How to Write a Paper with Examples Dr. Steve Wallace

How to Write a PaperHow to Write a Paperwith Exampleswith Examples

Dr. Steve WallaceDr. Steve Wallace

The IMRaD FormatThe IMRaD Format– IIntroductionntroduction– MMethodsethods– RResultsesults– AAndnd– DDiscussioniscussion

The IMRAD format was developed by The IMRAD format was developed by Louis Pasteur to disprove the idea of Louis Pasteur to disprove the idea of spontaneous generationspontaneous generation

IMRAD format lets people reproduce IMRAD format lets people reproduce experimentsexperiments

ICMJE, “Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted toBiomedical Journals: Writing and Editing for BiomedicalPublication”, section IV.A.1.a:

“The text of observational and experimental articles is usually(but not necessarily) divided into the following sections:Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion. This so-called“IMRAD” structure is not an arbitrary publication format butrather a direct reflection of the process of scientific discovery.Long articles may need subheadings within some sections(especially Results and Discussion) to clarify their content.”

http://www.icmje.org

The IMRaD format

IMRaD manuscripts should be written in the IMRaD manuscripts should be written in the following order to achieve clarity and following order to achieve clarity and consistency:consistency:

Write during the researchWrite during the research MethodsMethods ResultsResultsWrite after selecting the target journalWrite after selecting the target journal IntroductionIntroduction DiscussionDiscussion AbstractAbstract TitleTitle

The introduction contains the The introduction contains the minimal amount of minimal amount of backgroundbackground to understand the reason for your to understand the reason for your study study

DO NOT DO NOT write a comprehensive write a comprehensive literature review of the fieldliterature review of the field

Cite reviews that readers can Cite reviews that readers can read for more informationread for more information

Technical termsTechnical terms should be should be defineddefined

Present the problemPresent the problem, research , research question or hypotheses to explain question or hypotheses to explain the reason for the studythe reason for the study

Briefly explain how you answered Briefly explain how you answered this problem and what happened this problem and what happened (1–2 sentences for each)(1–2 sentences for each)

Motivation Knowledge Gap

Literature Review

Research Question

Chemosphere (doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.06.045;)

Citing the LiteratureCiting the Literature

Citations:Citations: Must be Must be balancedbalanced, , current,current, and and relevantrelevant Avoid citing papers that do not directly relate Avoid citing papers that do not directly relate

to your researchto your research Cite all related papers, not only your own or Cite all related papers, not only your own or

those that support your hypothesis, but also those that support your hypothesis, but also papers that contradict your findings or papers that contradict your findings or propose alternative ideaspropose alternative ideas

Cite only the most recent papers showing a Cite only the most recent papers showing a particular finding, unless referring to an older particular finding, unless referring to an older paper to explain the change of thought in the paper to explain the change of thought in the field or the development of a particular field or the development of a particular methodmethod

Common Mistakes in Common Mistakes in Citing LiteratureCiting Literature

Don’t cite one source too muchDon’t cite one source too much Don’t cite irrelevant literatureDon’t cite irrelevant literature Don’t over-cite definitionsDon’t over-cite definitions Don’t misattributeDon’t misattribute Don’t cite the citationDon’t cite the citation Don’t cite implications as factsDon’t cite implications as facts Don’t quote too muchDon’t quote too much

Original SentenceOriginal Sentence: It is trickier to : It is trickier to define plagiarism when you summarize define plagiarism when you summarize and paraphrase. They are not the same, and paraphrase. They are not the same, but they blend so seamlessly that you but they blend so seamlessly that you may not even be aware when you are may not even be aware when you are drifting from summary into paraphrase, drifting from summary into paraphrase, then across the line into plagiarism. No then across the line into plagiarism. No matter your intention, close paraphrase matter your intention, close paraphrase may count as plagiarism, even when may count as plagiarism, even when you cite the source.you cite the source.

The Craft of Research (Booth, Colomb, and Williams 1995,169)

Examples of Paraphrasing

Plagiarized VersionPlagiarized Version: It is harder to : It is harder to describe plagiarism when summary and describe plagiarism when summary and paraphrase are involved, because they paraphrase are involved, because they differ, their boundaries blur, and a differ, their boundaries blur, and a writer may not know that she has writer may not know that she has crossed the boundary from summary to crossed the boundary from summary to paraphrase and from paraphrase to paraphrase and from paraphrase to plagiarism. Regardless of intention, a plagiarism. Regardless of intention, a close paraphrase is plagiarism, even close paraphrase is plagiarism, even when the source is cited. This when the source is cited. This paragraph, for instance, would count as paragraph, for instance, would count as plagiarism of that one (Booth, Colomb, plagiarism of that one (Booth, Colomb, and Williams,169).and Williams,169).

Borderline Plagiarized VersionBorderline Plagiarized Version: : Because it is difficult to distinguish Because it is difficult to distinguish the border between summary and the border between summary and paraphrase, a writer can drift paraphrase, a writer can drift dangerously close to plagiarism dangerously close to plagiarism without knowing it, even when the without knowing it, even when the writer cites a source and never writer cites a source and never meant to plagiarize. Many might meant to plagiarize. Many might consider this paragraph a paraphrase consider this paragraph a paraphrase that crosses the line (Booth, Colomb, that crosses the line (Booth, Colomb, and Williams,169).and Williams,169).

Correctly Summarized VersionCorrectly Summarized Version: : According to Booth, Colomb, and According to Booth, Colomb, and Williams, writers sometimes Williams, writers sometimes plagiarize unconsciously because plagiarize unconsciously because they think they are summarizing, they think they are summarizing, when in fact they are closely when in fact they are closely paraphrasing (which counts as paraphrasing (which counts as plagiarism), even when done plagiarism), even when done unintentionally and sources are cited unintentionally and sources are cited (169).(169).

Identifying PlagiarismIdentifying PlagiarismBelow are two versions of the same information, adapted from the Introduction in McNeill et al. (1997). In Version 2, identify where the writer has plagiarized by writing ideas in his or her own voice that originated in another document (as demonstrated in Version 1).

Version 1: Russel and Fillery (1996), using a stem-feeding technique, showed that in situ 15N-labelling of lupin plants growing in soil cores enabled total below-ground N to be estimated under relatively undisturbed conditions; but they indicted that the technique was not adaptable to all plants, particularly pasture species.

Version 2: Russel and Fillery (1996), using a stem-feeding technique, showed that in situ 15N-labelling of lupin plants growing in soil cores enabled total below-ground N to be estimated under relatively undisturbed conditions. However, this technique is not adaptable to all plants, particularly pasture species.

Verbs in the Literature ReviewModifying strength of claims with verbs:

JonesJonessuggestedsuggested

that that XXmay may influenceinfluence

YYWeakWeak

foundfound influencedinfluencedfoundfound influencesinfluences StronStrongg

Materials and MethodsMaterials and Methods

Subheadings for Subheadings for methodsmethods and and materialsmaterials

Describe methods in the past Describe methods in the past tensetense

Novel methods must be described Novel methods must be described so a capable researcher can so a capable researcher can reproduce the experimentreproduce the experiment

Established methods can be Established methods can be referencedreferenced

Materials and MethodsMaterials and Methods

Suppliers and manufacturers Suppliers and manufacturers must be provided, including must be provided, including locations if requestedlocations if requested

Statistical methods should be Statistical methods should be describeddescribed

The Journal of Clinical Investigation (doi:10.1172/JCI37155;)

Materials described first

Past tense

All required information provided

Clear subheadings

Reference to previous study andsupplementary materials to save

space

Suppliers and locations


Describe results in the past tense, but use the Describe results in the past tense, but use the present tense to refer to figures and tables.present tense to refer to figures and tables.

Save discussion of implications for the Save discussion of implications for the discussion section. discussion section.

If the journal accepts a combined If the journal accepts a combined results/discussion, present results first within a results/discussion, present results first within a subsection.subsection.

Use figures and tables to summarize data Use figures and tables to summarize data except where data can be more easily except where data can be more easily summarized in the text.summarized in the text.

Do not repeat data among figures, tables, and Do not repeat data among figures, tables, and text.text.


Combined results/discussion

Clearsubheadings,in a logical

order to makea story

Results presented firstwithin a subsection, with

graphics summarizingdata

Present tense torefer to table

Past tense fordescribing results


Some readers will read the paper by Some readers will read the paper by looking at the figures and reading the looking at the figures and reading the legends.legends.

Comply with journal restrictions on the Comply with journal restrictions on the number of display items. number of display items.

Put less important findings in an Put less important findings in an appendix.appendix.

Avoid repeating display information in Avoid repeating display information in texttext

Label graph axes, table columns, and Label graph axes, table columns, and rows and components of diagramsrows and components of diagrams

Show trendlines, scale bars, and Show trendlines, scale bars, and statistical significancestatistical significance

Legends should stand alone and be in Legends should stand alone and be in the present tense (except when the present tense (except when describing methods)describing methods)

Tables are a great way to present large amounts of necessarydata with minimal description required

Truncation of a table in a paper published in The Journal of Clinical Investigation(doi:10.1172/JCI37622;)

Tables present large amounts of necessary data with minimal description needed

Clear, concise heading

Data divided into categories forclarity

Standard deviations presented

Marine Chemistry (doi:10.1016/j.marchem.2009.04.004;)

Data unclear: needs to be Error bars

separated into panels

Clearly labeled axes

Clear legends that can stand alone

Marine Chemistry (doi:10.1016/j.marchem.2009.04.004;)


When to Use Tables, When to Use Tables, Graphs, and Figures…Graphs, and Figures… When to use…When to use…

Tables: Tables: when there iswhen there is a a large amount of large amount of repetitive datarepetitive data that makes a critical point. To that makes a critical point. To compress and illustrate lots of datacompress and illustrate lots of data

Graphs: Graphs: when data show when data show pronounced trendspronounced trends that are easy to see in graphical formthat are easy to see in graphical form

Figures: Figures: when when photographs are primary photographs are primary datadata, such as photographs of cell structures or , such as photographs of cell structures or electron micrographs of a silicon substrate. Or electron micrographs of a silicon substrate. Or when illustrations point out a critical piece of when illustrations point out a critical piece of evidenceevidence

When When NotNot to Use Tables, to Use Tables, Graphs, and Figures…Graphs, and Figures…Tables: Tables: when data can be summarized in one when data can be summarized in one

or two sentences. When there is a small or two sentences. When there is a small amount of data or when data is repetitiveamount of data or when data is repetitive

Graphs: Graphs: when data matches expectations. when data matches expectations. When compared data is similar. When you When compared data is similar. When you are trying to make boring data look betterare trying to make boring data look better

Figures: Figures: when the figure can be described in when the figure can be described in a few short sentences. When the photo is a few short sentences. When the photo is unclear or the drawing unnecessaryunclear or the drawing unnecessary

How to Make Good How to Make Good TablesTables

– Clear brief labels, such as the title, Clear brief labels, such as the title, column headings, and table entries column headings, and table entries

– Put labels to the top and left and data Put labels to the top and left and data below and to the rightbelow and to the right

– Size should be large enough to make Size should be large enough to make the point, and no morethe point, and no more

– Eliminate unnecessary data points that Eliminate unnecessary data points that detract from the main point of the tabledetract from the main point of the table

How to Present TablesHow to Present Tables

Bad Table 1Bad Table 1. This . This table is bad table is bad because it could because it could be easily be easily summarized with summarized with the sentence the sentence “Growth was only “Growth was only observed between observed between 30-50 °C.”30-50 °C.”

Temp (°C)Temp (°C) Growth Growth (mm)(mm)

-50-50 00

-40-40 00

-30-30 00

-20-20 00

-10-10 00

00 00

1010 00

2020 00

3030 66

4040 77

5050 66

6060 00


OrganismOrganism

Growth Growth under under

aerobic aerobic conditionsconditions

Growth under Growth under anaerobic anaerobic conditionsconditions

Streptomyces Streptomyces griseusgriseus ++ --

S. coelicolorS. coelicolor ++ --

S. nocolorS. nocolor -- ++

S. everycolorS. everycolor ++ --

S. greenicusS. greenicus -- ++

S. rainbowenskyS. rainbowensky ++ --

Bad Table 2. This table is bad because it makes data more complicated rather than less complicated. The organisms are simply divided into two categories. It would be easier to simply write a sentence dividing them into two categories.

How to Present TablesHow to Present TablesDeterminationDetermination S. S.

flouricolorflouricolorS. griseusS. griseus S. S.

coelicolorcoelicolorS. S. nocolornocolor

Optimal growth Optimal growth temperature (°C)temperature (°C) -10-10 2424 2828 9292

Color of myceliumColor of mycelium TanTan GrayGray RedRed PurplePurple

Antibiotic producedAntibiotic produced FluoricillinmyFluoricillinmycincin

StreptomyciStreptomycinn

RholmondelaRholmondelayy

NomycinNomycin

Yield of antibiotic Yield of antibiotic (mg/ml)(mg/ml) 4,1084,108 7878 22 00

Bad Table 3. This table is bad because the arrangement of the labels makes the data difficult to read. The labels across the top should be switched with the labels along the left side.


OrganismOrganism

Optimal Optimal growth growth

temp (°C)temp (°C)

Color of Color of myceliumyceliu

mmAntibiotic Antibiotic producedproduced

Yield of Yield of antibiotic antibiotic (mg/ml)(mg/ml)

S. fluoricolorS. fluoricolor-10-10 TanTan FluoricillinmyFluoricillinmy

cincin 4,1084,108

S. griseusS. griseus 2424 GrayGray StreptomycinStreptomycin 7878

S. colicolorS. colicolor 2828 RedRed RholmondelayRholmondelay 22

S. nocolorS. nocolor 9292 PurplePurple NomycinNomycin 00

Good Table 1. Flipping around the labels of Bad Table 3 makes the data much easier to read. Good arrangement of table data is essential.

How to Present TablesHow to Present TablesVentilatioVentilation n conditioncondition

Mean Mean pulmonarpulmonary arterial y arterial pressure pressure (mmHg)(mmHg)

PulmonarPulmonary vascular y vascular resistance resistance (mmHg/lit(mmHg/liter/min/kg)er/min/kg)

Mean Mean systemic systemic arterial arterial pressure pressure (mmHg)(mmHg)

Heart Heart rate rate (beats/mi(beats/min)n)

Cardiac Cardiac output output (liter/min/(liter/min/kg)kg)

Normoxic Normoxic ControlControl

22.322.3

(4.4)(4.4)52.752.7

(14.4)(14.4)74.174.1

(11.2)(11.2)206.3206.3

(43.9)(43.9)0.380.38

(0.08)(0.08)

Respiratory Respiratory alkalosisalkalosis

18.6*18.6*

(4.2)(4.2)48.148.1

(13.2)(13.2)75.075.0

(13.6)(13.6)217.0217.0

(44.0)(44.0)0.340.34

(0.06)(0.06)

Hypoxic Hypoxic controlcontrol

40.140.1

(7.6)(7.6)111.7111.7

(86.6)(86.6)87.887.8

(13.3)(13.3)241.1241.1

(45.7)(45.7)0.390.39

(0.12)(0.12)


26.7†26.7†

(5.9)(5.9)76.9†76.9†

(51.1)(51.1)76.7†76.7†

(8.5)(8.5)260.2260.2

(39.1)(39.1)0.330.33

(0.10)(0.10)

Metabolic Metabolic alkalosisalkalosis

26.8†26.8†

(4.7)(4.7)74.8†74.8†

(39.1)(39.1)75.3†75.3†

(12.8)(12.8)245.0245.0

(50.8)(50.8)0.370.37

(0.14)(0.14)

HypocapniHypocapniaa

43.7†43.7†

(7.1)(7.1)172.1†172.1†

(78.3)(78.3)87.187.1

(7.0)(7.0)239.4239.4

(31.7)(31.7)0.24†0.24†

(0.08)(0.08)

Good Table 2. The data in this table is complex but arranged for scanning from left to right. The standard deviations are in parentheses so are easy to ignore.

Data are means and (standard deviations) * P < 0.05 vs. normoxic control, † P < 0.05 vs. hypoxic control

How to Present Tables How to Present Tables

Ventilation Ventilation conditioncondition

Mean Mean pulmonpulmonary ary arterial arterial pressurpressure e (mmHg)(mmHg)

Pulmonary Pulmonary vascular vascular resistance resistance (mmHg/lite(mmHg/liter/min/kg)r/min/kg)

Mean Mean systemic systemic arterial arterial pressure pressure (mmHg)(mmHg)

Heart rate Heart rate (beats/min(beats/min))

Cardiac Cardiac output output (liter/min/kg(liter/min/kg))

Normoxic Normoxic ControlControl

22.3 ± 22.3 ± 4.44.4 52.7 ± 14.452.7 ± 14.4 74.1 ± 11.274.1 ± 11.2 206.3 ± 206.3 ±

43.943.9 0.38 ± 0.080.38 ± 0.08


18.6 ± 18.6 ± 4.2*4.2* 48.1 ± 13.248.1 ± 13.2 75.0 ± 13.675.0 ± 13.6 217.0 ± 217.0 ±

44.044.0 0.34 ± 0.060.34 ± 0.06

Hypoxic controlHypoxic control 40.1 ± 40.1 ± 7.67.6 111.7 ± 86.6111.7 ± 86.6 87.8 ± 13.387.8 ± 13.3 241.1 ± 241.1 ±

45.745.7 0.39 ± 0.120.39 ± 0.12


26.7 ± 26.7 ± 5.9†5.9† 76.9 ± 51.1†76.9 ± 51.1† 76.7 ± 8.5†76.7 ± 8.5† 260.2 ± 260.2 ±

39.139.1 0.33 ± 0.100.33 ± 0.10

Metabolic Metabolic alkalosisalkalosis

26.8 ± 26.8 ± 4.7†4.7† 74.8 ± 39.1†74.8 ± 39.1† 75.3 ± 12.8†75.3 ± 12.8† 245.0 ± 245.0 ±

50.850.8 0.37 ± 0.140.37 ± 0.14

HypocapniaHypocapnia 43.7 ± 43.7 ± 7.1†7.1†

172.1 ± 172.1 ± 78.3†78.3† 87.1 ± 7.087.1 ± 7.0 239.4 ± 239.4 ±

31.731.7 0.24 ± 0.080.24 ± 0.08

Good Table 3. Rearrangement of data in Good Table 2. Notice that the change in standard deviation numbers makes it easier to scan down columns, but harder to scan across each row. Also, the standard deviations are more difficult to ignore.

Data are means and (standard deviations) * P < 0.05 vs. normoxic control, † P < 0.05 vs. hypoxic control

How to How to Make Good Graphs:Make Good Graphs:

– Choose the appropriate type of graph to Choose the appropriate type of graph to display the datadisplay the data

– Eliminate any unnecessary lines, and Eliminate any unnecessary lines, and make sure everything is large enough to make sure everything is large enough to readread

How to Present Tables, How to Present Tables, Graphs, and FiguresGraphs, and Figures

Bad Graph 1. This graph doesn’t make sense, because I just entered in random values. If your graph doesn’t look better than this, don’t use it.


Bad Graph 2. This graph is bad because the underlying data for each of the three dogs is so similar. Each of the three lines follows the same general pattern. This table is useless and would be better as a single sentence.


Bad Graph 3. This graph is bad because the format of the graph is not suitable for the data. This data is numbers by date, but the radar chart turns it into a confusing mess. It would be much better as a line graph.


Good Graph 1. The data looks much better as a line graph. It is very easy to see that something big happened to Staphylococcus on the 10th of January.


Good Graph 2. Radar graphs can be useful for comparing the numerical measurements of a large number of factors between a few different subjects.


Good Graph 3. The saturation density for FBS stands out strongly in this graph at 250%, much higher than the others. Despite not knowing any details of the study or the substances graphed, the point is clear.

How to Make Good How to Make Good Figures:Figures:

– Figures can be drawings, photographs, or Figures can be drawings, photographs, or diagramsdiagrams

– Drawings are better than photographs for Drawings are better than photographs for animals and equipment animals and equipment

– For primary evidence such as radiographs, For primary evidence such as radiographs, micrographs, gel electrophoretograms, and micrographs, gel electrophoretograms, and polygraph recordings, photographs are bestpolygraph recordings, photographs are best

– Crop and enlarge photos to show what you Crop and enlarge photos to show what you want to show want to show

How to Present FiguresHow to Present Figures

Bad Figure 1. This figure is bad because it is a 3D representation of a box full of floating balls. Reading the caption only makes it more confusing. This is from a paper on glass transitions in polymer thin films.


Bad Figure 2. This figure is bad because it is a literal drawing of a metaphor. It does not add anything to the paper at all. This is from a paper on technomimetic molecules.


Bad Figure 3. This figure is bad because it does not add anything to the paper, except to help people remember the subject of a quantum-chain process that is made possible by ultra-fast energy transfer.


Good Figure 1. Good figures are basically works of art. This is an electron microscopy image of human red blood cells.


Good Figure 2. This is the split end of a human hair.


Good Figure 3. This is the alveolar surface in a human lung.


Good Figure 4. This is a diagram of carpal tunnel syndrome.

Naming Tables, Graphs, Naming Tables, Graphs, and Figuresand Figures Table headings, graph, and figure Table headings, graph, and figure

captionscaptions– Captions are complete, grammatically Captions are complete, grammatically

correct sentences with periods at the endcorrect sentences with periods at the end Table 1. The complete data for cactus Table 1. The complete data for cactus

growth patterns is presented here.growth patterns is presented here. Graph 1. Trends of cactus growth patterns Graph 1. Trends of cactus growth patterns

are displayed by region.are displayed by region. Figure 1. This is an illustration of a cactus Figure 1. This is an illustration of a cactus

barb.barb.

Which Graph or Chart Which Graph or Chart Should You Choose?Should You Choose?

–Your Your headingheading should tell should tell people what you want them to people what you want them to look for on a chart. look for on a chart.

–Once you have an Once you have an action action statementstatement as a heading, look as a heading, look at the at the verbsverbs to determine the to determine the best chart to use.best chart to use.

→→ Showing Change Over Time Showing Change Over Time

Look for a keyword:Look for a keyword:– GrowGrow– DeclineDecline– Trends Trends

Line charts are best when a variable has Line charts are best when a variable has more than four or five data pointsmore than four or five data points

The slope of the line quickly tells the The slope of the line quickly tells the audience the direction of the trends. audience the direction of the trends.

Line chart

→→ Comparing Items at One Point in Time Comparing Items at One Point in Time

Look for keywords:Look for keywords:– RanksRanks– ComparesCompares– Highest profitHighest profit– The lowest interest rateThe lowest interest rate– The most products soldThe most products sold– Rank variables from largest to smallest Rank variables from largest to smallest

Bar charts are often the best way to compare a set Bar charts are often the best way to compare a set of individual items or several sets of related items. of individual items or several sets of related items.

The bar's length corresponds to its ranking; the The bar's length corresponds to its ranking; the bar's label identifies the item.bar's label identifies the item.

Bar chart

→→ Comparing Parts of a Whole Comparing Parts of a Whole

Look for keywords: Look for keywords:

– PercentagePercentage– PortionPortion– ShareShare

The number of pie slices should not The number of pie slices should not be more than five, and each slice be more than five, and each slice should be easy to see and interpret.should be easy to see and interpret.

Pie chart

→→ Comparing Data by Geographic Comparing Data by Geographic LocationLocation

Look forLook for

Keywords: Keywords:

-Country-Country

-Area -Area

Distinguish among regions Distinguish among regions using different colors, using different colors, shadings, or symbols. shadings, or symbols.

Segmented bar chart

Additional Tips Additional Tips for for

Graphs and Charts:Graphs and Charts:

1. Show 1. Show one message per chartone message per chart in the in the headingheading. .

2. Make the 2. Make the most important text most important text largestlargest, the most important data lines , the most important data lines or sections darkest. or sections darkest.

3. Be accurate. Always start a 3. Be accurate. Always start a numerical axis at zeronumerical axis at zero. Compare . Compare only like variables. only like variables.

4. 4. EliminateEliminate all unnecessary all unnecessary detailsdetails. .

Tips for Graphs and Charts Tips for Graphs and Charts (continued)(continued)

5.5. Use no more than Use no more than four colorsfour colors per visual. per visual.

6. To focus attention, use color, shading, or 6. To focus attention, use color, shading, or images such as arrows to images such as arrows to highlight key highlight key wordswords or concepts. or concepts.

7. Write in 7. Write in upper and lower caseupper and lower case. Words . Words written in all capitals letters are hard to written in all capitals letters are hard to read. read.

8. Make bars and columns wider than the 8. Make bars and columns wider than the spaces between them. spaces between them.

Indicate the parameters described, Indicate the parameters described, e.g., e.g., “means±S.D”“means±S.D”

Indicate the statistical tests used to Indicate the statistical tests used to analyze dataanalyze data

Report exact Report exact p p values, values, e.g., e.g., use use ““pp=0.0035” rather than “=0.0035” rather than “pp<0.05”<0.05”

Only use the word “significant” when Only use the word “significant” when describing statistically significant describing statistically significant differences.differences.

The Journal of Clinical Investigation (doi:10.1172/JCI38289; reproduced with permission)

METHODS All statistics used described

Threshold for significancedefined

RESULTS

Significant(ly) only used fordescriptions of statistically significant

results

TABLES & LEGENDS Best to report actual p-values as this gives an indication ofthe likelihood that the null hypothesis is correct

Marine Chemistry (doi:10.1016/j.marchem.2009.04.004)

What do the results mean?What do the results mean? Begin by restating the research question or Begin by restating the research question or

hypotheses presented in the introductionhypotheses presented in the introduction

Summarize findings indicating how your study has Summarize findings indicating how your study has advanced the fieldadvanced the field

Begin with the most important or relevant finding, Begin with the most important or relevant finding, moving to less important findingsmoving to less important findings

Use past tense to describe any results (current and Use past tense to describe any results (current and published) and present tense to describe their published) and present tense to describe their implicationsimplications

Minimize repetition in the results section—briefMinimize repetition in the results section—briefdescriptions of the main findings are all that are descriptions of the main findings are all that are

requiredrequiredbefore describing their implications, significance, andbefore describing their implications, significance, andrelevancerelevance

Avoid making statements not supported by your data or Avoid making statements not supported by your data or that overstate the importance of your findingsthat overstate the importance of your findings

““SuggestsSuggests” is preferable to “” is preferable to “showsshows”; never use “”; never use “provesproves””

Outline any controversies or inconsistencies—it isOutline any controversies or inconsistencies—it isOK to guess on the causes of these, but not too broadlyOK to guess on the causes of these, but not too broadly

Describe any limitations of the study Describe any limitations of the study (e.g., (e.g., numbers numbers of subjects or samples available, lack of available of subjects or samples available, lack of available tests for further validationtests for further validation))

Final paragraph (or additional conclusions section): Final paragraph (or additional conclusions section): restate key findings and their significancerestate key findings and their significance

Propose future studies that will extend the research Propose future studies that will extend the research question or the validity of your hypothesisquestion or the validity of your hypothesis

If findings are not preliminary, end with a strong If findings are not preliminary, end with a strong statement summarizing the impact of your study, statement summarizing the impact of your study, without overstating its importancewithout overstating its importance

Negotiating Strength of Claims with VerbsModifying strength of claims with verbs: an exercise in ranking possible verb forms in a Discussion sentence in order of strength of claim.

The The presencpresence of an e of an IRE IRE motifmotif

suggestssuggests

that that GmDmGmDmt1;1 t1;1 mRNAmRNA

may be may be stabilizedstabilizedby the by the binding of binding of IRPs in IRPs in soybean soybean nodules nodules when free when free iron levels iron levels are low.are low.

WeakWeak

demonstratdemonstrateses is is stabilized stabilized StronStrongg


Offer explanations forinconsistent findings

Restate objective of study

State future directions

Connect findings to previousresearch

Restate key finding(s) andimplication(s)


Verb Tenses in the Verb Tenses in the Academic PaperAcademic Paper

Tenses in the Tenses in the IntroductionIntroduction

Stage One: Current knowledge; previous studiesStage One: Current knowledge; previous studies Present or Present perfect tensePresent or Present perfect tense

Stage Two: Literature reviewStage Two: Literature review Present (fact citation) Present (fact citation) Present perfect (multiple-study citation) Present perfect (multiple-study citation) Past (single-study citation) Past (single-study citation)

Stage Three:Stage Three: Knowledge gap Knowledge gap Present (for fact) Present (for fact) Present perfect (for studies)Present perfect (for studies)Stage Four:Stage Four: Problem statementProblem statementPresent (report focused) Present (report focused) Past (research focused) Past (research focused) Stage Five:Stage Five: Rational for studyRational for study Present tense and modalPresent tense and modal

Stage One: Stage One: Current knowledge (present tense)Current knowledge (present tense)Previous studies (present perfect)Previous studies (present perfect)

““Motor skills Motor skills requirerequire action based action based on rapid change in the on rapid change in the environment.”environment.”

““Clean water Clean water isis a basic human a basic human need.”need.”

““Previous studies Previous studies have indicatedhave indicated the need for further research in X.” the need for further research in X.”

Stage Two: Literature Stage Two: Literature Review - Present, present Review - Present, present perfect or pastperfect or past Fact citation:Fact citation:

- “In most deserts of the world, transitions - “In most deserts of the world, transitions between topographic elements between topographic elements areare abrupt” (Kramer, 1993). abrupt” (Kramer, 1993).

Multiple-study citation:Multiple-study citation:- “Several researchers - “Several researchers have studiedhave studied the the

relationship between classroom relationship between classroom adjustment and mobility” (Madsen, 2009; adjustment and mobility” (Madsen, 2009; Johnson, 2010; Jamison 2012). Johnson, 2010; Jamison 2012).

Single-study citation:Single-study citation:- Allington (1998) Allington (1998) foundfound that teachers that teachers

allocated equal time to all groups.allocated equal time to all groups.

Complement verb Complement verb difference in single-author difference in single-author citation: present, past or citation: present, past or modalmodal

Johnson found that X Johnson found that X affectsaffects Y Y Johnson found that X Johnson found that X affectedaffected Y Y Johnson suggested that X Johnson suggested that X may may

affectaffect Y Y

Stage Three: Present Stage Three: Present or present perfector present perfect ““Little information Little information isis available on available on

the air flow rates of simple solar the air flow rates of simple solar collectors.”collectors.”

““However, few studies However, few studies have have reportedreported on the effects of on the effects of computer assisted instruction.”computer assisted instruction.”

Stage Four: Present or Stage Four: Present or pastpast ““The purpose of this study The purpose of this study waswas to to

determine whether or not genetic determine whether or not genetic differences exist at low differences exist at low temperatures in pepper species.”temperatures in pepper species.”

““The aim of this paper The aim of this paper isis to to determine whether an automatic determine whether an automatic measurement system can be measurement system can be applied to educational settings.”applied to educational settings.”

Stage Five: Present Stage Five: Present tense and modaltense and modal

““This research This research may providemay provide an an alternative to the problem of alternative to the problem of manually demonstrating manually demonstrating instrumentation principles in instrumentation principles in classroom environments.”classroom environments.”

Modal auxiliaries ranked by Modal auxiliaries ranked by certainty:certainty:

Will Will Would Would ShouldShould MayMay CouldCould MightMight

MethodsMethods Describing conventional materialDescribing conventional material: :

Present tensePresent tense Describing modified materialDescribing modified material: Past : Past

tensetense Describing populationsDescribing populations: Present : Present

tensetense Describing specific samplesDescribing specific samples: Past : Past

tensetense Describing proceduresDescribing procedures: Past tense: Past tense

Describing conventional Describing conventional material: Present tensematerial: Present tense

““A typical chemical reactor A typical chemical reactor includesincludes a helical, tube-in-tube a helical, tube-in-tube heat exchanger.”heat exchanger.”

Describing modified Describing modified material: Past tensematerial: Past tense

““For the testing program, this For the testing program, this collector was protected from collector was protected from weather by an outer window weather by an outer window of .10 mm tedlar. of .10 mm tedlar.

Describing Describing populations: Present populations: Present tensetense ““All students who apply for All students who apply for

admission to NCTU admission to NCTU taketake the the General English Proficiency Test.” General English Proficiency Test.”

Specific samples: Past Specific samples: Past tensetense ““The subjects The subjects werewere 18 Chinese- 18 Chinese-

speaking students attending speaking students attending NCTU.”NCTU.”

Procedures: Past tenseProcedures: Past tense

““Stress Stress was appliedwas applied to the rubber to the rubber segments.” segments.”

Results Results

Locating figures and tables:Locating figures and tables: Present tensePresent tense

Presenting the findings:Presenting the findings: Past tense Past tense Comparing results with the Comparing results with the

results of other studies:results of other studies: Present Present tense and modals tense and modals

Commenting on results:Commenting on results: Present Present tense and/or tentative verbstense and/or tentative verbs

Locating figures and Locating figures and tables: Present tensetables: Present tense

Results of the t-tests Results of the t-tests areare presented in Table 1. presented in Table 1.

Presenting the Presenting the findings: Past tensefindings: Past tense As a group, divorced mothers As a group, divorced mothers

spentspent over twice as much time in over twice as much time in employment as married mothers employment as married mothers (Figure 2). (Figure 2).

Presenting different Presenting different types of results: Past types of results: Past TenseTense ““The highest incidence of Otitis The highest incidence of Otitis

Media Media waswas found among Australian found among Australian Indians.” Indians.”

““Prices Prices showed a tendency to showed a tendency to increaseincrease over the three-year over the three-year period.”period.”

““Dry weight of top growth was not Dry weight of top growth was not highly related tohighly related to total nitrogen.” total nitrogen.”

Commenting on results: Commenting on results: Present tense and/or Present tense and/or tentative verbstentative verbs““Hyperactive children Hyperactive children maymay be be

generally responsive to generally responsive to amphetamines.” amphetamines.”

““Hyperactive children Hyperactive children appearappear to be to be generally responsive to generally responsive to amphetamines”amphetamines”

DiscussionDiscussion

Referring to the purpose, referring to the Referring to the purpose, referring to the hypothesis, restating the findings: Past hypothesis, restating the findings: Past tensetense

Explaining findings: Present tense with Explaining findings: Present tense with modals or past tensemodals or past tense

Limiting findings: Past tense or present Limiting findings: Past tense or present with modalswith modals

Comparing findings: Present tenseComparing findings: Present tense Implications: Present tense and tentative Implications: Present tense and tentative

verbverb Recommendations and applications: Recommendations and applications:

Present and modal or tentative verbsPresent and modal or tentative verbs

Examples of tentative Examples of tentative language for discussion language for discussion sectionsection Adjectives:Adjectives: apparent, certain, consistent with, apparent, certain, consistent with,

few, many, most, possible, presumed, probable, few, many, most, possible, presumed, probable, several, some, supposedseveral, some, supposed

Adverbs:Adverbs: about, apparently, arguably, fairly, in about, apparently, arguably, fairly, in general, largely, likely, more or less, mostly, general, largely, likely, more or less, mostly, often, perhaps, possibly, presumably, probably, often, perhaps, possibly, presumably, probably, quite, rather, somewhat, unlikely, usuallyquite, rather, somewhat, unlikely, usually

Nouns:Nouns: appearance, indication, inference, appearance, indication, inference, likelihood, possibility, probability, suggestion, likelihood, possibility, probability, suggestion, tendency, to my knowledgetendency, to my knowledge

Verbs:Verbs: aim, appear, assume, can, could, aim, appear, assume, can, could, estimate, indicate, infer, intend, may, might, estimate, indicate, infer, intend, may, might, presume, propose, seem, seen as, should, presume, propose, seem, seen as, should, speculate, suggest, suppose, tendspeculate, suggest, suppose, tend

Referring to the purpose, Referring to the purpose, Referring to the hypothesis, Referring to the hypothesis, Restating the findings: Past Restating the findings: Past tensetense

““This research This research attemptedattempted to assess to assess two theories of behavior.” two theories of behavior.”

““We originally assumed that physical We originally assumed that physical decrements would be more apparent decrements would be more apparent in speed jobs that in skill jobs.”in speed jobs that in skill jobs.”

““The principle of readability was not The principle of readability was not followed in the income tax booklet on followed in the income tax booklet on any of the counties studied except any of the counties studied except Hsinchu.” Hsinchu.”

Explaining findings: Explaining findings: Present tense with past or Present tense with past or present in the complementpresent in the complement

These results indicate that These results indicate that microbial activity microbial activity causedcaused some some immobilization of labial soil immobilization of labial soil phosphorus. phosphorus.

These results indicate that These results indicate that microbial activity microbial activity causecause some some immobilization of labial soil immobilization of labial soil phosphorus.phosphorus.

Limiting findings: Limiting findings: Past tense or present Past tense or present with modalswith modals ““The sample The sample waswas small.” small.” ““Other industries Other industries may producemay produce

different results.”different results.”

Comparing findings: Comparing findings: Present tensePresent tense ““These results are in substantial These results are in substantial

agreement with those of Bates agreement with those of Bates (2).” (2).”

Implications: Implications: Present tense and Present tense and modal/tentative verbmodal/tentative verb

““Squatter housing markets Squatter housing markets appear to behave as economically appear to behave as economically rational entities.”rational entities.”

Recommendations and Recommendations and applications: applications: Present and modal or Present and modal or tentative verbstentative verbs ““The approach outlined in this The approach outlined in this

study should be replicated in study should be replicated in other manufacturing plants.”other manufacturing plants.”

““We recommend that the We recommend that the approach outlined in this study be approach outlined in this study be replicated in other manufacturing replicated in other manufacturing plants.”plants.”

Acknowledge anyone who helped, Acknowledge anyone who helped, including people whoincluding people who::

supplied materials or reagentssupplied materials or reagents provided technical assistanceprovided technical assistance helped with the preparation of the helped with the preparation of the

manuscript or assessed itmanuscript or assessed it gave moneygave money are anonymous reviewers and/or editorsare anonymous reviewers and/or editors State why each acknowledged individual State why each acknowledged individual

has been acknowledged.has been acknowledged.

Consult the target journal’s Consult the target journal’s Guide for AuthorsGuide for Authors to tofind the appropriate format to use, find the appropriate format to use, e.g., e.g., HarvardHarvardstyle,style, Vancouver style,Vancouver style, andand APA.APA. Correct formatting is required both in the text andCorrect formatting is required both in the text andreferences section at the end.references section at the end. Using a reference manager like Endnote makes it Using a reference manager like Endnote makes it

easyeasyto add or remove citations and reformat references to add or remove citations and reformat references

andandprevents the need for lengthy rearrangement later.prevents the need for lengthy rearrangement later. Comply with journal limits on the number of Comply with journal limits on the number of

references allowed.references allowed.

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