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How To Argue:

The Art of Argumentation

This is not how to argue!

Arguing is all about Critical

Thinking and Logic…

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…which is why little sisters

are horrible at arguing!

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Arguing is about making a case in support of a claim in everyday affairs.

For Example:

- Science (The Scientific Method)

- Courtrooms (Debate)

- Politics (also Debate)

Aristotle, the famous dead white guy of

Argumentation, divided arguments into

three kinds:

- Forensic

- Epideictic

- Deliberative

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In simple words,

Forensic = Fact (simple)

Epideictic = Judgment (sorta

simple)

Deliberative = Policy (complex)

These arguments move from

simple to complex.

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In school, you’ve been taught that an

argument begins with a claim which is a

thesis statement or conclusion…

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In reality, all good arguments

begin with looking at the data

that is likely to become the

evidence in an argument.

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It’s the difference between

Deductive and Inductive

Reasoning.

Good arguments use INDUCTIVE REASONING!

For Example…

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Inductive Reasoning

Definition:

Where you take the facts

presented and you make a generalization or conclusion from them.

From Specific to General

Example:

““““Every time we’ve been close to a flame, we’ve

noticed heat. Therefore,

we conclude that all

flames are hot.””””

Deductive Reasoning

Definition:

Where you make a

generalization and then apply reliable evidence to the claim.

From General to Specific

Example:

““““All oranges are fruits.

All fruits grow on trees.

Therefore, oranges grow

on trees.””””

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Example:

Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning

We must always make critical choices in our

thinking.

And, before we argue, we must

think!

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Seven ElementsThere are seven elements to an effective

critical thinking process:

1. Observations (we are always making

observations)

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Observation Observation

Seven ElementsFrom observations, we can establish: Facts.

2. Facts (evidence): Facts can be

concrete, observable information;

personal testimony; written documents;

and material objects and their condition

or appearance.

Facts & Theories

Facts:

• There is a dead body.

• There is a knife in the body.

• There is blood.

• There are footprints going toward the door.

• There is a cell phone.

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Seven ElementsFrom facts, or from an absence of facts, we

make: Inferences (predictions).

3. Inferences: an inference is a step of

mind; an intellectual conclusion. They

can be accurate or inaccurate, logical or

illogical, justified or unjustified.

Inferences

Inferences:

• Something bad

happened here.

Seven ElementsFrom testing the validity of our inferences, we

can make: Assumptions.

4. Assumptions: an assumption is

something we take for granted or

presuppose. Usually it is something we

previously learned and do not question.

Assumptions

Assumptions:

• If something bad

happened here, someone may have

caused it.

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Seven ElementsFrom our assumptions, we form our: Opinions.

5. Opinions: are an honest attempt to

draw a reasonable conclusion from

factual evidence. An opinion is

potentially changeable--depending on

how the evidence is interpreted. By

themselves, opinions have little power

to convince.

Opinions

Opinions:

• It’s my opinion that this

possibly is a homicide scene.

Seven ElementsFrom our opinions, we use evidence and the

principles of logic to develop: Arguments.

6. Argument: is about making a case in support of a claim.

…and when we want to test our arguments and to challenge the arguments of others, we employ: Critical Analysis.

Seven Elements7. Critical Analysis: this is

where we want to challenge our own and

other people’s

-observations,

-facts,

-inferences,

-assumptions,

-opinions

-argument

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Arguments

Argument (Claim):• A Ninja Frog killed this

man!

Arguments

TEST & CHALLENGE THE ARGUMENT!

Suspicious Ninja

footprints

Arguments

TEST & CHALLENGE THE ARGUMENT!

Suspicious green

thumb print

Arguments

TEST & CHALLENGE THE ARGUMENT!

Suspicious

website for

buying

cultured house

flies

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The Critical Thinking

Process is not linear.

Instead, we often have to go back and revise the

elements as we come to know more, see

more, and understand more.

We’re looking for a shift in understanding and a

movement away from bias and erroneous

premises.

Critical Thinking Checklist

Critical Thinking skills include:

• Separating relevant from irrelevantinformation

• Distinguishing between verifiable facts and

value claims

• Determining the credibility of a source

• Recognizing inconsistencies in a line of reasoning

• Determining the strength of an argument or a claim

The Process of Argument

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Draw This…

So, lets begin to build

the argument.

First, we have evidence

or data.

Also called Grounds.

DATA(GROUNDS)

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Evidence or Grounds is made up of hard

facts plus the reasoning behind the claim.

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Homework!

Evidence must be relevant and

verifiable to be useful.

Credit: laughingsquid.com

Homework!

Grounds is the ‘truth’ on which

the claim is made.

Credit: laughingsquid.com

Homework!

Second, from evidence,

we make a claim, or

argument.

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Remember the Claims…There are four (4)

reasons that you would want to persuade.

We call these reasons ““““claims.””””

Types of Claims

1. A Claim of Fact or Definition

This claim argues what the

definition of something is or

whether something is a settled

fact.

Types of Claims

2. A Claim of Cause and Effect

This claim argues that one person,

thing, or event caused another

thing or event to occur.

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Types of Claims

3. A Claim about Value

This is a claim about what

something is worth; how we would

rate something.

Types of Claims

4. A Claim about Solutions or

Policies.

This claim argues for or against a

certain solution to a problem.

CLAIM DATA(GROUNDS)

Now, for the Hard Part!

The evidence and

claim balance on the

warrant!

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CLAIM

Warrant

DATA(GROUNDS)

Simply put, a warrant is a

common sense rule that people

generally accept as being true.

It explains why the data proves

or links the claim.

For example: Everyone has a fingerprint that

is unique to them.

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Important!

Warrants may be based on

LOGOS, ETHOS, or

PATHOS, or VALUES that

are assumed to be shared with the listener.

Big Warning!

Since Warrants are

often unstated,

different people may perceive them

differently.

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Lastly, there is backing. CLAIM

Warrant

BACKING

DATA(GROUNDS)

Backing is the support for the

warrant.

For example: There is much scientific

research on the analysis of fingerprints

There are three (3) types of Backing:

1. Expert Opinion: a statement made by an individual who is recognized as an expert in his or her field.

2. Research Results: data collected through methodical investigation or through scientific experiments.

3. Factual Information: information that has evidential support and is generally acknowledged to be proven or true.

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Backing:Information that is designed to “back up”

the warrant when it is not convincing enough to the reader or listener.

Knowing your audience is Key for backing.

What evidence or reasons can you give to make your audience believe you both have something in common?

Arguments are always things of

probability.

Arguments are never absolutely

true or absolutely false.

Because arguments deal with

probabilities, they must be

qualified.

By the way, that’s why we call

claims…claims, because we

are claiming they are true.

A Qualifier is a word

that shows the level of

certainty.

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CLAIM

Warrant

BACKING

QUALIFIER

DATA(GROUNDS)

QualifiersWords like:“some, most, many, in general, usually,

typically”These little words have great value!

Without qualifiers, the claim could be

interpreted as an absolute.

An appropriately qualified claim is much

easier to defend.

Example:Qualified Claim:““““Many books by Charles Dickens are fun

to read.””””Unqualified Claim:““““Books by Charles Dickens are fun to

read.””””How to Spot the Parts of

an Argument

(Signal Words)

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Signal Words for:

CLAIMDescribing Words such as:

awful, amazing, beautiful, disgusting,

miserable, favorite, etc.

Modal Verbs such as:

should, ought to, must, etc.

Superlative Words such as:

best, worst, most, smartest, etc.

Signal Words for:

WARRANTCause & Effect Words such as:

because, as a result, due to, since, for

that reason, etc.

Temporal Transition Words such as:

first, next, finally, etc.

Signal Words for:

BACKINGIllustrating Words such as:

for example, for instance, to explain, to

elaborate, specifically, in particular, such

as, according to, as reported in, as found

by, etc.

Signal Words:

BACKINGWords of Expert Opinion such as:

according to, as [so-and-so] stated, in

keeping with, expert, endorsed, believed,

recommended, accomplished, foremost,

leading, master, pre-eminent, etc.

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Signal Words:

BACKINGWords of Research Results such as: as

reported in, studies show, according to,

data, findings, found, percent, percentile,

average number of, reports, statistics, participants, etc.

Signal Words:

BACKINGWords of Factual Information such as:

true, certain, absolute, objective, proven,

unquestionable, infallible, etc.

And for of the Verb “to be” such as:

is, was, are, and were.

Signal Words for:

QUALIFIERSConcession Words such as:

even if, despite the fact, albeit, admitting,

granting, although, at any rate, at least,

still, even though, granted that, while it

may be true, in spite of, of course, just

because…doesn’t mean, necessarily,

whereas, some, most, many, in general,

usually, typically, etc.

The final consideration:

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Who’s Your Audience?

Credit: gnews.com

Whom are you aiming the

argument to?

Writing Changes

When The

Audience Changes!

Let’s Put the Process of

Argument into Practice!

Credit: thedetectivechannel.com

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Slip or Trip?

The following exercise was taken from:

Crime and Puzzlement 2, by Lawrence Treat and Illustrated by Kathleen Borowik

&

Inspired from the work of George Hillock, Jr and his book, Teaching Argument Writing, Grades 6-12: Supporting Claims with Relevant Evidence and Clear

Reasoning.

Investigation:Your group is an investigative team that must determine what

may have happened. You can either agree or disagree with

Queenie’s version.

1. Do you think Queenie is telling the truth?

2. Find all the evidence you can that indicates whether or not

Queenie is telling the truth. Make a list of all the evidence.

Evidence includes concrete, observable information; personal

testimony; written documents; and material objects and their condition or appearance.

3. Next, explain how each piece of evidence supports your claim

that Queenie is or is not telling the truth. Each explanation

will be a generally accepted rule, which may begin with a

phrase such as, “As a rule…” If other members of your team

disagree with you, find evidence that will convince them.

4. Be prepared to explain why your evidence supports your

case. Eventually you will write a report to convince the others

in the class that your analysis makes the most sense.

It’s Time to Talk!

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Think like a cop…

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What More Do You Need?

Writing A ReportIn-Class Assignment:

Write out a report that illustrates your full

argument. BUT, WAIT!!!.......

Individually, write out the evidence (grounds)

and the rules (warrants) that allowed you to

interpret the evidence.

Include five (5) pieces of evidence ONLY,

each with an appropriate warrant and any

necessary explanation.

Three (3) paragraphs, ONLY

Question?

Who

are

you

writing

to?

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Writing A ReportBig, Massive Hint

Here’s a good way to structure your report:

�1st: Describe what was found at the scene and the autopsy report (what was observed).

�2nd: State your claim and incorporate your five pieces of evidence……along with the evidence, provide the rules or warrants that explain why that evidence is important.

�3rd: Make a recommendation about what should happen next or what more evidence is needed.

Even Bigger, Massive Hint:

Write this down:

I was called to the Volupides

residence a little after 1:10 in the morning. Upon entering, I discovered…