HOW TO WRITE CORRECT ENGLISH

R.K.Singh

ABHISHEK PUBLICATIONS CHANDIGARH

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Contents

I. Introduction 1 2. Essentials of English Language 7 3. The Sentence 103 4. Figurative Language 116 5. Punctuation 123 6. Letter Writing 189 7. Errors 206 8. Pitfalls to A void 218 9. Style 233

10. Suggestions 243 1I. Slang 252 12. Writing for Newspapers 260 13. Choice of Words 269

aTypewritten Text"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"

Chapter 1

Introduction

APPROPRIATE ENGLISH Most people believe that there is a very definite set of

English rules which, when followed, will produce correct English. In reality, this is not true. A better question to ask is, "What is appropriate English?" The answer to that question depends on many things:

The relationship of the spsakers (e.g., good friends speak to each other different than an employer speaks to employees).

The situation in which the communication takes place (e.g., people have to provide different kinds of information when talking over the telephone than when talking face-to-face).

The topic of the communication (e.g., you may speak differently in telling a joke than you would in discussing a math principle), etc.

You should aim at teaching students language that will help them achieve their goals appropriately. For example, they may want to be able to request help in a store. You would teach them to do it in such a way that they would get the help and that the people helping them would not think that they were rude, stupid, nor snobbish. Overall, teachers have a tendency to try to teach styles of English that are too formal for most of the situations their students will encounter. Try to avoid this fault. Contractions (I'm,

2' Introduction ~ I~-----------------------------------he's, they'll) are always used except in very formal situations.

We can assure you that you do not know what correct English is. If you are a native speaker of English and pick up any of the weighty books on English usage, it will probably be an illuminating and humiliating experience. It always is for me, at any rate.

Our grasp of unusual vocabulary is dubious, our grammar is not complete, and we make many of the mistakes the authorities mock: If you are an British English speaker, you will be just horrified by the number of Americanisms you use (like the one I inserted just now); if you are an American, I think you'll be horrified by how corporate and tech speak have changed your language (it is disgusting, American authorities railed not too long ago, to say "authored", but now it is something every time it click the button on Movable Type; "donut" was until fairly recently spelt "doughnut").

There are huge sections of "The King's English" which it simply cannot understand - and since we have studied Latin and went to a posh English private school - and through that book, it's obvious that the authors had a sense, pretentious or not, of "beauty" and how it applied to English words, a sense which we know that at least it should lack completely.

ENGLISH LANGUAGE A NUTSHEll All the words in the English language are divided into

nine great classes. These classes are called the Parts of Speech. They are Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction and Interjection. Of these, the Noun is the most important, as all the others are more or less dependent upon it. A Noun signifies the name of any person, place or thing, in fact, anything of which we can have either thought or idea.

There are two kinds of Nouns, Proper and Common. Common Nouns are names which belong in common to a

Introduction r3 race or class, as man, city. Proper Nouns distinguish individual members of a race or class as John, Philadelphia. In the former case man is a name which belongs in common to the whole race of mankind, and city is also a name which is common to all large centres of population, but John signifies a particular individual of the race, while Philadelphia denotes a particular one from among the cities of the world.

Nouns are varied by Person, Number, Gender, and Case. Person is that relation existing between the speaker, those addressed and the subject under consideration, whether by discourse or correspondence. The Persons are First, Second and Third and they represent respect,ively the speaker, the person addressed and the person or thing mentioned or under consideration.

Number is the distinction of one from more than one. There are two numbers, singular and plural; the singular denotes one, the plural two or more. The plural is generally formed from the singular by the addition of s or es.

Gender has the same relation to nouns that sex has to individuals, but while there are only two sexes, there are four genders, viz., masculine, feminine, neuter and common.

Sometimes things which are without life as we conceive it and which, properly speaking, belong to the neuter gender, are, by a figure of speech called Personification, changed into either the masculine or feminine gender, as, for instance, we say of the sun, He is rising; of the moon, She is setting.

Case is the relation one noun bears to another or to a verb or to a preposition. There are three cases, the Nominative, the Possessive and the Objective. The nominative is the subject of which we are speaking or the agent which directs the action of the verb; the possessive case denotes possession, while the objective indicates the person or thing which is affected by the action of the verb.

An Article is a word placed before a noun to show

---:;;-""14 Introduction ~ I~---------------------------------whether the latter is used in a particular or general sense. There are but two articles, a or an and the.

An Adjective is a word which qualifies a noun, that is, which shows some distinguishing mark or characteristic belonging to the noun.

IMPROVING YOUR ENGLISH

So you're looking to improve your writing skills, are you? Are you finding out that all of the lessons from your book weren't as thorough as you once thought? Even if you've got the basics of English punctuation under your belt, it's always a good idea to brush up on your English punctuation skills. Especially if you're trying to impress a potential boss with a stellar resume, you need to make sure that you are using English punctuation correctly. For writing correct english follow these pointers:

Periods: Use a period at the end of a sentence that isn't a question or an exciting point. Anytime you've used a short form of a word or an abbreviation, you'll also need to use a period where you've cut the word short (for example, instead of "et cetera", you would write "etc."). In this case, you need to know that it's okay to have the period there and at the end of the sentence, since they are being used for different reasons.

Commas: This is perhaps the most confusing punctuation mark in the English language. It's very versatile, almost too much so. You can use a comma to separate a list of words, to separate two phrases in the same sentence, or even to separate the parts of a date. You need a comma when you are using more than one adjective to describe something (like a big, fat, expensive mortgage). And you also need to use a comma if you're inserting something into a sentence that breaks up the natural flow of it (I thought, as I was sitting here, that I should mention this one as well).

We see that the section within the commas breaks up the flow of an otherwise normal sentence, so it needs to be

Introduction \5 separated by commas. Each place is followed by a comma. And if you can handle one more, you'll need to use a comma before you quote something (for example, she said, "I really enjoyed meeting you"). Believe it or not, this is not an exhaustive list, but it covers most of the key uses for a comma.

Exclamation marks: Use an exclamation mark to end a sentence that is exciting. If someone is yelling, use an exclamation mark at the end of their words. Or, if you've included sound effects that are loud or dramatic, use an exclamation mark

Question marks: Okay, this is a no-brainer, but just in case, let's review. Use a question mark at the end of a sentence that asks a question. Moving on ....

Quotation marks: If someone is speaking, you need to separate their words with quotation marks. Or, if you have borrowed words that someone else has written, you need to separate their words from your own with quotation marks.

Apostrophes: Apostrophes have two uses in correct English punctuation. Use an apostrophe when using contractions (didn't, couldn't, isn't). In this case, the apostrophe replaces the missing letters - "did not" loses the 0, and the 0 is replaced with an apostrophe to look like "didn't". Also, an apostrophe is used when talking about someone's possessions, or things that belong to them. For example, that is Santa's sleigh, and Rudolph's nose. Leaving out the apostrophe here would simply make the words look plural, and that's not the correct use of English punctuation here.

Colons: Use a colon before you insert a list of words or phrases after an otherwise complete sentence. (I'm a great writer for four reasons: my passion, dedication, education and qualifications.) You should also use a colon when you're linking two clos,ely-related sentences, or if you're wanted to separate a really important word or phrase from the rest of a sentence (for example, She made my favorite meal:

--;-16 In~oduction o I~ __________________________________ _

spaghetti). And you also need a colon when you're introducing a long quote (instead of using quotation marks) or when you're beginning a letter.

Semi-colon: Use a semi-colon when separating indepen-dent clauses (smaller sentences that make sense on their own in part of a bigger sentence). Use a semi-colon if before the word however or therefore if it falls in the middle of a sentence. You'll also need to use a semi-colon if you've got a long and complicated list (instead of using a comma).

Chapter 2

Essentials of English Language

DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR, DEFINITIONS, ETYMOLOGY

In order t9 speak and write the English language correctly, it is imperative that the fundamental principles of the Grammar be mastered, for no matter how much we may read of the best authors, no matter how much we may associate with and imitate the best speakers, if we do not know the underlying principles of the correct formation of sentences and the relation of words to one another, we will be to a great extent like the parrot, that merely repeats what it hears without understanding the import of what is said.

Of course the parrot, being a creature without reason, cannot comprehend; it can simply repeat what is said to it, and as it utters phrases and sentences of profanity with as much facility as those of virtue, so by like analogy, when we do not understand the grammar of the language, we may be making egregious blunders while thinking we are speaking with the utmost accuracy.

DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR There are four great divisions of Grammar, viz.: Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. Orthography treats of letters and the mode of

combining them into words.

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Etymology treats of the various classes of words and the changes they undergo.

Syntax treats of the connection and arrangement of words in sentences.

Prosody treats of the manner of speaking and reading and the different kinds of verse.

The three first mentioned concern us most. LETTERS

A letter is a mark or character used to represent an articulate sound. Letters are divided into vowels and

. consonants. A vowel is a letter which makes a distinct sound by itself. Consonants cannot be sounded without the aid of vowels. The vowels are a, e, i, 0, u, and sometimes wand y when they do not begin a word or syllable. SYLLABLES AND WORDS

A syllable is a distinct sound produced by a single effort of [Transcriber's note: 1-2 words illegible] shall, pig, dog. In every syllable there must be at least one vowel.

A word consists of one syllable or a combinati'on of syllables.

Many t'u.les; are given for the dividing of words into syllables, but the best is to follow as closely as possible the divisions mad~ by the organs of speech in properly pronouncing them.

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

ARTICLE An Article is a word placed before a noun to show

whether the noun is used in a particular or general sense. There are two articles, a or an and the. A or an is called

the indefinite article because it does not point put any particular person or thing but indicates the noun in its widest sense; thus, a man means any man whatsoever of the species or race.

Essentials of English Language r9 The is called the definite article because it points out

some particular person or thing; thus, the man means some particular individual. Using Articles

What is an article? Basically, an article is an adjective. Like adjectives, articles modify nouns.

English has two articles: the and a/an. The is used to refer to specific or particular nouns; a/an is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns. We call the the definite article and a/an the indefinite article.

the = definite article a/an = indefinite article For example, if I say, "Let's read the book," I mean a

specific book. If I say, "Let's read a book," I mean any book rather than a specific book.

Here's another way to explain it: The is used to refer to a specific or particular member of a group. For example, "I just saw the most popular movie of the year." There are many movies, but only one particular movie is the most popular. Therefore, we use the.

"A/an" is used to refer to a non-specific or non-particular member of the group. For example, "I would like to go see a movie." Here, we're not talking about a specific movie. We're talking about any movie. There are many movies, and I want to see any movie. I don't have a specific one in mind.

Let's look at each kind of article a little more closely. Indefinite Articles: a and an

"A" and "an" signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. For example:

liMy daughter really wants a dog for Christmas." This refers to any dog. We don't know which dog because we haven't found the dog yet.

"Somebody call a policeman!" This refers to any policeman. We don't need a specific policeman; we need any policeman who is available.

~~ ____________________ E_s_s_en_h_a_ls~o~f_E_n~g~li~sh_L_a_n~g~u~ag~e "When I was at the zoo, I saw an elephant!" Here,

we're talking about a single, non-specific thing, in this case an elephant. There are probably several elephants at the zoo, but there's only one we're talking about here.

Remember, using a or an depends on the sound that begins the next word. So ...

a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy; a car; a bike; a zoo; a dog

an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant; an egg; an apple; an idiot; an orphan

a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like Iyoo-zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant I y' sound, so 'a' is used); a university; a unicycle

In some cases where "h" is pronounced, such as "historical," us an:

An historical event is worth recording. Remember that this rule also applies when you use

acronyms: Introductory Composition at Purdue (lCaP) handles first-

year writing at the University. Therefore, an ICaP memo generally discusses issues concerning English 106 instructors.

Another case where this rule applies is when acronyms start with consonant letters but have vowel sounds:

An MSDS (material safety data sheet) was used to record the data. An SPCC plan (Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures plan) will help us prepare for the worst.

If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article:

a broken egg an unusual problem a European country (sounds like Iyer-o-pi-an,' i.e.

begins with consonant 'y' sound) Remember, too, that in English, the indefinite articles

are used to indicate membership in a group:

Essentials of English Language III I am a teacher. (I am a member of a large group

known as teachers.) Brian is an Irishman. (Brian is a member of the

people known as Irish.) Seiko is a practicing Buddhist. (Seiko is a member

of the group of people known as Buddhists.) Definite Article: the

The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or particular. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group. For example:

"The dog that bit me ran away." Here, we're talking about a specific dog, the dog that bit me.

"I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!" Here, we're talking about a particular policeman. Even if we don't know the policeman's name, it's still a particular policeman because it is the one who saved the cat.

"I saw the elephant at the zoo." Here, we're talking about a specific noun. Probably there is only one elephant at the zoo. Count and Noncount Nouns

The can be used with noncount nouns, or the article can be omitted entirely.

"I love to sail over the water" (some specific body of water) or "I love to sail over water" (any water).

"He spilled the milk all over the floor" (some specific milk, perhaps the milk you bought earlier that day) or "He spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk).

"A/an" can be used only with count nouns. "I need a bottle of water." "I need a new glass of milk." Most of the time, you can't say, "She wants a water,"

unless you're implying, say, a bottle of water.

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Geographical Use of the There are some specific rules for using the with

geographical nouns.

are:

Do not use the before: names of most countries/territories: Italy, Mexico,

Bolivia; however, the Netherlands, the Dominican Republic, the Philippines, the United States

names of cities, towns, or states: Seoul, Manitoba, Miami

names of streets: Washington Blvd., Main St. names of lakes and bays: Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie

except with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes names of mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Fuji

except with ranges of mountains like the Andes or the Rockies or unusual names like the Matterhorn

names of continents (Asia, Europe) names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West)

except with island chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands

Do use the before: names of rivers, oceans and seas: the Nile, the Pacific points on the globe: the Equator, the North Pole geographical areas: the Middle East, the West deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas: the Sahara,

the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the Iberian Peninsula OMISSION OF ARTICLES

Some common types of nouns that don't take an article

Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Spanish, Russian

Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseball Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biologtJ,

history, computer science A versus An

How do you know when to use the indefinite articles?

Essentials of English Language ru "A" goes before all words that begin with consonants. a cat a dog a purple onion a buffalo a big apple With one exception: Use "an" before unsounded h. an honorable peace an honest error "An" goes before all words that be{In with vowels: an apricot an egg an Indian an orbit an uprising With two exceptions: When u makes the same sound

as the y in you, or 0 makes the same sound as w in won, then a is used.

a union a united front a unicorn a used napkin a U.S. ship a one-legged man Note: The choice of article is actually based upon the

phonetic (sound) quality of the first letter in a word, not on the orthographic (written) representation of the letter. If the first letter makes a vowel-type sound, you use "an"; if the first letter would make a consonant-type sound, you use "a." So, if you consider the rule from a phonetic perspective, there aren't any exceptions. Since the 'h' hasn't any phonetic representation, no audible sound, in the first exception, the sound that follows the article is a vowel; consequently, 'an' is used. In the second exception, the word-initial'y' sound (unicorn) is actually a glide [j] phonetically, which has consonantal properties; consequently, it is treated as a consonant, requiring 'a'.

~~ ______________________ Es_s_en_t_ia_ls_o~if_E_n~g~li_sh_L_a_n~g~u~ag~e

NOUN A noun is the name of any person, place or thing as

John, London, book. Nouns are proper and common. Proper nouns are names applied to particular persons

or places. Common nouns are names applied to a whole kind or

species. Nouns are inflected by number, gender and case.

, Number is that inflection of the noun by which we indicate whether it represents one or more than one.

Gender is that inflection by which we signify whether the noun is the name of a male, a female, of an inanimate object or something which has no distinction of sex.

Case is that inflection of the noun which denotes the state of the person, place or thing represented, as the subject of an affirmation or question, the owner or possessor of something mentioned, or the object of an action or of a relation. ,

Thus in the example, "John tore the leaves of Sarah's book," the distinction between book which represents only one object and leaves which represent two or more objects of the same kind is called Number; the distinction of sex between John, a male, and Sarah, a female, and book and leaves, things which are inanimate and neither male nor female, is called Gender; and the distinction of state between John, the person who tore the book, and the subject of the affirmation, Mary, the owner of the book, leaves the objects torn, and book the object related to leaves, as the whole of which they were a part, is called Case. Count and Non Count Nouns Definition of Count and Noncount nouns

The main difference between count and noncount nouns is whether you can count the things they refer to or not.

Count nouns refer to things that exist as separate and distinct individual units. They usually refer to what can be perceived by the senses.

Essentials of English Language ItS Examples: table chair word

finger remark girl

Example sentences:

bottle award candidate

I stepped in a puddle. (How many puddles did you step in? Just one.)

I drank a glass of milk. (Glasses of milk can be counted) I saw an apple tree. (Apple trees can be counted) Noncount nouns refer to things that can't be counted

because they are thought of as wholes that can't be cut into parts. They often refer to abstractions and occasionally have a collective meaning (for example, furniture).

Examples: anger furniture

courage education

progress weather

warmth leisure precision Example Sentences: I dove into the water. (How many waters did you dive

into? The question doesn't make any sense; therefore water is noncountable.)

I saw the milk spill. (How many milks? Milk cannot be counted.)

I admired the foliage. (How many foliages? Foliage cannot be counted.)

Think of the batter from which a cake is made. Before you put the batter into the oven, it can't be divided into parts because it's a thick liquid. Once it has been baked, it l)ecomes solid enough to be cut into pieces. Noncount nouns are like cake batter; count nouns are like pieces of cake

Note: Since the issue is complicated and almost no rule

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is absolute, there will be exceptions to these definitions; however, we can show some general patterns. Bear in mind that what is counti'lble in another language may not be countable in English, and vice versa. Uses of Count and Noncount Nouns

Pluralizing

The Rule From fIe definitions of mass and count given you may

have already guessed the rule for pluralizing them: Most count nouns pluralize with ~S Noncount nouns don't pluralize at all This rule works for all of the nouns in the lists of

examples in the first section. Check this rule for yourself before reading further. An Exception to the Rule

For a number of nouns, the rule needs slight revision. Certain nouns in English belong to both classes: they have both a non count and a count meaning. Normally the noncount meaning is abstract and general and the count meaning concrete and specific. Compare:

Count I've had some difficulties finding a job. (refers to

a number of specific problems) The talks will take place in the Krannert building.

(refers to a number of specific lectures) The city was filled with bright lights and harsh

sounds. (refers to a number of specific lights and noises)

Noncount She succeeded in school with little difficulty. (refers

to the general idea of school being difficult)

Essentials of English Language ~ I dislike idle talk. (refers to talking in general) Light travels faster than sound. (refers to the way

light and sound behave in general) Note: A special case of the use of noncount nouns in a

count sense has to do with classification. Sometimes a usually noncount noun can be understood as one item separate and distinct from other items of the same category. The nouns that function in this way often denote foods and beverages: food(s), drink(s), wine(s), bread(s), coffee(s), fruit(s), and so on.

Examples: There are several French wines to choose from.

(= kinds of wine) ~ prefer Sumatran coffees to Colombian.

(= kinds of coffee) }Ve use a variety of different batters in our bakery.

(= kinds of batter) A recent entry into this class is homework, which at least

among some students has the count plural homeworks in addition to its non count use. (For example, "You're missing three of ,the homeworks from the first part of the course.") Because this usage is not firmly established and is likely to be considered nonstandard, you should check with your instructor before using it in writing. A Revision of the Rule

These exceptions require that the rule for pluralizing be revised: count nouns and nouns used in a count sense pluralize; noncount nouns and nouns used in a noncount sense do not.

The two possibilities in each half of the rule require different choices. If you know that a particular noun must be either count or noncount and cannot be both, you need to decide only if it is possible to pluralize the noun. On the other hand, if you know that a particular noun may be used in either a count or noncount sense, then you need to decide whether it is appropriate to pluralize.

~~ ______________________ E_ss_e_nt_ia_l_s~of_E_n~g~ll_sh __ La_n~g~u~ag~e_

To summarize, we may put the rule in a chart, like this: Pluralizes with -s Doesn't Pluralize

Count Noun XX

Count Use XX

Noncount Noun XX Noncount Use XX

Nouns and Articles Choosing which article to use (if any) with a noun is a

complex matter because the range of choices depends on whether the noun in question is 1) count or noncount and 2) singular or plural.

Both count nouns (whether singular or plural) and noncount nouns take articles.

Combinations of Nouns and Articles The following chart shows which articles go with which

kinds of ~ouns. Notice that this, that, these, and those have been included because, like the, they mark the noun that they modify as definite, which means that the noun refers 1) to a unique individual or 2) to some person, event, or object known to both the writer and reader from their general knowledge or from what has been previously mentioned in a piece of writing.

a,an

Count XX singular Count plural Noncount

Examples Count Singular

I ate an apple.

the this, that these, those no article XX XX

XX XX XX

XX XX XX

Essentials of English Language Ii9 I rode the bus. Does she live in this house? No, she lives in that house

over there.

Count Plural I like to feed the birds. Do you want these books? No, I want those books up there. Cats are interesting pets.

Noncount The water is cold. This milk is going sour. Music helps me relax.

Quantity Terms The following chart shows which quantity words go

with which kinds of nouns. Note that quantity words can be used in combinations such as many more, many fewer, much more, and much less, any of which can be preceded by how to form questions or relative clauses. Negatives like not and no can also be applied to many of these terms.

much, less, little, a little, very little

Count singular Count plural

Noncount XX

Examples Count Singular

I practice every day.

some, any, most,more, all, a lot of, no, none of the

XX

XX

I'd like one donut, please.

many, both, each, several, every, few/fewer/fewest anY,one , a few, one of the, a couple of

XX

XX

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Count Plural Can I have some chips? She has a lot of books, and many are autographed. I have fewer pencils than you.

Noncount

Can I have some water? She has a lot of strength, and much is due to her

upbringing. I have less courage than you.

Countable Nouns Countable nouns refer to things that we can count. Such

nouns can take either singular or plural form. Concrete nouns may be countable. There are a dozen flowers in the vase. He ate an apple for a snack. Collective nouns are countable. She attended three classes today. London is home to several orchestras. Some proper nouns are countable. There are many Greeks living in New York. The Vanderbilts would throw lavish parties at their

Newport summer mansion.

Uncountable Nouns Uncountable nouns refer to things that we cannot

count. Such nouns take only singular form. Abstract nouns are uncountable. The price of freedom is constant vigilance. Her writing shows maturity and intelligence. Some concrete nouns are uncountable (when

understood in their undivided sense). The price of oil has stabilized recently. May I borrow some rice?

Essentials of English Language rn While uncountable nouns do not generally take a plural

form, sometimes they may be pluralized when used in a countable sense.

The difference between the uncountable and countable meanings of nouns that are used in either sense can be seen in the following chart:

Uncountable Sense Countable Sense Art is often called an imitation of life. I read a book about the folk arts of Sweden. Life is precious. A cat has nine lives. He likes to eat pizza. How many pizzas should we order? Religion has been a Many religions are practiced in the United powerful force in history. States. She has beautiful skin. The hull of a kayak is made of animal skins. Dr. Moulton is an expert in ancient Greek We have several sculptures in our home. sculpture. Where are those important papers? We use only recycled paper in our office.

Using Articles with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

A countable noun always takes either the indefinite (a, an) or definite (the) article when it is singular.

When plural, it takes the definite article if it refers to a definite, specific group and no article if it is used in a general sense.

The guest of honour arrived late. You are welcome as a guest in our home. The guests at your party yesterday made a lot of noise. Guests are welcome here anytime. Uncountable nouns never take the indefinite

article (a or an), but they do take singular verbs. The is sometimes used with uncountable nouns in

the same way it is used with plural countable nouns, that is, to refer to a specific object, group, or idea.

Information is a precious commodity in our computerized world.

The information in your files is correct. Sugar has become more expensive recently. Please pass me the sugar.

-z2l~ ______________________ E_ss_en_t_ia_ls_o~if_E_n~g~Ii_sh_L_a_n~g~u~ag~e Categories of Uncountable Nouns

Abstract Material Generic

advice meat fruit help rice wildlife information bread equipment knowledge cake machinery trouble coffee furniture work ice cream mail enjoyment water luggage fun oil jewelry recreation grass clothing relaxation hair money

Quantity Adjectives with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Some, Any

Non-Plurals with - s mathematics economics physics civics ethics mumps measles news

tennis (otper games)

Both words modify either countable or uncountable nouns.

There are some cookies in the jar. (countable) There is some water on the floor. (uncountable) Did you eat any food? (uncountable) Do you serve any vegetarian dishes? (countable)

Much, Many Much modifies only uncountable nouns. How much money will we need? They ate so much cake that they started to feel sick. Much effort will be required to solve this problem. Many modifies only countable nouns. How many children do you have? They had so many books that they had to stack them in

the hall. Many Americans travel to Europe each year.

Essentials of English Language ~ A lot of, lots of

These words are informal substitutes for much and many. Lots of effort will be required to solve this problem.

(uncountable) A lot of Americans travel to Europe each year. (countable)

Little, Quite a little, Few, Quite a few Little and quite a little modify cnly uncountable nouns. We had a little ice cream after dinner. They offered little help for my problem. (meaning "only

a small amount") They offered quite a little help for my problem. (meaning

"a large amount") (See quite a bit of below.) Few and quite a few modify only countable nouns. A few doctors from the hospital play on the softball team. Few restaurants in this town offer vegetarian dishes.

(meaning "only a small number") Quite a few restaurants in this town offer vegetarian

dishes. (meaning "a large number") A little bit of, Quite a bit of

These informal phrases usually precede uncountable nouns. Quite a bit of has the same meaning as quite a little and is used more commonly.

There's a little bit of pepper in the soup. (meaning "a small amount")

There's quite a bit of pepper in the soup. (meaning "a large amount") Enough

This word modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

I don't have enough potatoes to make the soup. We have enough money to buy a car.

Plenty of This term modifies both countable and uncountable

nouns.

:Ml~ ____________________ E_s_s_en_t_ia_ls_o~if_E_ll~g_li_sh_L_a_n~g_u~ag~e

No

There are plenty of mountains in Switzerland. She has plenty of money in the bank.

This word modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

There were no squirrels in the park today. We have no time left to finish the project.

PRONOUN A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun; as, "John

gave his pen to James and he lent it to Jane to write her copy with it." Without the pronouns we would have to write this sentence,-"John gave John's pen to James and James lent the pen to Jane to write Jane's copy with the pen."

There are three kinds of pronouns-Personal, Relative and Adjective Pronouns.

Personal Pronouns are so called because they are used instead of the names of persons, places and things. The Personal Pronouns are I, Thou, He, She, and It, with their plurals, We, Ye or You and They. I is the pronoun of the first person because it represents the person speaking.

Thou is the pronoun of the second person because it represents the person spoken to.

He, She, It are the pronouns of the third person because they represent the persons or things of whom we are speaking. Like nouns, the Personal Pronouns have number, gender and case. The gender of the first and second person is obvious, as they represent the person or persons speaking and those who are addressed. The personal pronouns are thus declined:

First Person. M.orF.

Sinf

Essentials of English Language ~ Second Person.

M. or F.

Sin~. Plural. N. Thou You P. Thine Yours 0. Thee You

Third Person.

M.

Sing. Plural. N. He They P. His Theirs o. Him Them

Third Person. F.

Sing. Plural. N. She They P. Hers Theirs o. Her Them

Third Person. Neuter.

Sin~. Plural. N. It They P. Its Theirs o. It Them

N. B. In colloquial language and ordinary writing Thou, Thine and Thee are seldom used, except by the Society of Friends. The Plural form You is used for both the nominative and objective singular in the second person and Yours is generally used in the possessive in place of Thine The Relative Pronouns are so called because they relate to some word or phrase going before; as, "The boy who told the truth;" "He has done well, which gives me great

~~ ______________________ E_ss_en_t_ia_ls_o~if_E_n~g~li_sh __ La_,~~~u~ag~e pleasure. "Here who and which are not only used in place of other words, but who refers immediately to boy, and which to the circumstance of his having done well. The word or clause to which a relative pronoun refers is called the Antecedent.

The Relative Pronouns are who, which, that and what

Who is applied to persons only; as, liThe man who was here."

Which is applied to the lower animals and things without life; as, liThe horse which I sold." liThe hat which I bought."

That is applied to both persons and things; as, liThe friend that helps." liThe bird that sings." liThe knife that cuts."

What is a compound relative, including both the antecedent and the relative and is equivalent to that which; as, "I did what he desired," i.e. "I did that which he desired."

Relative pronouns have the singular and plural alike. Who is either masculine or feminine; which and that

are masculine, feminine or neuter; what as a relative pronoun is always neuter.

That and what are not inflected. Who and which are thus declined:

Sinx. and Plural Sing. and Plural N. Who N. Which P. Whose P. Whose O. Whom O. Which

Who, which and what when used to ask questions are called Interrogative Pronouns. Adjective Pronouns partake of the nature of adjectives and pronouns and are subdivided as follows:

Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns which directly point out the person or object.

Essentials of English Language 127 They are this, that with their plurals these, those, and yon, same and selfsame. Distributive Adjective Pronouns used distributively. They are each, every, either, neither.Indefinite Adjective Pronouns used more or less indefinitely. They are any, all, few, some, several, one, other, another, none. Possessive Adjective Pronouns denoting possession. They are my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their.N. B. -(The possessive adjective pronouns differ from the possessive case of the personal pronouns in that the latter can stand alone while the former cannot. "Who owns that book?" ''It is mine." Yob cannot say "it is my," the word book must be repeated.) Using Pronouns Clearly

Because a pronoun REFERS BACK to a noun or TAKES THE PLACE OF that noun, you have to use the correct pronoun so tl'\at your reader clearly understands which noun your pronoun is referring to.

Th~refore, pronouns should: Agree in number: If the pronoun takes the place of a

singular noun, you have to use a singular pronoun. If a student parks a car on campus, he or she has to buy a parking sticker.

(NOT: If a student parks a car on campus, they have to buy a parking sticker.)

Remember: the words everybody, anybody, anyone, each, neither, nobody, someone, a person, etc. are singular and take singular pronouns. Everybody ought to do his or her best. (NOT: their best)

Neither of the girls brought her umbrella. (NOT: their umbrellas)

Note: Many people find the construction "his or her" wordy, so if it is possible to use a plural noun as your antecedent so that you can use "they" as your pronoun, it may be wise to do so. If you do use a singular noun and the context makes the gender clear, then it is permissible to use just "his" or "her" rather than "his or her."

-zBlL ______________________ Es_s_el~lt_ia~ls~o~if_E_n~g~li~sh~L=a~n~g~u~ag~e Agree in person: If you are writing in the "first person"

(.1), don't confuse your reader by switching to the "second person" (you) or "third person" (he, she, they, it, etc.). Similarly, if you are using the "second person," don't switch to "first" or "third."

When a person comes to class, he or she should have his or her homework ready.

(NOT: When a person comes to class, you should have your homework ready.)

Refer clearly to a specific noun: Don't be vague or ambiguous.' NOT: Although the motorcycle hit the tree, it was not

damaged. (Is "it" the motorcycle or the tree?) NOT: I don't think they should show violence on TV.

(Who are "they"?) NOT: Vacation is coming soon, which is nice. (What is

nice, the vacation or the fact that it is corning soon?) NOT: George worked in a national forest last summer.

This may be his life's work. (What word does "this" refer to?) NOT: If you put this sheet in your notebook, you can refer

to it. (What does "it" refer to, the sheet or your notebook?) Pronoun Case

Pronoun Case is really a very simple matter. There are three cases.

Subjective case: pronouns used as subject. Objective case: pronouns used as objects of verbs

or prepositions. Possessive case: pronouns which express ownership.

Pronouns Pronouns as Pronouns that show as Subjects Objects Possession I me my (mine) you you your (yours) he, she, it him, her, it his, her (hers), it (its) we us our (ours) they them their (theirs) who whom whose

Essentials of English Language 129 The pronouns This, That, These, Those, and Which do

not change form. Some problems of case: 1. In compound structures, where there are two

pronouns or a noun and a pronoun, drop the other noun for a moment. Then you can see which case you want. NOT: Bob and me travel a good deal. (Would you say, "me travel"?) NOT: He gave the flowers to Jane and 1. (Would you say, "he gave the flowers to I"?) NOT: Us men like the coach. (Would you say, "us like the coach"?)

2. In comparisons. Comparisons usually follow than or as: He is taller than I (am tall). This helps you as much as (it helps) me. She is as noisy as I (am).

Comparisons are really shorthand sentences which usually omit words, such as those in the parentheses in the sentences. If you complete the comparison in your head, you can choose the correct case for the pronoun.

NOT: He is taller than me. (Would you say, "than me am taU"?)

3. In formal and semiformal writing: Use the subjective form after a form of the verb

to be. Formal: It is 1. Informal: It is me. Use whom in the objective case. Formal: To whom am I talking? Informal: Who am I talking to?

THE VERB A verb is a word which implies action or the doing of

something, or it may be defined as a word which affirms, commands or asks a question.

:rol~ ______________________ E_ss_en_t_M_'_s~of_E_n~g~li_sh __ La_,~~~u~ag~e

Thus, the words John the table, contain no assertion, but when the word strikes is introduced, something is affirmed, hence the word strikes is a verb and gives completeness and meaning to the group.

The simple form of the verb without inflection is called the root of the verb; e. g. love is the root of the verb, -"To Love."

Verbs are regular or irregular, transitive or intransitive. A verb is said to be regular when it forms the past

tense by adding ed to the present or d if the verb ends in e. When its past tense does not end in ed it is said to be irregular.

A transitive verb is one the action of which passes over to or affects some object; as "I struck the table." Here the action of striking affected the object table, hence struck is a transitive verb.

An intransitive verb is one in which the action remains with the subject; as "I walk," "I sit," "I run."

Many intransitive verbs, however, can be used transitively; thus, "I walk the horse;" walk is here transitive.

Verbs are inflected by number, person, tense and mood. Number and person as applied to the verb really

belong to the subject; they are used with the verb to denote whether the assertion is made. regarding one or more than one and whether it is made in reference to the person speaking, the person spoken to or the person or thing spoken about. Irregular Verbs: Overview and List

In English, regular verbs consist of three main parts: the root form (present), the (simple) past, and the past participle. Regular verbs have an -ed ending added to the root verb for both the simple past and past participle. Irregular verbs do not follow this pattern, and instead take on an alternative pattern.

The following is a partial list of irregular verbs found

Essentials of English Language ~ in English. Each listing consists of the present/root form of the verb, the (simple) past form of the verb, and the past participle form of the verb.

List of Irregular Verbs in English

Present Past Past Particie.'e be was, were been become became become begin began begun blow blew blown break broke broken bring brought brought build built built burst burst burst buy bought bought burst burst burst catch caught caught choose chose chosen corne carne corne

cut cut cut dealdealt dealt do did done drink drank drunk drive drove driven eat ate eaten fall fell fallen feed fed fed feel felt felt fight fought fought find found found fly flew flown forbid forbade . forbidden

321 Essentials of English Language forget forgot forgotten forgive forgave forgiven freeze froze frozen get got gotten give gave given go went gone grow grew grown have had had hear heard heard hide hid hidden hold held held hurt hurt hurt keep kept kept know knew known lay laid laid leadled led leave left left let let let lie lay lain lose lost lost make made made meet met met pay paid paid quit quit quit read read read ride rode ridden run ran run

say said said see saw seen

seek sought sought sell sold sold

Essentials of English Language rn send sent sent shake shook shaken shine shone shone singsang sung sit sat sat sleep slept slept speak spoke spoken spend spent spent spring sprang sprung stand stood stood steal stole stolen swim swam swum swing swung swung take took taken teach taught taught tear tore torn tell told told think thought thought throw threw thrown understand understood understood wake woke (waked) woken (waked) wear wore worn

win won won write wrote written

TENSE In their tenses verbs follow the divisions of time.

They have present tense, past tense and future tense with their variations to express the exact time of action as to an event happening, having happened or yet to happen. Sequence of Tenses

Strictly speaking, in English, only two tenses are

~~ ______________________ E_ss_en_t_ia_L_~o~if_E_n~g~li_sh __ La_'~lg~u~ag~e marked in the verb alone, present (as in "he sings") and past (as in "he sang"). Other English language tenses, as many as thirty of them, are marked by other words called auxiliaries. Understanding the six basic tenses allows one to re-create much of the reality of time in his writing. The fiix'are

Simple Present: They walk Present Perfect: They have walked Simple Past: They walked Past Perfect: They had walked Future: They will walk Future Perfect: They will have walked Problems in sequencing tenses usually occur with the

perfect tenses, all of which are formed by adding an auxiliary or auxiliaries to the past participle, the third principal part.

ring, rang, rung walk, walked, walked

The most common auxiliaries are forms of "be," "can," "do," "may," "must," "ought," "shall," "will," "has," "have," "had," and they are the forms we shall use in this most basic discussion. Present Perfect

The present perfect consists of a past participle (the third principal part) with "has" or "have."

It designates action which began in the past but which continues into the present or the effect of which still continues.

1. Betty taught for ten years. (simple past) 2. Betty has taught for ten years. (present perfect) The implication in (1) is that Betty has retired; in (2),

that she is still teaching. 1. John did his homework. He can go to the movies. 2. If John has done his homework, he can go to the

movies. Infinitives, too, have perfect tense forms when

combined with "have," and sometimes problems arise when

Essentials of English Language r35"" infinitives are used with verbs such as "hope," "plan," "expect," and "intend," all of which usually point to the future (1 wanted to go to the movie. Janet meant to see the doctor.) The perfect tense sets up a sequence by marking the action which began and usually was completed before the action in the main verb.

1. I am happy to have participated in this campaign! 2. John had hoped to have won the trophy. Thus the action of the main verb points back in time;

the action of the perfect infinitive has been completed. The past perfect tense designates action in the past just

as simple past does, but the action of the past perfect is action completed in the past before another action.

1. John raised vegetables and later sold them. (past) 2. John sold vegetables that he had raised. (past perfect) The vegetables were raised before they were sold. 1. Renee washed the car when George arrived

(simple past) 2. Renee had washed the car when George arrived.

(past perfect) In (1), she waited until George arrived and then washed

the car. In (2), she had already finished washing the car by the time he arrived.

In sentences expressing condition and result, the past perfect tense is used in the part that states the condition.

1. If I had done my exercises, I would have passed the test.

2. I think George would have been elected if he hadn't sounded so pompous.

Future Perfect Tense The future perfect tense designates action that will have

been completed at a specified time in the future. 1. Saturday I will finish my housework. (simple

future) 2. By Saturday noon, I will have finished my

housework. (future perfect)

~~ ______________________ E_ss_e_llt_ia_l_s~of_E_l~lg~li_sh __ La_l~lg~u~ag~e

Review' 1. Judy saved thirty dollars. (past) 2. Judy will save thirty dollars. (future) 3. Judy has saved thirty dollars. (present perfect) 4. Judy had saved thirty dollars by the end of last

month. (past perfect) 5. Judy will have saved thirty dollars by the end of

this month. (future perfect) Notice: There can be only one "would have" action

group in a sentence. .

Passive Verb Tenses

Simple Present Active: The company ships the computers to many foreign

countries. Passive: Computers are shipped to many foreign countries

Present Progressive Active: The chef is preparing the food. Passive: The food is being prepared. Simple Past Active: The delivery man delivered the package yesterday. Passive: The package was delivered yesterday.

Past Progressive Active: The producer was making an announcement. Passive: An announcement was being made.

Future Active:

Essentials of English Language ~

Our representative will pick up the computer. Passive: The computer will be picked up.

Present Perfect Active: Someone has made the arrangements for us. Passive: The arrangements have been made for us.

Past Perfect Active: They had given us visas for three months. Passive: They had been given visas for three months.

Future Perfect Active: By next month we will have finished this job. Passive: By next month this job will have been finished.

Modals Active: You can use the computer. Passive: The computer can be used.

Active Verb Tenses

Simple Present Present or Action Condition I hear you. Here comes the bus. General Truths

~~ ______________________ E_ss_en_t_ia_ls_o~if_E_n~g~li_sh_-L_a_n~g~u~ag~e

There are thirty days in September. Non-action; Habitual Action ' I like music. I run on Tuesdays and Sundays. Future Time The train leaves at 4:00 p.m.

Present Progressive Activity in Progress I am playing soccer now. Verbs of Perception He is feeling sad.

Simple Past Competed Action We visited the museum yesterday. Completed Condition The weather was rainy last week.

Past Progressive Past Action that took place over a period of time They were climbing for twenty-seven days. Past Action interrupted by another We were eating dinner when she told me.

Future

With will/won't - Activity or event that will or won't exist or happen in the future

I'll get up late tomorrow. I won't get up early. With going to - future in relation to circumstances in the

present I'm hungry. I'm going to get something to eat.

Present Perfect

With verbs of state that begin in the past and lead up to and include the present

Essentials of English Language 139 He has lived here for many years. To express habitual or continued action He has worn glasses all his life. With events occurring at an indefinite or unspecified time

in the past - with ever, never, before Have you ever been to Tokyo before?

Present Perfect Progressive To express duration of an action that began in the past,

has continued into the present, and may continue into the future

David has been working for two hours, and he hasn't finished yet.

Past Perfect To describe a past event or condition completed before another

event in the past When I arrived home, he had already called. In reported speech Jane said that she had gone to the movies.

Future Perfect To express action that will be completed by or before a

specified time in the future By next month we will have finished the job. He won't have finished his work until 2:00.

Verb Tense Consistency

Controlling Shifts in Verb Tense Throughout this part on verb tense, example sentences

with nonstandard or inconsistent usage have verbs in dark ink.

Writing often involves telling stories. Sometimes we narrate a story as our main purpose in writing; sometimes we include brief anecdotes or hypothetical scenarios as illustrations or reference points in an essay.

~~ ______________________ E_,_~s_e'_lt_ia_l_s~of_E_'~lg~l_is_h_L_a~llg~u_a~g~e

Even an essay that does not explicitly tell a story involves implied time frames for the actions discussed and states described. Changes in verb tense help readers understand the temporal relationships among various narrated events. But unnecessary or inconsistent shifts in tense can cause confusion. Generally, writers maintain one .tense for the main discourse and indicate changes in time frame by changing tense relative to that primary tense, which is usually either simple past or simple present. Even apparently non-narrative writing should employ verb tenses consistently and clearly.

General guideline: Do not shift from one tense to another if the time frame for each action or state is the same.

Examples: The ocean contains rich minerals that washed

down from rivers and streams. Contains is present tense, referring to a current state;

washed down is past, but should be present (wash down) because the minerals are currently continuing to wash down.

Corrected: The ocean contains rich minerals that wash down from rivers and streams.

About noon the sky darkened, a breeze sprang up, and a low rumble announces the approaching storm.

Darkened and sprang up are past tense verbs; announces is present but should be past (announced) to maintain consistency within the time frame.

Corrected: About noon the sky darkened, a breeze sprang up, and a low rumble announced the approaching storm.

Yesterday we had walked to school but later rode the bus home.

Had walked is past perfect tense but should be past to maintain consistency within the time frame (yesterday); rode is past, r...ferring to an action completed before the current time frame.

Essentials of English Language 141 Corrected: Yesterday we walked to school but later rode

the bus home. General guideline: Do shift tense to indicate a change in

time frame from one action or state to another. Examples:

The children love their new tree house, which they built themselves. Love is present tense, referring to a current state (they still love it now;) built is past, referring to an action completed before the current time frame (they are not still building it.)

Before they even began deliberations, many jury members had reached a verdict.

Began is past tense, referring to an action completed before the current time frame; had reached is past perfect, referring to action from a time frame before that of another past event (the action of reaching was completed before the action of beginning.)

Workers are installing extra loudspeakers because the music in tonight's concert will need amplification.

Are installing is present progressive, referring to an ongoing action in the current time frame (the workers are still installing, and have not finished;) will need is future, referring to action expected to begin after the current time frame (the concert will start in the future, and that's when it will need amplification.) Controlling Shifts in a Paragraph or Essay

General guideline: Establish a primary tense for the main discourse, and use occasional shifts to other tenses to indicate changes in time frame.

Hints: Rely on past tense to narrate events and to refer

to an author or an author's ideas as historical entities (biographical information about a historical

~~ ______________________ E_ss_e_llt_ia_l_s~of_E_l~lg~ll_'sh __ La_ll~g~u~ag~e figure or narration of developments in an author's ideas over time).

Use present tense to state facts, to refer to perpetual or habitual actions, and to discuss your own ideas or those expressed by an author in a particular work. Also use present tense to describe action in a literary work, movie, or other fictional narrative. Occasionally, for dramatic effect, you may wish to narrate an event in present tense as though it were happening now. If you do, use present tense consistently throughout the narrative, making shifts only where appropriate.

Future action may be expressed in a variety of ways, including the use of will, shall, is going to, are about to, tomorrow and other adverbs of time, and a wide range of contextual cues.

Using Other Tenses in Conjunction with Simple Tenses

It is not always easy (or especially helpful) to try to distinguish perfect and/or progressive tenses from simple ones in isolation, for example, the difference between simple past progressive ("She was eating an apple") and present perfect progressive ("She has been eating an apple"). Distinguishing these sentences in isolation is possible, but the differences between them make clear sense only in the context of other sentences since the time-distinctions suggested by different tenses are relative to the time frame implied by the verb tenses in surrounding sentences or clauses.

Example 1: Simple past narration with perfect and progressive elements

On the day in question ... By the time Tom noticed the doorbell, it had already rung

three times. As usual, he had been listening to loud music on his stereo. He turned the stereo down and stood up to answer the door. An old man was standing on the steps. The man began to speak slowly, asking for directions.

Essentials of English Language ~ In this example, the progressive verbs had been listening

and was standing suggest action underway at the time some other action took place. The stereo-listening was underway when the doorbell rang. The standing on the steps was underway when the door was opened. The past perfect progressive verb had been listening suggests action that began in the time frame prior to the main narrative time frame and that was still underway as another action began.

If the primary narration is in the present tense, then the present progressive or present perfect progressive is used to indicate action that is or has been underway as some other action begins. This narrative style might be used to describe a scene from a novel, movie, or play, since action in fictional narratives is conventionally treated as always present. For example, we refer to the scene in Hamlet in which the prince first speaks (present) to the ghost of his dead father or the final scene in Spike Lee's Do the Right Thing, which takes place (present) the day after Mookie has smashed (present perfect) the pizzeria window. If the example narrative were a scene in a play, movie, or novel, it might appear as follows.

Example 2: Simple present narration with perfect and progressive elements

In this scene ... By the time Tom notices the doorbell, it has already rung

three times. As usual, he has been listening to loud music on his stereo. He turns the stereo down and stands up to answer the door. An old man is standing on the steps. The man begins to speak slowly, asking for directions.

In this example as in the first one, the progressive verbs has been listening and is standing indicate action underway as some other action takes place. The present perfect progressive verb has been listening suggests action that began in the time frame prior to the main narrative time frame and that is still underway as another action begins. The remaining tense relationships parallel those in the first example.

~~ ______________________ E_ss_e_n_tia_l_s~of_E_l~lg~ll_sh __ La_n~g~u~ag~e_

In all of these cases, the progressive or -ing part of the verb merely indicates ongoing action, that is, action underway as another action occurs. The general comments about tense relationships apply to simple and perfect tenses, regardless of whether there is a progressive element involved.

It is possible to imagine a narrative based on a future time frame as well, for example, the predictions of a psychic or futurist. If the example narrative were spoken by a psychic, it might appear as follows.

Example 3: Simple future narration with perfect and progressive elements

Sometime in the future ... By the time Tom notices the doorbell, it will have already

rung three times. As usual, he will have been listening to loud music on his stereo. He will turn the stereo down and will stand up to answer the door. An old man will be standing on the steps. The man will begin to speak slowly, asking for directions.

In this example as in the first two, the progressive verbs will have been listening and will be standing indicate ongoing action. The future perfect progressive verb will have been listening suggests action that will begin in the time frame prior to the main narrative time frame and that will still be underway when another action begins. The verb notices here is in present-tense form, but the rest of the sentence and the full context of the narrative cue us to understand that it refers to future time. The remaining tense relationships parallel those in the first two examples.

General Guidelines for Use of Perfect Tenses In general the use of perfect tenses is determined by

their relationship to the tense of the primary narration. If the primary narration is in simple past, then action initiated before the time frame of the primary narration is described in past perfect. If the primary narration is in simple present, then action initiated before the time frame of the primary

Essentials of English Language f45 narration is described in present perfect. If the primary narration is in simple future, then action initiated before the time frame of the primary narration is described in fu ture perfect.

Past primary narration corresponds to Past Perfect (had + past participle) for earlier time frames.

Present primary narration corresponds to Present Perfect (has or have + past participle) for earlier time frames.

Future primary narration corresponds to Future Perfect (will have + past participle) for earlier time frames.

The present perfect is also m:ed to narrate action that began in real life in the past but is not completed, that is, may continue or may be repeated in the present or future. For example: "I have run in four marathons" (implication: "so far ... I may run in others"). This usage is distinct from the simple past, which is used for action that was completed in the past without possible continuation or repetition in the present or future. For example: "Before injuring my leg, I ran in four marathons" (implication: "My injury prevents me from running in any more marathons").

Time-orienting words and phrases like before, after, by the time, and others-when used to relate two or more actions in time-can be good indicators of the need for a perfect-tense verb in a sentence.

By the time the Senator finished (past) his speech, the audience had lost (past perfect) interest.

By the time the Senator finishes (present: habitual action) his speech, the audience has lost (present perfect) interest.

By the time the Senator finishes (present: suggesting future time) his speech, the audience will have lost (future perfect) interest.

After everyone had finished (past perfect) the main course, we offered (past) our guests dessert.

After everyone has finished (present perfect) the main course, we offer (presenf: habitual action) our guests dessert.

~L ______________________ E_ss_el_1t_ia_ls_o~if_E_n~g~li~sh~La~n~g~u~ag~e After everyone has finished (present perfect) the

main course, we will offer (future: specific one-time . action) our guests dessert.

Long before the sun rose (past), the birds had arrived (past perfect) at the feeder.

Long before the sun rises (present: habitual action), the birds have arrived (present perfect) at the feeder.

Long before the sun rises (present: suggesting future time), the birds will have arrived (future perfect) at the feeder.

Sample Paragraphs The main tense in this first sample is past. Tense shifts

are inappropriate and are indicated in bold. The gravel crunched and spattered beneath the wheels

of the bus as it swung into the station. Outside the window, shadowy figures peered at the bus through the darkness. Somewhere in the crowd, two, maybe three, people were waiting for me: a woman, her son, and possibly her husband. I could not prevent my imagination from churning out a picture of them, the town, and the place I will soon call home. Hesitating a moment, I rise from my seat, these images flashing through my mind. (adapted from a narrative)

Inappropriate shifts from past to present, such .?s those that appear in the paragraph, are sometimes hard to resist. The writer becomes drawn into the narrative and begins to relive the event as an ongoing experience. The inconsistency should be avoided, however. In the sample, will should be would, and rise should be rose.

The main tense in this second sample is present. Tense shifts-all appropriate-are indicated in bold.

A dragonfly rests on a branch overhanging a small stream this July morning. It is newly emerged from brown nymphal skin. As a nymph, it crept over the rocks of the stream bottom, feeding first on protozoa and mites, then, as it grew larger, on the young of other aquatic insects. Now

Essentials of English Language ~ an adult, it will feed on flying insects and eventually will mate. The mature dragonfly is completely transformed from the drab creature that once blended with underwater sticks and leaves. Its head, thorax, and abdomen glitter; its wings are iridescent in the sunlight. (adapted from an article in the magazine Wilderness)

This writer uses the present tense to describe the appearance of a dragonfly on a particular July morning. However, both past and future tenses are called for when she refers to its previous actions and to its predictable activity in the future.

Verbs with Helpers

Recent Past (Present Perfect) A conjugation of Have + [Verb + ed] describes an action

that began in the past and continues into the present or that occurred in the recent past.

Examples: The child has finished the candy. I have gone to college for one year. He has worked hard all day.

Distant Past (Past Perfect) Had + [Verb + ed] describes actions that began and

ended in the past. Examples: Mike had promised to repair Joe's bike. I had eaten dinner before he came.

Present Continuous Action (Present Progressive) Is + [Verb + ing] shows action that is in progress now

or is going to happen in the future. Examples: I am taking Spanish this semester. He is getting ready for the party this evening. Next week they are going to Florida.

~L _____________________ E_ss_e_ll_tffi_l_so~if_E_n~g_IL_sh_L_a_n~gu_a~g~e Past Continuous Action (Past Progressive)

Was + [Verb + ing] shows action that was in progress at a certain time in the past.

Examples: Yesterday I was working in the garden. He was smoking a pack a day before he quit. The dogs were barking all night.

Other Helping Verbs (Modals) [Helper] + [Verb], such as can, will, shall, may, could,

may, would, should, might must keep the same form. They do not change to agree with the subject.

Examples: I I you I he I can do that assignment easily. wei There are also modal phrases (some of which don't

change form), such as: Could Have + Verb Would Have + Verb Must Have + Verb (Not could "of" or would "of") Examples: I could have won the prize if I had entered the

contest. He must have bought the ticket already.

Or Used to + Verb Have to + Verb Have Got to + Verb Be Able to + Verb Ought to + Verb Be Supposed to + Verb

Essentials of English Language 149 Examples: I used to think that all dogs have fleas. I am supposed to come back next week.

VOICE AND MOOD

Active and Passive voice Verbs in the active voice show the subject acting. Verbs

in the passive voice show something else acting on the subject. Most writers consider the active voice more forceful and tend to stay away from passives unless they really need them.

Active: Tim killed the chicken hawk. Passive: The chicken hawk was killed by Tim.

Indicative, Imperative, and Subjunctive Mood: Most verbs we use are in the indicative mood, which

indicates something: Examples: He was here. I am hungry. She will bring her books. Some verbs are in the imperative mood, which

expresses commands or requests. Though it is not stated, the understood subject of imperative sentences is you.

Examples: Be here at seven o'clock. (Understood: You be here

at seven o'clock.) Cook me an omelette. (Understood: You cook me an

omelette.) Bring your books with you. (Understood: You bring

your books with you.) When verbs show something contrary to fact, they are

in the subjunctive mood. When you express a wish or something that is not actually true, use the past tense or past perfect tense; when using the verb 'to be' in the subjunctive, always use were rather than was:

!5cn~ ______________________ Es_s_en_t_ia_ls~of_E_n~g~li_sh __ La_n~g~u~ag,-e

Examples: If he were here ... (Implied: ... but he's not.) I wish I had something to eat. (Implied: ... but I don't.) It would be better if you had brought your books

with you. (Implied: ... but you haven't brought them.) Review

Indicative: I need some help. Imperative: Help me! Subjunctive: If I were smart, I'd call for help.

MOOD There are four simple moods,-the Infinitive, the

Indicative, the Imperative and the Subjunctive. The Mood of a verb denotes the mode or manner in which

it is used. Thus if it is used in its widest sense without reference to person or number, time or place, it is in the Infinitive Mood; as "To run." Here we are not told who does the running, when it is done, where it is done or anything about it.

When a verb is used to indicate or declare or ask a simple question or make any direct statement, it is in the Indicative Mood. "The boy loves his book." Here a direct statement is made concerning the boy. "Have you a pin?" Here a simple question is asked which calls for an answer.

When the verb is used to express a command or entreaty it is in the Imperative Mood as, "Go away." "Give me a penny."

When the verb is used to express doubt, supposition or uncertainty or when some future action depends upon a contingency, it is in the subjunctive mood; as, "If I come, he shall remain."

Many grammarians include a fifth mood called the potential to express power, possibility, liberty, necessity, will or duty. It is..formed by means of the auxiliaries may, can, ought and must, but in all cases it can be resolved into the indicative or subjunctive. Thus, in "I may write if I choose," "may write" is by some classified as in the potential mood, but in reality the phrase I may write is an indicative

Essentials of English Language rst one while the second clause, if I choose, is the expression of a condition upon which, not my liberty to write, depends, but my actual writing.

Verbs have two participles, the present or imperfect, sometimes called the active ending in ing and the past or perfect, often called the passive, ending in ed or d.

The infinitive expresses the sense of the verb in a substantive form, the participles in an adjective form; as "To rise early is healthful." "An early rising man." "The newly risen sun."

The participle in ing is frequently used as a substantive and consequently is equivalent to an infinitive; thus, "To rise early is healthful" and "Rising early is healthful" are the same.

The principal parts of a verb are the Present Indicative, Past Indicative and Past Participle; as:

Love Loved Loved Sometimes one or more of these parts are wanting, and

. then the verb is said to be defective. Present Past Passive Participle Can Could (Wanting) May Might 1/

Shall Should " Will Would " Ought Ought " Verbs may also be divided into principal and auxiliary.

A principal verb is that without which a sentence or clause can contain no assertion or affirmation. An auxiliary is a verb joined to the root or participles of a principal verb to express time and manner with greater precision than can be done by the tenses and moods in their simple form. Thus, the sentence, "I am writing an exercise; when I shall have finished it I shall read it to the class." has no meaning without the principal verbs writing, finished read; but the meaning is rendered more definite, especially with regard to time, by the auxiliary verbs am, have, shall. There are nine auxiliary or helping verbs, viz., Be, have, do, shall, will,

-s2l~ ______________________ E_ss_e_nt_~_l_s~of_E_n~g~li_sh __ La_n~g~u~ag~e_

may" can, ought, and must. They are called helping verbs, because it is by their aid the compound tenses are formed. TO BE

The verb To Be is the most important of the auxiliary verbs. It has eleven parts, viz., am, art, is, are, was, wast, were, wert; be, being and been. VOICE

The active voice is that form of the verb which shows the Subject not being acted upon but acting; as, "The cat catches mice." "Charity covers a multitude of sins. "The passive voice: When the action signified by a transitive verb is thrown back upon the agent, that is to say, when the subject of the verb denotes the recipient of the action, the verb is said to be in the passive voice.

"John was loved by his neighbors." Here John the subject is also the object affected by the loving, the action of the verb is thrown back on him, hence the compound verb was loved is said to be in the passive voice. The passive voice is formed by putting the perfect participle of any transitive verb with any of the eleven parts of the verb To Be. Active and Passive Voice Active Voice

In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb; the subject acts.

~ The dog bit the boy. ~

Pooja will present her research at the conference.

~ Scientists have conducted experiments to test the hypothesis.

.. -~ -Watching a framed, mobile world through a car's windshield reminds

me of watching a movie or TV.

Essentials of English Language ~ In each example, the subject of the sentence performs

the action expressed in the verb. Would you like to see examples of all the verb tenses

in active voice?

Passive Voice In sentences written in passive voice, the subject

receives the action expressed in the verb; the subject is acted upon. The agent performing the action may appear in a "by the ... " phrase or may be omitted.

(agent performing action has been omitted.) The~hedOg.

~ Research will be presented by Pooja at the conference.

~bY? Experiments have been conducted to test the hypothesis.

I ~d of watching a movie or TV by ;atching a:med, mo:e world through a car's windshield. Sometimes the use of passive voice can create awkward

sentences, as in the last example. Also, overuse of passive voice throughout an essay can cause your prose to seem flat and uninteresting. In scientific writing, however, passive voice is more readily accepted since using it allows one to write without using personal pronouns or the names of particular researchers as the subjects of sentences. This practice helps to create the appearance of an objective, fact-based discourse because writers can present research and conclusions without attributing them to particular agents. Instead, the writing appears to convey information that is not limited or biased by individual perspectives or personal interests.

You can recognize passive-voice expressions because the verb phrase will always include a form of be, such as am, is, was, were, are, or been. The presence of a be-verb, however, does not necessarily mean that the sentence is in

-s4l~ ______________________ E_s_s_el_1t_ia_l_s~of_E_n~g~l_is_h_L_a~llg~u_a~g~e

passive voice. Another way to recognize passive-voice sentences is that they may include a "by the ... " phrase after the verb; the agent performing the action, if named, is the object of the preposition in this phrase. Choosing Active Voice

In most nonscientific writing situations, active voice is preferable to passive for the majority of your sentences. Even in scientific writing, overuse of passive voice or use of passive voice in long and complicated sentences can cause readers to lose interest or to become confused. Sentences in active voice are generally-though not always- clearer and more direct than those in passive voice.

Passive (mdlrect) Active (direct)

~ Over one-t3 applicants to the school The entrance exam was failed by over one-third of the applicants to the school. failed the entrance exam.

~ The brakes were slammed on by her as ~ She slammed on the brakes as the car sped the car sped downhill. downhill

~by? -----...

Your bicycle has been damaged. I have damaged your bicycle. (agent ornltted)

Sentences in active voice are also more concise than those in passive voice because fewer words are required to express action in active voice than in passive.

Passive (more wordy) ActIVe (more concise)

Act~ bill is being considered The committ~tion on by the committee. the bill.

B~~ick will have By then, the sound ea:" have be completely remixed by the completely remixed the soun track. sound engineers.

Changing Passive to Active If you want to change a passive-voice sentence to active

voice, find the agent in a "by the ... " phrase, or consider carefully who or what is performing the action expressed

Essentials of English Language rss in the verb. Make that agent the subject of the sentence, and change the verb accordingly. Sometimes you will need to infer the agent from the surrounding sentences which provide context.

Passive Voice Agent Charged to ActIVe Voice

The b~ing read by most of the Most ofth~bOOk':' class most of the class. y--by ?

Agent not specified; most ~. Results will be published In hk~ agents The researchers WI! pu fish their

the next issue of the journal. su as results in the next issue of journal. "the researchers

TheClA A policy 0 whitewashing and director The CIA dire;;tor and his se cover-up h been pursued b and hiS clos advisors have pursued a p Hcy of the CIA director and his close advisors whitewashing and cover-up. advisors.

~bY? agent not ~ specified; MistaKes were made. most likely We made mistakes.

agents such as "we"

Choosing Passive Voice While active voice helps to create clear and direct

sentences, sometimes writers find that using an indirect expression is rhetorically effective in a given situation, so they choose passive voice. Also, writers in the sciences conventionally use passive voice more often than writers in other discourses. Passive voice makes sense when the agent performing the action is obvious, unimportant, or unknown or when a writer wishes to postpone mentioning the agent until the last part of the sentence or to avoid mentioning the agent at all.

The passive voice is effective in such circumstances because it highlights the action and what is acted upon rather than the agent performing the action.

Active Passive The dispatcher is notifying police that three Police are bemg notified that three prisoners prisoners have escaoed. ha"e escaoed. Surgeons successfully J'erformed a new A new experimentallivertransplant operation exoerimentalliver-transplant ooerallon yesterday was l'

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The dispatcher is notifiJing police that three prisoners have escaped. Police are being notified that three prisoners have escaped.

Surgeons successfully performed a new experimental liver-transplant operation yesterday. A new experimental liver-transplant operation was performed successfully yesterday.

1/ Authorities make rules to be broken," he said defiantly. "Rules are made to be broken," he said defiantly.

In each of these examples, the passive voice makes sense because the agent is relatively unimportant compared to the action itself and what is acted upon. Changing Active to Passive

If you want to change an active-voice sentence to passive voice, consider carefully who or what is performing the action expressed in the verb, and then make that agent the object of a "by the ... " phrase. Make what is acted upon the subject of the sentence, and change the verb to a form of be + past participle. Including an explicit "by the ... " phrase is optional.

Active Voice Aaent Changed to Passive Voice The

The committee's~dation The pres9,0fficer vetoed presiding the committ 's officer was vetoed by the presiding officer. recommendation.

The lea~ fair The A fair reso~e crisis is being leaders resolution to the crisiS. sought. (by the leaders)

The Tra~red SCi~ave discovered scientists traces of i e on the surface on the surface of Mars. (by scientists) of Mars.

In each of these examples, the passive voice is useful for highlighting the action and what is acted upon instead of the agent.

Some Suggestions A void starting a sentence in active voice and then

Shifting to passive.

Essentials of English Language rs7 Unnecessaru shm in voice Revised Many customers in the restaurant found the Many customers in the restaurantfound coffee too bitter to drink, but it was still the coffee too bitter to drink, but they still ordered frequentlv. ordered it frequently. He tried to act cool when he slipped in the He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but he was still laughed at by the puddle, but the other students still laughed other students. athim.

A void dangling modifiers caused by the use of passive voice. A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence.

Dan!f(iin!i( modiffer with passive voice Revised To save time, the paper was written on a To save time, Kristin wrote computer. (Who was saving time? The the paper on a computer. paper?) Seeking to layoff workers without taking the Seeking to layoff workers blame, consultants were hired to break the bad without taking the blame, news. Who was seeking to layoff workers? the CEO hired consultants The consultants?) to break the bad news.

Don't trust the grammar-checking programs in word-processing software. Many grammar checkers flag all passive constructions, but you may want to keep some that are flagged. Trust your judgement, or ask another human being for their opinion about which sentence sounds best.

VERBALS: GERUNDS, PARTICIPLES, AND INFINITIVES

Gerunds A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as

a noun. The term verbal indicates that a gerund, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since a gerund functions as a noun, it occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarily would, for example: subject, direct object, subject complement, and object of preposition.

Gerund as subject: Traveling might satisfy your desire for new

experiences. (Traveling is the gerund.)

~L _____________________ E_ss_e_nt_ia_ls_o~if_E_n~g_lis_h_L_a_n~gu_a~g~e

The study abroad programme might satisfy your desire for new experiences. (The gerund has been removed.)

Gerund as direct object: They do not appreciate my singing. (The gerund

is singing.) They do not appreciate my assistance. (The gerund

has been removed) Gerund as subject complement: My cat's favourite activity is sleeping. (The gerund

is sleeping.) My cat's favourite food is salmon. (The gerund has

been removed.) Gerund as object of preposition: The police arrested him for speeding. (The gerund

is speeding.) . The police arrested him for criminal activity. (The

gerund has been removed.) A Gerund Phrase is a group of words consisting of a

gerund and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indir