Kirsten Middeke

HOW (NOT) TO WRITE A TERM PAPER IN LINGUISTICS

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The structure of this presentation• how to organize your ideas (structure and content)• how to give credit where credit is due (quotations and citation)• how to format your text (formalities)• how to format the bibliography

How to write a seminar paper in historical linguistics

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how to organize your ideasstructure and content

Kirsten Middeke, M.A. – S Morphology – Session 8

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Structuring your ideas Find a topic that you can research within a couple weeks and treat

with reasonable completeness in 2000 words. Come up with a clear research question that can be confirmed or

falsified, or a clearly delimited descriptive task. Draft an outline of your paper (paragraph structure). Formulate a thesis statement that includes all aspects of your

research question/task (usually in the order in which you want to discuss them). Discuss your plan with me before you start writing! (Make an

appointment or send me an e-mail.)

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The topic Your topic should be clearly limited in such a way that you can

exhaust it in 2000 words (+/- 10%) Make your topic small! The title should be very explicit about what you want to discuss

(and what not) ex.: “The influence of French on the Middle English language”all aspects of “the Middle English language” (phonology,

morphology, syntax, semantics, …)all varieties of French

better: “The influence of Norman French on the Middle English lexicon”

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The research question Formulating your topic in the shape of a (set of) question(s) helps

you to be more explicit about it, even if your title and/or your thesis statement will not be formulated as a question in the end, and will be a first step towards an outline. “The influence of Norman French on the Middle English lexicon”How did Norman French influence the ME lexicon? (general)Which types of words/parts of speech were borrowed?

(specific)From which (semantic) areas did they come? (specific)What does this tell us about the contact situation / the

cultural differences / …? (significance)

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The research question Referring to your research question will help you decide which

points are relevant and which are not. “The development of Irish English phonology” In what ways does IE phonology differ from the phonologies of other varieties of English, any how did this come about?Should you write about the influence of Irish-Gaelic

phonology?Should you write about how Ireland became a part of the

United Kingdom?Should you say whether or not you think Irish English sounds

beautiful or how you came to be interested in it? Is it enough to talk about vowels only?

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The outline Drafting an outline will save you a lot of time. Drafting an outline will enable me to say whether or not your topic

will work. The outline should include the title the thesis statement the headlines of all your chapters and subchapters all the various points you with to discuss within a given chapter your conclusion

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Sample outline1. Introduction

[Introduction to the topic]Thesis: An investigation of French and Scandinavian loan words in Middle English reveals a lot about the very different natures of the two contact situations.

2. Scandinavian loan words2.1 Very short historical overview2.2 Military terms2.3 Everyday termsScandinavian loan words are

common, everyday words that often competed with native words

3. French loan words3.1 Very short historical overview3.2 Food terms3.3 Clothing terms3.5 Religious terms / learned voc.3.6 Law terms French loan words are high-

register words for concepts for which no native words existed (lexical gaps)

4. ConclusionThesis expanded: The investigation of the loan words has shown that the two contact situations were very different: …

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Do not start writing before you know what your conclusion is going to be!

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The thesis statement The thesis statement tells the reader what he/she is to expect from

the paper and whether or not he/she will find the information he/she is looking for in it. The thesis is where you delimit the exact scope of your paper. You

set the rules by which you will be judged! It should state the research question and all points that will be

dealt with, in the order in which they will be dealt with. Much of your grade depends on whether the predictions I make on

the basis of your thesis are actually borne out by your paper or not.

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“In the following, I will give a very brief overview of the history of the Danelaw and the language contact, then consider select prominent examples of different types of Scandinavian placenamepractices. Through the examination of placenames, one can shed light on the reality of Scandinavian presence and settlements in the Danelaw.”

Exercise: Predict the table of contents for this paper.

A thesis statement2. Historical overview

3. Placename evidence4. Conclusion

1. Introduction

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A student outlineTitle: The impact of the printing press on Early Modern English

Introduction:- Description of the situation in England before the printing press was invented (five major dialect areas, no fixed spelling and grammar... - source: Hussey 1995)→ Caxton's little anecdote about the marchants who try to buy eggs in a different area of Britain from the one they are from (source: Graddol 1996)- First printed book in England: The History of Troy by Caxton in 1473

- Research-question: What were the implications of the invention of the printing press and the introduction of printing in England?The main points I am going to make will be about the standardization of the English language, about literacy and accessibility of the printed word.

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A student outline (ctd.)Main part:

- Short historical overview of how the printing press was invented (where? who did it? → online source: Guttenberg Museum Mainz) and how it came to England (online source: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography)

- Implications of the printing press in England:

1) Standardization: four main processes (source: Graddol 1996):

- Selection - Codification

- Elaboration - Implementation

→ analysis how these processes are connected to the printing press in England

2) Accessibility of the printed word – democratic aspect (source: Horobin 2010)

3) Literacy (source: Gelderen 2006)

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A student outline (ctd.)Conclusion:The printing press had a huge impact on the development of Early Modern English, especially in terms of standardization. The aspects of literacy and accessibility of the printed word are closely connected to standardization, as it is only possible to talk about a standard if a whole community uses this “type” of language...

Sources:Gelderen, Elly van. 2006. A History of the English Language. Amsterdam/Philadelphia, John Benjamins Publishing CompanyGraddol, David, Dick Leith and Joan Swann. 1996. English – history, diversity and change. London: Routledge 1996, chapter fourGuttenberg Museum Mainz (website): http://www.gutenberg-museum.de/39.0.html (used on 08/04/2013)[…]

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An introduction [Introduction to the subject matter:] “[…] Generally, the German language is not considered to have had

a great impact on English. […]German loanwords in English – An historical dictionary by J. Alan Pfeffer and Garland Cannan (1998 [1949]), however, is an attempt to challenge these prevailing opinions.[…]The largest proportion of words belongs to the category of the natural sciences. Particularly in the 19th century, German scientists dominated the field…”

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An introduction (continued) [Thesis statement:] “This paper is an attempt to detect the extent of the impact

German had on English, especially with regard to the semantic field of natural sciences. Due to the length of this essay, the analysis will be limited to the three categories with the highest amount of loanwords: mineralogy, chemistry and biology. After a general overview of the historical contact between English and German, the expression loanword will be defined and the distinction between loanword and foreign word will be made clear. Then the frequencies and the contexts in which the words under investigation are used will be analyzed in order to determine how firmly the words are established in the English language.”

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An introduction (continued)[Corresponding essay structure:]

1. Introduction2. Short historical overview3. What, exactly, is a loanword? (definition)4. Frequencies and contexts of use of German loanwords in English

4.1 Mineralogy4.2 Chemistry4.3 Biology

5. Conclusion: How firmly are the words are established in the English language?

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A thesis [Title: “Social Influences on Language Change in the Early Modern

English period”] “To prove that political reorientation, the reformation and the

invention of the book press are strongly attached to linguistic change is the goal of this essay. Starting by introducing the Early Modern English period and its characteristics, the essay will go on to naming social changes during this time and their influence on the language. Subsequently there will be a closer look at the significant linguistic phenomenon of the Great Vowel Shift, which also led to Present Day English. The long period of Early Modern English created a place for the language to develop and to improve the importance of the English language.”

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Another introduction“This term paper about Standard English and its variety of IndianEnglish will provide an overview of the Standard English debate andits effects on language change. My motivation for this subject arisesfrom personal experience as my family and I spent 4 years living inIndia. As a result, I learned English at the age of six and had a crucialcontact with the Indian variety of the Standard British English. Duringmy stay, I got to experience the Indian culture and – mostimportantly – the many faces of Asia. These experiences were mymotivation to write this term paper…”

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On I and myBad I:

“This term paper about Standard English and its variety of Indian English will provide anoverview of the Standard English debate and its effects on language change. Mymotivation for this subject arises from personal experience as my family and I spent 4years living in India. As a result, I learned English at the age of six and had a crucialcontact with the Indian variety of the Standard British English. During my stay, I got toexperience the Indian culture and – most importantly – the many faces of Asia. Theseexperiences were my motivation to write this term paper…”

Good I:“It will be argued that the genitive should be viewed as a case of structured polysemy asopposed to either accidental homonymy or a case of an abstract, general singlemeaning. I will also show that the kind of synchronic structure postulated for thegenitive reflects to a certain extent the semantic history of the morpheme as well; thisin turn suggests that ….”

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The conclusion The conclusion should be a restatement or an elaboration of your

thesis: What have we learned, what is the significance of the points discussed, how do they relate to each other, and why should any of this be important? Do not add any new points in your conclusion.

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Avoiding traps… “The influence of William Shakespeare on the English language” You cannot prove what did not exist before a certain point in

time unverifiable thesis guaranteed If it is indeed true that phrases like It's Greek to me were coined

by Shakespeare (B. Levin), that’s not very interesting for linguists as it doesn’t change the linguistic system as such. Anyone can combine words in novel ways, that’s what language is all about.

Better: Use the works of William Shakespeare (or another author of your choice) to exemplify aspects of Early Modern English.

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Avoiding traps… “The influence of Norman French on the Middle English lexicon” It is not enough for a scientific paper to simply list some

loanwords. You have to analyze/interpret them: Why these and not others, and why should that be interesting? Where do your data come from? If you use a list of loanwords,

make sure they weren’t specifically selected to prove a certain point, otherwise your argumentation will be circular. (When in doubt, use the OED online.) Don’t use modern English words to illustrate Middle English…

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Avoiding traps… Careful with historical “background” information – it may belong in

the foreground! “Scandinavian loanwords are every-day terms because

Scandinavians did not enjoy a high social prestige in England and because there was a high rate of bilingualism.” “The fact that Scandinavian loanwords are every-day terms

points to the fact that Scandinavians probably did not enjoy a very high social prestige in England and that the rate of bilingualism must have been quite high.” Is there independent historical evidence? Or is the information

found in historians’ texts based on linguistic evidence?

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how to give creditwhere credit is due

quotations and citations

Kirsten Middeke, M.A. – S Morphology – Session 8

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Citable literature When quoting definitions, don’t use the Brockhaus or some online

dictionary. Find a text by an expert on your specific topic. Can I use internet sources? Yes of course. Wikipedia, for instance, is invaluable for its

references and suggestions for further reading. But you don’t usually want to cite it. You can, in some cases, use the internet as a sort of corpus.

Usually, a balanced linguistic corpus is the better choice. Can I cite internet sources? Yes, if they’re any good. Rule of thumb: Use internet sources

only if they have an author and a date of publication.

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Quotation and citation Always explain the significance of your quotations: Why are you

quoting this? Always provide citation in the text (not in footnotes). An

academic paper must be transparent and allow the reader to challenge and verify all the information given. Linguistic author-date system (always give dates, even if you

only have one title by this author in your bibliography): Burrow (1996: 1) dates the Middle English period to roughly

1100/1150 to 1450/1500. In the words of a famous linguist, “[i]n a world where humans

grow old, tadpoles change into frogs and milk turns into cheese, it would be strange if language alone remained unaltered” (Aitchison 2001: 4).

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how to format your textfront & back matter and formalities

Kirsten Middeke, M.A. – S Morphology – Session 8

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front matter… You must have a (separate) cover sheet with the title of your paper,

your contact details, the course details, your student number and the date of submission. You must have a table of contents with page numbers. Your

headlines must be numbered. Do not write “Essay” or “Table of Contents” into the table of contents. The first entry should be your first chapter, usually the introduction, that starts on page 1.

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The table of contents

What’s wrong with this?

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The table of contents

1. Introduction: English – a language with a rich lexicon 12. Scandinavian loanwords in Middle English 1

2.1 Historical overview 22.2 Military terms 22.3 Everyday terms 3

3. French loanwords in Middle English 53.1 Historical overview 53.2 Food terms 63.3 Clothing terms 63.5 Religious terms / learned vocabulary 73.6 Law terms 7

4. Conclusion: What loanwords tell us about the nature of languagecontact in the history of the English language 8

5. Bibliography 9

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…and back matter You must have a bibliography, alphabetized by authors/editors, with

all works cited and only those. No sub-sections, please! Please attach a signed copy of the statement of academic honesty.

(Excluding the line “Please attach…” )

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general layout conventions Formal requirements: line spacing 1.5 a font about the size of Times New Roman 12pt

(try Junicode.ttf) a margin of about 2.5cm numbered chapter headings, page numbers starting on the first

page of the introduction

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Some more conventions Formal requirements: When referring to word forms, put them in italics. Translations

or meanings are indicated by single quotation marks: The Old English word stræte goes back to Latin strata, which

means ‘straight (road)’.

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Style sheet linguistic notational conventions: word forms in italics, meanings in single quotation marks,

morphemes either in italics (when referring to a concrete realization, i.e. an allophone) or in curly brackets (when referring to the abstract morpheme), semantic concepts in capitals: The Old English word stræte goes back to Latin strata, which

means ‘straight (road)’. The morpheme re- in return roughly means ‘back’, whereas

re- in rewrite means ‘again’. We should therefore posit two separate morphemes: {re- ‘back’} and {re- ‘again’}. The suffix {-er AGENT} (as in computer) is not the same

morpheme as {-er COMPARATIVE} (as in faster).

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Style sheet (ctd.) When referring to phonological form, always use the IPA and

nothing else. Be sure to distinguish spelling (in angle brackets) and sound (IPA, in slashes): The final <e> in the Old English word stræte ‘straight (road)’

was very probably pronounced /ə/. In Middle English, the word for ‘talk’ or ‘speak’ comes in

various spellings: <spellen>, <spel(l)e>, <spelien>, <spealie>, <spilen> and <spilie(n)> (MED online, s.v. spellen v1).

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By the way…This is a hyphen: -OED says:

“A short dash or line (-) used to connect two words together as a compound;also, to join the separated syllables of a word, as at the end of a line; or to dividea word into parts for etymological or other purposes.”

This is a dash: —OED says:

“A horizontal stroke of varying length (-, —, ——) used in writing or printing tomark a pause or break in a sentence, a parenthetic clause […], to separatedistinct portions of matter…”

The suffixes -ic and -ical are not always interchangeable – but they don’tdifferentiate meaning, either.

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how to format yourbibliography

style sheet

Kirsten Middeke, M.A. – S Morphology – Session 8

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The bibliographyMonograph:

Baugh, Albert C., and Thomas Cable. 2002. A History of the English Language. 5th

ed. London: Routledge.Monograph in a series:

Hock, Heinrich. 1986. Principles of Historical Linguistics. Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs 34. Berlin: de Gruyter.

Journal article:Kolb, Eduard. 1965. “Skandinavisches in den nordenglischen Dialekten”. Anglia 83, 127-153.

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The bibliography (continued)Collection:

Bex, Tony, and Richard J. Watts (eds.). 1999. Standard English: the widening debate. London: Routledge.

Article in a collection:Trudgill, Peter. 1999. “Standard English: what it isn’t”. In: Standard English: the widening debate, edited by Tony Bex and Richard J. Watts. London: Routledge, 117-128.

Internet pages:Slade, Benjamin. 2002-2005. BEOWULF. A new critical text based on an examination of the original MS. http://www.heorot.dk/beo-intro-ms.html. Accessed 1 Sep 2011.

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Procedure1. You come up with a topic.2. You write an outline.3. You e-mail me your outline or come discuss it in my office. I give you feedback.4. You write the paper.5. You have someone proofread your paper Is the text comprehensible to an (educated) outsider? (Try fellow students

not in the same seminar.) Is the language idiomatic English?

6. You print your paper, attach the honesty statement and put the paper in thewhite metal mailbox in the institute (opposite the StudentischeStudienberatung).

7. You e-mail me your paper.

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ProcedureIf you need credit by a specific time, I need your paper two weeks prior to that,

with a note attached that it’s urgent.

ERASMUS students (please attach a note so I know who you are) can pick up a paper certificate two weeks after having handed in both versions of the paper.