including whenitsairormissileforcesareoperatingfromtheterritoryofaco-belligerentthat has different obligations under the law ofinternationalarmedconflict.

164. A State may participate in combined operations

with Statesthatdonotshareitsobligationsunderthe law of international armed conflict althoughthoseother Statesmight engage in activities pro-hibitedforthefirst State.


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Section X:Neutrality

I. Scopeofapplication

165. Wherethe Security Counciltakes binding preven-tiveor enforcementmeasuresunder Chapter VIIof the Charterof the United Nationsincludingthe authorizationof theuseof force by a partic-ular Stateorgroup of Statesno Statemay relyuponthelaw ofneutralityto justifyconduct whichwould be incompatible with itsobligationsunder

the Charterofthe United Nations.

II. Generalrules

166. Hostilities between Belligerent Partiesmustnot beconducted withinneutralterritory.

167. (a) Belligerent Parties are prohibited in neu-tral territory toconductanyhostileactions,establish basesofoperationsorusesuchter-ritory as a sanctuary. Furthermore, neutralterritorymustnot beused by Belligerent Par-

tiesforthemovementoftroopsorsupplies,includingoverflights bymilitary aircraformissiles, orforoperationofmilitarycommu-nicationsystems.

(b) However, when Belligerent Parties use formilitary purposesa public, internationallyandopenlyaccessiblenetwork suchasthe Internet,thefactthat partofthisinfrastructure issitu-ated withinthe jurisdictionofa Neutraldoesnotconstituteaviolationofneutrality.

168. (a) A Neutral must not allow any of the actsreferred to in Rule 167 (a) tooccur within itsterritoryandmustuseallthemeansavailabletoitto preventorterminatethem.


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(b) Iftheuseoftheneutralterritoryorairspace bya Belligerent Partyconstitutesaseriousviola-tion, theopposing Belligerent Partymay, intheabsenceofanyfeasibleandtimelyalternative,usesuchforceasisnecessarytoterminatetheviolationofneutrality.

169. ThefactthataNeutralresists, even byforce,atemptstoviolateitsneutralitycannot beregardedasahos-tile act. However, theuse of force by the Neutralmust not exceed the degree required to repel theincursionandmaintainitsneutrality.

III. Specificsofairormissileoperations

170. (a) Anyincursionortransit bya belligerentmili-taryaircraf (includinga UAV/UCAV) ormis-sile intoor throughneutralairspace is pro-hibited. Thisis without prejudicetotherightof transit passage through straits used forinternational navigation or archipelagic sealanes passage.

(b) A Neutral must exercise surveillance, to theextentthat themeansat itsdisposalallow, toenableitto preventtheviolationofitsneutral-ity by belligerentforces.

(c) In the event a belligerent military aircrafenters neutral airspace (other than straitsused for internationalnavigationorarchipe-lagicsea lanes), the Neutralmustuseallthemeansatitsdisposalto preventorterminatethat violation. If captured, the aircraf andtheircrewsmust beinternedfortheduration

ofthearmedconflict.

171. Belligerent Partiesmustnotcommitanyofthefol-lowingacts:


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(a) Atack on or capture of persons or objectslocatedinneutralairspace.

(b) Useofneutral territoryorairspaceasa baseofoperationsforatack, targeting, orintelli-gence purposesagainstenemytargetsintheair, onlandoron wateroutsidethatterritory.

(c) Conducting interception, inspection, diver-sionorcaptureofvesselsoraircrafinneutralterritory.

(d) Anyother activity involving theuse ofmili-tary force or contributing to the war-fight-ing effort, including transmission of data orcombat search-and-rescue operations in neu-tralterritory.

172. (a) Belligerentmilitaryaircrafmaynotentertheairspaceof Neutrals, exceptthat:

(i) Belligerent military aircraf in distressmay be permited to enter neutral air-space and to land in neutral territory

under such safeguards as the Neutralmay wishtoimpose. The Neutralisobli-gatedtorequiresuchaircraftolandandtointerntheaircrafandtheircrews.

(ii) The airspace above neutral interna-tional straitsandarchipelagic sea lanesremainsopenatall times to belligerentaircraf, including armed military air-craf engaged in transit or archipelagicsealanes passage.

(iii) The Neutral may permit belligerentmilitaryaircraf toenter for purposesofcapitulation.


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(b) Neutralsmustusethemeansattheirdisposaltorequirecapitulating belligerentmilitaryair-craf to land within their territory, andmustinterntheaircrafandtheircrewsforthedura-tionoftheinternationalarmedconflict. Shouldsuchanaircrafcommithostileacts, orshoulditfailtofollow theinstructionstoland, itmaybeatacked withoutfurthernotice.

173. A Neutralisnot boundto preventthe privateexportortransiton behalfofa Belligerent Partyofaircraf,partsofaircraf, ormaterial, suppliesormunitions

foraircraf. However, a Neutralis boundtousethemeansatitsdisposal:

(a) To preventthedeparturefrom its jurisdictionofanaircraf inaconditiontomakeahostileatack against a Belligerent Party, if there isreasonto believethatsuchaircrafisdestinedforsuchuse.

(b) To prevent the departure from its jurisdic-tionofthecrewsofmilitaryaircraf, as wellas passengersandcrewsofcivilianaircraf,

who aremembers of the armed forcesof aBelligerent Party.

174. Withoutprejudiceto Sections J andV ofthisManual,thefollowingactivitiesmayrenderaneutralcivilianaircrafamilitaryobjective:

(a) Itis believedonreasonablegroundsto becar-rying contraband, and, afer prior warningor interception, it intentionally and clearlyrefuses to divert from its destination, orintentionally and clearly refuses to proceed

for inspectiontoa belligerentairfieldthat issafeforthetypeofaircrafinvolvedandrea-sonablyaccessible.


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(b) Engaging inhostileactions in supportof theenemy, e.g. interceptingoratackingotherair-craf; atacking personsorobjectson landorsea; beingusedasameansofatack; engagingin electronic warfare; or providing targetinginformationtoenemyforces.

(c) Facilitatingthemilitaryactionsoftheenemysarmedforces, e.g. transportingtroops, carry-ingmilitarymaterials, or refuellingmilitaryaircraf.

(d) Being incorporated into or assisting theenemys intelligence gathering system, e.g.,engaging in reconnaissance, early warning,surveillanceorcommand, controlandcommu-nicationsmissions.

(e) Refusingtocomply withtheordersofmilitaryauthorities, includinginstructionsforlanding,inspection and possible capture, or it clearlyresistsinterception.

(f) Otherwisemakinganeffectivecontributionto

militaryaction.

175. The fact that a civilian aircraf bears the marksofa Neutral isprima facieevidenceof itsneutralcharacter.