This version: May 28, 2020

How Merchants Get Paid*

2020-2

Oz Shy†

Abstract

Using a representative sample of actual payments made by adult U.S. consumers, this article analyzes

the composition of payment methods consumers use to pay for goods and services. Consumer spending

is divided into 21 main merchant categories. Results show the distributions of electronic, card, and

paper payment methods and the degree of payment concentration for each merchant category.

Key words: how merchants get paid, payment methods, payment instruments

JEL classification: D9, E42, M2

* I thank Nancy Condon and Claire Greene for most valuable comments and suggestions on earlier drafts. The views expressed here are the author’s and not necessarily those of the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta or the Federal Reserve System. † Email: Oz.Shy@atl.frb.org. Research Department, Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta, 1000 Peachtree St. NE, Atlanta, GA 30309, U.S.A.

1. Introduction

Payments for purchases of goods and services, bill payments, and payments to other people are

made with a variety of payment methods (also called payment instruments). The purpose of

this research is to analyze which payment methods consumers use to pay for different types of

goods and services provided by different merchant types. The term “merchants” refers to all

types of sellers who sell directly to consumers, including all retail stores (brick-and-mortar and

online), utility service providers, general services, travel services, financial services, government,

and more (the exact definitions are provided in section 2).

Using a representative sample of actual payments made by adult U.S. consumers, this article

analyzes the composition of payment methods consumers use to pay for goods and services in

each merchant category. Consumer spending is divided into 21 main merchant categories. For

each merchant category, I compute the proportion of each payment method consumers use to

pay merchants, both by volume and by dollar value. Results show the distributions of electronic,

card, and paper payment methods and the degree of payment concentration for each merchant

category.

In addition, this research uses the Herfindahl-Hirschman index (HHI) to compute the payment

method concentration index for each merchant category. Whereas the HHI is commonly used to

measure the degree of market concentration among firms, I find the same method also useful for

comparing the degree of payment method concentration or diversification among all 21 merchant

types.

The list below provides a description of the payment methods collected by the data described

in section 2.

Electronic payment methods:

• Bank account number payment (BANP): You [the respondent] give your bank routing num-

ber and account number to a third party to authorize a deduction from your bank account.

• Online banking bill pay (OBBP): You initiate a payment at your bank’s online banking web-

site.

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• Account-to-account money transfers.

• Income deduction: Your employer makes the payment for you on your behalf and deducts

the payment amount from your salary.

Card payment methods:

• Debit card: Your payments are deducted from your bank account. Also, you can use a debit

card to withdraw or deposit cash at ATMs.

• Credit card: You pay back the credit card company later. Credit cards charge interest (unless

the balance is paid by the initial due date).

• Prepaid/gift/EBT card: You store or load money on a prepaid card. Sometimes called “pre-

paid debit,” “gift cards,” “payroll cards,” or “stored value cards.”

Paper payment methods:

• Cash: Coins and paper bills.

• Check: You write a paper check to a person or business.

• Money order: You purchase a money order from a bank, post office, check-cashing store, or

retail store. At the time of purchase, you specify the amount and the person or business to

be paid.

Mobile app: It is important to emphasize that a mobile app is not a payment instrument. Logically,

a mobile app should be viewed as an electronic wallet that stores information on the payer’s credit

cards, debit cards, or bank account number. More precisely, a mobile app payment depends on

the type of funding (source of money) that funds each transaction, generally a credit card, debit

cards, or a bank account. A consumer who funds a mobile app payment with a credit or debit card

will see the charge on the card’s monthly statement. Therefore, in our data, a mobile app payment

is recorded twice: as a mobile app payment and also, for example, as a debit card payment if the

mobile app is funded by a debit card.

For that reason, the core analysis in this article does not view mobile app as a payment method.

However, because this paper examines the merchant side, it is possible that some merchants may

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view a mobile app as a separate payment method. Therefore, mobile app payments are analyzed

towards the end of this article

In the literature, several papers have analyzed how consumer payment choice varies with re-

spect to payment dollar amount, credit card rewards, merchant card acceptance policy, whether

the consumer borrows on a credit card (revolver), and consumer demographics; see, for exam-

ple, Zinman (2009); Arango, Huynh, and Sabetti (2015); and Wakamori and Welte (2017). This

literature does not distinguish among the merchant types, which is the subject of the present pa-

per. Some literature focuses on a particular merchant type; for example, Klee (2008) analyzes how

consumer pay at grocery stores, Wang and Wolman (2016) use data from a discount retailer with

thousands of stores, and Zhang (2016) analyzes how people pay rent. Finally, Bounie and Francois

(2011) and Greene and Stavins (Forthcoming 2020) focus on consumer bill payments.

The present paper adds to the above literature by attempting to integrate all types of consumer

payments into a single analysis for the purpose of getting an overview how different merchants

get paid. This is accomplished by aggregating all payment types (in-person, remote, bill, and

nonbill) for each merchant type for the purpose of obtaining a broad summary of how merchants

get paid. In doing so, this paper abstracts from consumer and merchant incentives to use their

preferred payment methods. More precisely, this research summarizes actual payments without

analyzing consumers’ decision-making process of why they choose their payment method for

each transaction.

This article is organized as follows. Section 2 defines merchant types, describes the data, and

presents sample statistics by merchant type. Section 3 analyzes how merchants get paid and com-

pares merchant types by payment method concentration. Section 4 analyzes payments by dollar

value. Section 5 groups all payment methods into three main payment categories. Section 6 briefly

analyzes payments made via mobile apps. Section 7 concludes.

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2. Data and sample statistics

This section defines merchant types, describes the data, and presents sample statistics by merchant

type. The data are taken from the 2019 Diary of Consumer Payment Choice (DCPC).1 The DCPC

uses a representative sample of U.S. (18 and older) consumers. The DCPC records transactions

during three consecutive days. Transactions include purchases, bill payments, ATM withdrawals,

and deposits. Respondents’ three-day diaries were evenly distributed throughout the month of

October 2019 in a way that resembles a three-period overlapping generations model.

The DCPC collects a large number of variables describing all sorts of demographics and trans-

actions. For the purpose of this article, I focus on only a small subset of variables. Table 1 lists 21

merchant categories that respondents used to categorize each payment. This list provides straight-

forward description of each of the 21 merchant types. Note that merchant type 16 is slightly dif-

ferent because it also involves person-to-person money transfers among family and friends, in

addition to paying to somebody for performing a small job.

Table 2 provides sample statistics on the number of payment observations and average and

median payment values for each of the 21 merchant types. I also chose to display respondents’

household incomes because they provide some indication on which population is served by each

merchant type. For example, according to Table 2, the weighted median household income of

consumers who paid merchant type 14 (rent) is $48,000. On the other extreme, the weighted

median household income of consumers who pay merchant type 9 (taxis, airplane, delivery ) is

$125,000.

Table 3 divides consumer payments into two types: “in-person” payments, where the con-

sumers (payers) are physically present at the merchant site, and “remote” payments that are made

while the consumers are not physically present at the merchant site. It should be noted that some

types of payments fall into a gray area because they could be classified as either in-person or re-

1The Federal Reserve Banks of Atlanta, Boston, and San Francisco conduct the diary, which is summarized byGreene and Stavins (2019) and Kumar and O’Brien (2019). Similar surveys are conducted by the Bank of Canada; seeHenry, Huynh, and Welte (2018). The data and assisting documents (codebooks) are publicly available for down-loading from the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta website: https://www.frbatlanta.org/banking-and-payments/consumer-payments.aspx. The data and the R-code used in this analysis are available for downloading from the au-thor’s web page: www.ozshy.com (click on “Recent articles”).

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mote. For example, a payment to Uber or Lyft during the ride may be classified as “in-person”

whereas a payment after a passenger is dropped off may be classified as “remote.” Other exam-

ples of gray areas include unattended parking garages, self-checkout counters at grocery stores,

and vending machines, where consumers (payers) are physically present, but the merchant side is

only virtually present in the form of unattended card reading or cash machines.

Out of 12,269 total payments made by 2,564 respondents, the 2019 DCPC sample generated

the following distribution of payment volume across the payment methods:

• Debit card: Used for 3,302 payments (27 percent).

• Cash: Used for 3,201 payments (26.18 percent).

• Credit card: Used for 2,961 payments (24.22 percent).

• Check: Used for 744 payments (6.08 percent).

• Bank account number payment (BANP): Used for 707 payments (5.78 percent).

• Online banking bill pay (OBBP): Used for 647 payments (5.29 percent).

• Prepaid/gift/EBT card: Used for 210 payments (1.71 percent).

• Income deduction: Used for 46 payments (0.37 percent). The reason for this low use is that

actual payments are restricted to paydays only. Some people may not have any income de-

duction because they may not be employed, or because there are 1099 workers who have no

deductions. Others may receive their paychecks only once or twice each month. Therefore,

the DCPC does not capture income deductions for most of the respondents. For this reason,

the analysis that follows drops income deduction payments from the sample.

• Money order: Used for 25 payments (0.2 percent). Because of the low use, this payment

method is dropped from the sample in the analysis that follows.

The data show that most consumers payments are made with debit cards (27 percent), followed

by cash (26.18 percent) and credit cards (24.22 percent). Checks, BANP, and OBBP were used each

for 5 to 7 percent of the payments. Prepaid cards (1.71 percent) show low use. Income deductions

and money orders are hardly used and are not used in the analysis that follows.

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3. Analysis of payments by volume

Table 4 shows the percentage use of the eight main payment methods (defined in section 1): cash,

checks, credit cards, debit cards, prepaid cards, bank account number payment, online bank bill

payment, and account-to-account money transfers. Income deductions and money orders are not

analyzed because the data indicate low use (less than half a percent). Each row corresponds to

one merchant type and sums up to 100 percent. Figure 1 visualizes Table 4, showing the fractions

of payment methods by merchant type.

3.1 Measuring payment method concentration

Table 4 and Figure 1 display the value of the Hirschman-Herfindahl index for each merchant type.

Appendix A provides the exact derivation of this index, along with examples. Higher HHI val-

ues reflect higher payment concentration (lower diversification) because merchants receive most

of their payments using only a few payment instruments. Lower HHI values reflect lower pay-

ment concentration (higher diversification) because merchants get paid more evenly with a larger

number of payment methods.

The merchant types in Figure 1 are sorted left to right by HHI values. Payments made to mer-

chants of type 20 (education/childcare), type 10 (phone/internet/cable), and type 12 (professional

services) are shown to be almost equally diversified among the main payment methods. In con-

trast, type 16 merchants (person-to-person) exhibit large concentration (with HHI=5,394) because

they receive most of their in-person payments in cash. An examination of the right-hand side of

Figure 1 reveals that type 13 merchants (hotel/campsite) receive a large portion of their payment

in credit and debit cards.

3.2 Sorting merchant types by percentage volume of use of payment methods

The analysis so far sorted merchant types by the degree of concentration with respect to use of

payment methods (see Table 4). The remainder of this section uses Table 4 to rank merchant types

by the fraction of use of each payment method separately. This section analyzes payment method

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intensity by volume of use (number of payments). Section 4 analyzes merchants by amount of

dollar value spent with each payment method.

Percentage volume of cash payments: The column labeled “Cash” in Table 4 can be sorted from

high to low percentage of cash payments. Not surprisingly, person-to-person payments (type 16)

are the most cash intensive, with 71.8 percent payments made with cash. Fast food and coffee

shops (type 4) rank second, with 43 percent cash payments. Payments for arts/entertainment

(type 7 merchants) are 39.2 percent cash, and public transport/tolls payments (type 21) are 39.1

percent cash. Charitable/religious donations (type 17) are 38.8 percent cash, and payments for

general services (type 6) are 38 percent cash.

In contrast, mortgage/insurance/credit cards (type 15) are the least cash intensive, with only

1.4 percent made in cash. Phone/internet/cable payments (type 10) are only 2.7 percent cash and

utilities (type 8) are 3.5 percent cash.

Percentage volume of paper check payments: The column labeled “Check” in Table 4 shows

that 47.1 percents of payments made to contractors, plumbers, and electricians (type 11 merchants)

are made with checks. The reason for that is quite simple. Contractors are generally small busi-

nesses who serve customers at their own homes. To avoid paying card processing fees, contractors

ask for paper checks, which bear no fees.

Of all charity and donations payments (type 17), 38.5 percent are made with checks, as some

of these entities also try to avoid card processing fees. Of rent payments (type 14), 36.9 percent

are paid with checks for the same reason, as landlords try to avoid paying card processing fees.

Of government taxes (type 19), 35.2 percent are paid with checks. Schools and colleges (type 20)

follow, with 26.7 percent of payments with checks.

Table 4 also shows a significant number of merchants who receive very few checks (or none).

For example, transportation-related merchants (type 21 and type 9) are not paid with paper checks.

Percentage volume of credit card payments: The column labeled “credit” in Table 4 shows that

credit card payments dominate merchants related to hospitality services: 62.8 percent of payments

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to hotels (type 13) are made with credit cards, followed by 56.2 percent paid for taxis, airplanes,

and delivery (type 9), followed by 37.7 percent paid to restaurants/bars (type 3).

On the other extreme, less than 3 percent of person-to-person payments (type 16) and rent

(type 14) are paid with credit cards.

Percentage volume of debit card payments: The column labeled “Debit” in Table 4 shows that

over 35 percent of payments to grocery stores (type 1), general merchandise (type 5), and gas

stations (type 2) are made with debit cards. In addition, a large number of other merchant types

receive around 30 percent of their payments with debit cards.

On the other extreme, around 5 percent of person-to-person (type 16) and charitable and do-

nations (type 17) payments are made with debit cards.

Percentage volume of prepaid card payments: The column labeled “Prepaid” in Table 4 shows

that 11.3 percent of all payments made for public transport (type 21) are made with prepaid cards.

The reason is that many public transportation systems around major cities issue transportation

prepaid cards directly to customers, who can load more value to the cards either online or via

vending machines located in terminals.

Otherwise, prepaid cards are hardly used. Specifically, although consumers can buy prepaid

cards in pharmacies and other stores, consumers find loading funds on these cards to be costly (see

Hayashi and Cuddy 2014). For this reason, prepaid cards serve mainly the unbanked or children,

who typically do not have bank accounts.

Percentage volume of BANPs: Recall that BANPs are made by giving the payers’ bank account

details to the merchants, who then withdraw money directly from the payers’ account. Therefore,

BANPs are mainly for bills.

The column labeled “BANP” in Table 4 shows that 39 percent of payments made to financial

institutions (type 15) are BANPs, followed by utility companies (type 8) and phone/internet/cable

companies (type 10), who receive 19.9 percent and 19.1 percent of their payments via BANP, re-

spectively.

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For rent (type 14), 16.2 percent of payments are BANP. Taxes (type 19) follow, at 15.4 percent.

Note that the DCPC collects data during the month of October, which is not the federal tax season.

Next, 14.9 percent of school/college/childcare (type 20) are made via BANP.

Percentage volume of OBBPs: Similar to BANP, OBBP are bill payments. OBBPs are made by

the payer via the payer’s online banking. The column labeled “OBBP” in Table 4 shows that

around 30 percents of payments made to utility companies (type 8) and financial institutions

(type 15) are made via OBBP. This is followed by phone/internet/cable companies (type 10),

which receive 18.2 percent of their payments via OBBP.

Percentage volume of account-to-account money transfers: The column labeled “Acct2acct” in

Table 4 shows that account-to-account transfers are not used very often: 5.8 percent of payments to

financial institutions (type 15) and 4.8 percent of person-to-person (type 16) are account-to-account

transfers.

4. Measuring shares of payment methods by dollar value

The analysis so far was based on payment volume of each payment method consumers use to

pay each merchant type. That is, the percentage of cash payments to each merchant type was

computed by dividing the total number of cash payments by the total number of payments made

to this merchant type using all payment methods.

This section takes a different approach by looking at the fraction of total dollar value paid

to a merchant with a specific payment method out of total dollar value this merchant collects

through all payment methods. For example, the fraction of cash by value paid to each merchant

is computed by summing up the total dollar value of cash payments to this merchant divided by

total dollar value (sales value) this merchant collects through all payment methods.

Table 5 displays the fraction of dollar value of each payment method paid to each merchant

type. Comparing with Table 4, Table 5 displays HHI values that are computed with respect to dol-

lar value instead of volume of payments. These two measurements are very different because, as

shown below, some merchants may receive very few of a certain payment type, but each payment

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carries a large dollar value. In fact, the correlation coefficient between HHI by value (Table 5) and

HHI by volume (Table 4) is 0.32, which is positive but low. However, as shown below, correlations

between volume and value by payment method tend to be much higher.

Percentage value of cash payments: The correlation coefficient between percentage of cash vol-

ume and cash value is 0.8. The column labeled “Cash” in Table 5 shows that 33.5 percent of

revenue collected by fast food and coffee shops (type 4) is in cash. This is followed by 30.3 per-

cent of cash revenue collected by public transport (type 21), and 23.8 percent of cash dollar value

transferred from person to person (type 16).

Percentage value of paper check payments: The correlation coefficient between percentage of

check volume and check value is 0.88. The column labeled “Check” in Table 5 shows several

merchant types for which the percentage revenue collected with checks exceeds 70 percent. More

precisely, checks constitute 77.5 percent of the dollar value of government taxes (type 19), followed

by 74.3 percent of check dollar value paid to contractors (type 11), and 71.4 percent of cash value

paid to professional services (type 12).

Percentage value of credit card payments: The correlation coefficient between percentage of

credit card volume and value is 0.93. The column labeled “Credit” in Table 5 shows that 75.1 of

the revenue collected by taxi/airplane/delivery (type 9) is with credit cards. This is followed by

hotels (type 13) that collected 74.3 percent of their revenue with credit cards. The column labeled

“Credit” in Table 5 also shows that five other merchant types collect between 40 and 60 percent of

their revenue with credit cards.

Percentage value of debit card payments: The correlation coefficient between percentage debit

card volume and value is 0.91. Of the revenue collected by grocery stores (type 1), 47.1 percent is

by debit cads, followed by 38.6 percent of the revenue collected by gas stations (type 2), and 37.6

percent by fast food and coffee shops (type 4). The column labeled “Debit” in Table 5 also shows

six other merchant types that collect between 20 and 30 percent of their revenue with debit cards.

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Percentage value of prepaid card payments: The correlation coefficient between percentage pre-

paid card volume and value is 0.85. As with volume, prepaid cards show low use also by dollar

value. The highest is public transport (type 21), where 5.4 percent of dollar amount is paid with

prepaid card (recall from Table 4 that this merchant type is also highest when measured by vol-

ume, 11.3 percent).

Percentage value of BANPs: The correlation coefficient between percentage BANP volume and

value is 0.88. Of the revenue collected by financial institutions (type 15), 35.5 percent is via BANP,

followed by 34.5 percent of the revenue collected by school/daycare (type 20), followed by 23.6

percent by phone/internet/cable (type 10).

Percentage value of OBBPs: The correlation coefficient between percentage OBBP volume and

value is 0.93. OBBP accounts for 43.3 percent of the dollar value paid to financial institutions

(type 15). Utility companies (type 8), at 27.7 percent, and phone/internet/cable (type 10), at 20.3

percent, follow.

Percentage value of account-to-account money transfers: The correlation coefficient between

percentage account-to-account volume of transfers and value of transfers is 0.84. The column

labeled “Acct2acct” in Table 5 shows that 13.5 percent of dollar value paid by a person to another

person (type 16) are transfers from account to account. For most other merchant types, the dollar

value of account-to-account transfers is zero or very small.

5. Grouping payment methods into payment categories

The analysis so far focused on the main payment methods consumers use to pay the wide variety

of merchants. However, for some purposes, it may be useful to examine payment choice when all

payment methods are grouped into main categories that characterize these payment methods.

Recall that the introduction to this article classifies all payment methods into three main groups:

• Paper instruments: Cash, paper checks, and money orders.

• Payment cards: Credit, debit, and prepaid cards.

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• Electronic methods: Bank account number payments (BANP), online bank bill payments

(OBBP), income deductions, and account-to-account money transfers.

The analysis in this section groups all payment methods into these three groups, disregarding

income deductions and money orders due to their low use (see Section 2 for the exact numbers).

By volume, these three groups consist of 3,945 (35.3 percent) paper instrument payments, 6,473

(58 percent) card payments, and 743 (6.7 percent) electronic payments.

Percentage of paper instrument payments: Figure 2 displays the percentage use of paper meth-

ods by merchant type. Of person-to-person payments (type 16), 87 percent are made with paper

instruments, followed by 82 percent paid to charitable and religious donations (type 17).

Paper instrument payments constitute between 61 and 66 percent of the payments made for

government taxes (type 19), rent (type 14), education/childcare (type 20), and contractors (type 11).

As shown before, these payments are made mostly with paper checks because these merchants

prefer paper checks over credit card payments that subject them to card processing fees.

On the other extreme, paper instrument payments constitute only 5 percent of payments for

taxi/airplane/delivery (type 9), and 12 percent for phone/utility/cable (type 10).

Percentage of card: Figure 3 shows that card payments constitute 95 percents of the payments

made to taxi/airplane/delivery (type 9), followed by 79 percent made to hotels (type 13). Recall

that these two merchant categories were also listed towards the bottom of Figure 2 (percentage of

paper instrument payments) because these two merchant types are dominated by credit and debit

card payments.

On the other extreme, the bottom of Figure 3 lists several merchant types that are also listed

on the top of Figure 2. That is, person-to-person (type 16), charitable and religious donations

(type 17), rent (type 14), and education/childcare (type 20) exhibit heavy use of paper instruments

and low use of credit and debit cards. Again, these merchants are very sensitive to card processing

fees and therefore prefer paper check payments over card payments.

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Percentage of electronic payments: Electronic payments are generally associated with remote

(not in-person) bill payments. Most of these payments are routed via the ACH (automated clear-

ing house). The top of Figure 4 shows that electronic payments constitute 57 percent of payments

made to financial institutions (type 15), followed by 39 percent paid to utility companies (type 8)

and 24 percent paid to phone/internet/cable (type 10).

On the other extreme, electronic payments are not used by merchants who do not issue sched-

uled bills. These merchants include hotels (type 13), restaurant/bar (type 3), fast food and coffee

shops (type 4), taxi/airplane/delivery (type 9), gas stations (type 2), and grocery stores (type 1).

6. Mobile app payments

The 2019 DCPC recorded 175 payments consumers made to merchants via a mobile app. This

amounts to 1.45 percent out of a total of 12,043 payments made to merchants.

Recall from the discussion in the introduction that a mobile app is not a payment instrument

by itself. This is because mobile payment apps must be funded by other payment instruments,

such as credit cards, debit cards, or bank accounts. However, because some merchants may view

a mobile app as a payment method, Figure 5 ranks merchant types by the percentage of payments

merchants receive via mobile apps. The figure shows that only 10 percent of type 16 merchants

(mainly P2P) are made via mobile apps. The second highest are type 7 merchants (arts and enter-

tainment), who receive 5 percent of their payments via a mobile payment app.

Overall, Figure 5 shows very little use of payment apps relative to other payment methods,

ranging from 0 percent to 3 percent, with the exception of the type 16 and type 7 merchant types.

7. Discussion

This article provides information and analyzes the type of payments received by different mer-

chant categories. The 21 merchant types listed in Table 1 seem to cover all (or most) possible

types of spending made by U.S. consumers. Therefore, the consumer side of payments made to

merchants seems to be fully covered.

However, one limitation of the analysis in this paper is that from the merchant point of view,

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this article does not analyze business-to-business (B2B) payments because the Diary of Consumer

Payment Choice collects the data directly from consumers. Analyzing how merchants pay other

merchants requires data taken directly from merchant payment surveys.

A second limitation of the analysis (which is common to all research on use of payment meth-

ods) is that it cannot distinguish between supply-and-demand side effects of payment activities.

Demand constraints refer to merchants who refuse to accept a certain payment method, such as

credit cards, or surcharge consumers for the use of credit cards to cover their card processing

fees.2 Another example are merchants who, for safety reasons, may refuse to accept paper checks

or cash (to protect employees who work at night or in high-crime areas). In contrast, supply con-

straints refer to consumers who may not have all available payment methods (such as unbanked

consumers who must use either cash or prepaid cards).

Appendix A Measuring concentration of the use of payment instruments

The column on the right in Table 4 displays the HHI for each merchant type. High HHI scores

correspond to merchants who receive most payments using only a few payment methods. Low

HHI scores correspond to merchants who receive payments more evenly with a larger variety of

payment methods.3

The motivation for using concentration measures is as follows. Consider two merchants and

two payment instruments, say, cash and debit cards. Merchant 1 receives two payments: one with

cash and one with a debit card. Merchant 2 receives five cash payments and one debit card pay-

ment (a total of six payments). If we just count the incidence of use of each payment method for

each merchant, we would conclude that both merchants receive their payments using all available

payment methods (cash and debit cards). However, such a conclusion omits important infor-

mation that merchant 2 receives most of the payments with cash, and only a few payments are

received via debit cards. The concentration measures defined below would indicate significant

differences in the use of payment instruments between these two merchants.4

2For a worldwide comparison of credit card interchange fees (which are part of merchants’ card processing fees),see Hayashi and Minhas 2018.

3This paper focuses on merchant (payee) concentration. For consumer (payer) concentration, see Shy 2019.4Curry and George 1983 analyze and compare several concentration indices.

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I first define the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) for payment methods (see Table 4) made

to merchant m (m = 1, 2, . . . , 21) as the sum of the squared payment percentage shares:

HHIm = H(sHm, sKmsCm, sDm, sPm, sBm, sOm, sAm) (A.1)

= (sHm)2 + (sKm)2 + (sCm)2 + (sDm)2 + (sPm)2 + (sBm)2 + (sOm)2 + (sAm)2,

where superscripts H , K, C, D, P , B, O, A correspond to payment methods casH , checK, Credit

card, Debit card, Prepaid card, BANP, OBBP, and Account-to-account, respectively.

The highest concentration is obtained when a merchant is paid with only one payment method

(100 percent). For example, H(100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0) = H(0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100) = 1002 = 10, 000. The

lowest concentration for eight payment methods is obtained when a merchant receives payments

that are equally divided among the eight payment instruments—in this case, HHI = 8(1008 )2 =

1, 250. Therefore, with eight payment instruments, all concentration levels must be in the range

1, 250 ≤ HHIm ≤ 10, 000.

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16

Type Services provided by merchant type

1 Grocery stores, convenience stores without gas stations, pharmacies2 Gas stations3 Sit-down restaurants and bars4 Fast food restaurants, coffee shops, cafeterias, food trucks5 General merchandise stores, department stores, other stores, online shopping6 General services: hair dressers, auto repair, parking lots, laundry or dry cleaning, etc.7 Arts, entertainment, recreation8 Utilities not paid to the government: electricity, natural gas, water, sewer, trash, heating

oil9 Gas, taxis, airplanes, delivery

10 Telephone, internet, cable or satellite TV, video or music streaming services, movie the-aters

11 Building contractors, plumbers, electricians, HVAC, etc.12 Professional services: legal, accounting, architectural services; veterinarians; photogra-

phers or photo processors13 Hotels, motels, RV parks, campsites14 Rent for apartments, homes, or other buildings, real estate companies, property man-

agers, etc.15 Mortgage companies, credit card companies, banks, insurance companies, stock brokers,

IRA funds, mutual funds, credit unions, sending remittances16 Can be a gift or repayment to a family member, friend, or co-worker. Can be a payment

to somebody who did a small job for you.17 Charitable or religious donations18 Hospital, doctor, dentist, nursing homes, etc.19 Government taxes or fees20 Schools, colleges, childcare centers21 Public transportation and tolls

Table 1: Classification of 21 merchant types.

Source: The 2019 Diary of Consumer Payment Choice.

Merchant Obs Avg.Val Med.Val Med.Income Med.Income.w1. Grocery store 2,207 37 19 65,000 70,0002. Gas station 1,239 26 23 65,000 65,0003. Restaurant/bar 866 32 25 84,500 83,2684. Fast food/coffee shop 1,600 11 8 80,000 80,0005. General merchandise store 1,937 68 28 72,000 76,0006. General service 391 89 26 80,639 95,2557. Art/entertainment 355 66 20 75,000 75,0008. Non-government utility 433 113 84 65,000 65,0009. Taxi/airplane/delivery 76 105 15 130,000 125,00010. Phone/internet/cable 461 99 75 60,000 58,19911. Contractor/plumber/electrician 34 252 160 97,500 95,00012. Professional service 101 301 60 75,000 75,00013. Hotel/motel/campsite 43 186 137 100,000 100,46314. Rent 131 799 385 43,818 48,00015. Mortgage/insurance/credit card 1,059 504 201 71,400 75,00016. Person-to-person 452 127 25 70,000 65,00017. Charitable/religious donation 285 77 25 65,000 60,97418. Hospital/doctor/dentist 231 152 40 70,000 80,00019. Government taxes 109 621 90 70,000 55,32220. School/college/childcare centers 110 210 50 85,000 95,87721. Public transport/tolls 149 8 4 85,000 85,000

Table 2: Sample statistics on payments made to 21 merchant types.

Source: Author’s computations from the 2019 Survey and Diary of Consumer Payment Choice.Notes: The table displays information on 12,269 payments made by 2,564 respondents. Obs are the numberof observations (payments). All other values are in USD. “w” refers to weighted statistic.

18

In-person payments Remote paymentsMerchant Obs Avg.Val Med.Val Obs Avg.Val Med.Val1. Grocery store 2,125 36 19 80 74 452. Gas station 1,179 25 22 60 51 253. Restaurant/bar 853 32 25 13 27 274. Fast food/coffee shop 1,541 11 8 59 16 145. General merchandise store 1,417 67 24 519 71 396. General service 321 87 24 70 96 567. Art/entertainment 223 45 20 132 102 308. Non-government utility 64 97 79 366 115 879. Taxi/airplane/delivery 34 64 14 42 139 1710. Phone/internet/cable 51 92 74 409 99 7511. Contractor/plumber/electrician 15 393 195 18 129 11112. Professional service 61 394 60 40 158 5713. Hotel/motel/campsite 32 170 121 11 235 20014. Rent 66 978 430 62 635 30015. Mortgage/insurance/credit card 86 531 263 971 502 20016. Person-to-person 354 64 20 98 357 6417. Charitable/religious donation 187 55 20 98 120 3918. Hospital/doctor/dentist 136 141 40 95 169 4319. Government taxes 46 739 25 63 535 11720. School/college/childcare centers 54 154 28 55 263 9521. Public transport/tolls 98 7 6 51 8 2

Table 3: Sample statistics on in-person and remote payments by merchant type.

Source: Author’s computations from the 2019 Survey and Diary of Consumer Payment Choice.Notes: The table displays information on 12,255 payments made by 2,562 respondents. Obs are the numberof observations (payments). All other values are in USD.

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0%25%50%75%100%

20. Education/childcare

10. Phone/internet/cable

12. Professional service8. N

on−gov't utilit

y

18. Hospital/doctor/d

entist

19. Government ta

xes14. R

ent6. G

eneral service

15. Mortg

/insur/credit c

21. Public tra

nsport/tolls

7. Art/e

ntertainment 11. C

ontractor

5. General m

erchandise 2. Gas station

17. Charita

ble/religious

1. Grocery store

3. Restaurant/bar

4. Fast food/coffee shop

9. Taxi/airplane/delivery

13. Hotel/m

otel/campsite

16. Person−to−person

Payment method (%)

Met

hod

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ck

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dit

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it

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re1:

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eby

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ce:A

utho

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puta

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omth

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iary

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ote:

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resp

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chan

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sort

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yed

onto

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32

30

34

43

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48

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5

12

61

44

21

66

23

87

82

31

66

65

41

9. Taxi/airplane/delivery

10. Phone/internet/cable

13. Hotel/motel/campsite

5. General merchandise

15. Mortg/insur/credit c

2. Gas station

18. Hospital/doctor/dentist

1. Grocery store

8. Non−gov't utility

3. Restaurant/bar

21. Public transport/tolls

4. Fast food/coffee shop

12. Professional service

7. Art/entertainment

6. General service

11. Contractor

20. Education/childcare

14. Rent

19. Government taxes

17. Charitable/religious

16. Person−to−person

0 25 50 75Percentage of paper instrument payments

Mer

chan

t typ

e

Figure 2: Percentage share of paper instrument payments by merchant type.

Source: Author’s computations from the 2019 Diary of Consumer Payment Choice.Note: Based on 11,868 payments made by 2,543 respondents.

23

68

70

66

57

77

48

51

28

95

64

30

48

79

20

20

8

13

61

30

21

57

16. Person−to−person

17. Charitable/religious

15. Mortg/insur/credit c

14. Rent

20. Education/childcare

8. Non−gov't utility

19. Government taxes

11. Contractor

6. General service

12. Professional service

7. Art/entertainment

4. Fast food/coffee shop

21. Public transport/tolls

18. Hospital/doctor/dentist

10. Phone/internet/cable

3. Restaurant/bar

1. Grocery store

2. Gas station

5. General merchandise

13. Hotel/motel/campsite

9. Taxi/airplane/delivery

0 25 50 75Percentage of card payments

Mer

chan

t typ

e

Figure 3: Percentage share of card payments by merchant type.

Source: Author’s computations from the 2019 Diary of Consumer Payment Choice.Note: Based on 11,868 payments made by 2,543 respondents.

24

0

0

0

0

2

4

4

39

0

24

9

9

0

14

57

6

4

8

4

14

2

13. Hotel/motel/campsite

3. Restaurant/bar

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9. Taxi/airplane/delivery

2. Gas station

1. Grocery store

21. Public transport/tolls

5. General merchandise

6. General service

19. Government taxes

7. Art/entertainment

17. Charitable/religious

16. Person−to−person

18. Hospital/doctor/dentist

12. Professional service

11. Contractor

20. Education/childcare

14. Rent

10. Phone/internet/cable

8. Non−gov't utility

15. Mortg/insur/credit c

0 20 40Percentage of card payments

Mer

chan

t typ

e

Figure 4: Percentage share of electronic payments by merchant type.

Source: Author’s computations from the 2019 Diary of Consumer Payment Choice.Note: Based on 11,868 payments made by 2,543 respondents.

25

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11. Contractor

12. Professional service

13. Hotel/motel/campsite

18. Hospital/doctor/dentist

2. Gas station

3. Restaurant/bar

15. Mortg/insur/credit c

1. Grocery store

8. Non−gov't utility

19. Government taxes

4. Fast food/coffee shop

9. Taxi/airplane/delivery

14. Rent

17. Charitable/religious

21. Public transport/tolls

5. General merchandise

20. Education/childcare

6. General service

10. Phone/internet/cable

7. Art/entertainment

16. Person−to−person

0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0Percentage of mobile app payments (%)

Mer

chan

t typ

e

Figure 5: Percentage share of mobile app payments by merchant type.

Source: Author’s computations from the 2019 Diary of Consumer Payment Choice.Note: Based on 12,043 payments made by 2,553 respondents.

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