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Hooked in America
Running head: HOOKED IN AMERICA THE BIRTH OF ADDICTION
Hooked in America
The Birth of Addiction and
Recovery Treatment in America.
Fred Stinson III
PSY 7110
Capella University
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ABSTRACT
From the earliest human record of Sumerian people in 5000 B.C., human being have
experimented, cultivated, and created different drugs for a variety of purposes. Since
Columbus landing on Plymouth Rock in 1620, alcohol and drug use has also been used
for similar purposes and have been a staple of America society. Drugs have been used
for medical, religious, and recreational purposes and to cure, fix, reduce, eliminate all
kinds of human feelings and suffering. The overuses of drugs have lead to addiction,
which is a physical and psychological disease of the human brain and body. Exploration
of addiction in America may indicate the problems and solutions that propel Americans
to implementing social, religious, legal, and intervention constraints to control its spread.
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Hooked in America
The Birth of Addiction and Recovery Treatment in America.
Alcoholism and drug addiction has a history that expands 250 years in America.
Likewise, recovery has paralleled the history of addiction. But for centuries there has
existed conflicts between the legal, religious, and scientific treatment of addiction. The
history is discussed to the extent that it provides insight into the nature of addiction and
treatment interventions (Lemanski, 2001). Addiction will be used interchangeably to
define both alcoholics and drug addicts. Although addiction is often characterized as a
chronic and relapsing disease, a study of its history and treatment my led to a deeper
understanding of voluntary behaviors and far-reaching negative consequences.
Drugs and the official definition of Addiction
Addiction has many agents that are classified into eleven psychoactive categories.
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder IV (DSM-IV; American
Psychiatric Association [APA], 1994) classifications are alcohol; amphetamines or
similarly substituted phenylethylamine substance; caffeine; cannabis; cocaine;
hallucinogens; inhalants; nicotine; opioids; phencyclidine or similarly substance; and
sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics. These eleven psychoactive agents have many
chemical, trade, and street names. The one thing all psychoactive drugs perform is that
they affect the central nervous system (CNS), therefore, altering thoughts, moods, and or
behaviors. Each psychoactive drug has unique properties and effect the CNS is different
ways. Thus, the degree of addiction is measured by the potential of the drug; some drugs
have low addiction potential while others have high potential (Beck, Wright, Newman,
& Liese, 1993). Psychoactive drugs reach the CNS and brain by being ingested orally,
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snorted, smoked, or intravenously. Smoking and intravenously drug methods penetrated
the CNS quickest and have the highest intensity and potential for the development of
addiction (Beck et al, 1993).
The American Psychiatric Association as cited by Inaba & Cohen (2004) defines
addiction as a compulsive psychological and behavioral manifestation characterized by:
often use the drug in larger amount or for longer period of time than intended.
unsuccessful try to cut down or control the drug use.
spend a great deal of time in activities to obtain the substance or recovery from it
use.
give up or reduce important social, occupational, or recreational activities because
of the drug use.
continue to use despite knowledge that the drug use is causing physical or
psychological problems (p.66).
If a voluntary substance user meets all the above definitions through alcohol or drug
use, they are classified as addicted. Therefore, alcoholics and drug addicts are those
users who have lost control of their use and the substance has become the most important
thing in their lives (Inaba & Cohen, 2004).
Drug use in autobiography
In 1612, John Rolf of England introduced the first known drug, tobacco, a
stimulant and mild relaxant, to Jamestown Virginia (Inaba & Cohen, 2004). Tobacco
was used by the upper class in small to moderate amounts, a pinch of snuff or chopped
leafs in the cheek provided a mild simulation to CNS. Many poorer classes and slaves
had to smoke it in pipes because it was the cheapest low-grade tobacco. Tobacco was
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also used as medicine to cure headaches, snakebites, stomach pains, and toothaches. By
1930, Inaba and Cohen s record that cigarette tax provided a rich source of revenue for
federal and state governments, southern colony farmers, media, and retailers. After the
landing of the Mayflower alcohol, a downer, was ingested daily to relieve inhibition and
boredom. Most importantly, rum and whiskey was the chief medium of exchange in
Americas economy and slave trade. Another drink that became popular during this time
period was coffee and tea, which are both stimulants. In New York and Boston, popular
coffeehouses served coffee and tea to intellectuals, politicians, and doing literary
discussions. Sometime after 1620, alcohol, tobacco, coffee, teas and marijuana had
become the drug staples of America societies. (Inaba & Cohen, 2004).
In 1764, King Georgia III of England ordered Georgia Washington to direct
colonies to plant and cultivate kemp, which is marijuana. Kemp had two useful purposes;
it was used to make rope for ships sails; and it was a psychoactive drug that was used to
produce a euphoric feeling of wellness (Inaba & Cohen, 2004). Therefore, Americas
drugs were to cure ailments, to cope with the stress from a harsh new environment, to
support for the next two centuries the Americas economy, which include the funding of
the American Revolution and slave trade (Inaba & Cohen, 2004). By the mid 1800s,
government and business exploited legal psychoactive substances such as tobacco,
alcohol, coffee, and tea while making them readily available to the masses.
Historically opiates are the prototypical addictive drug among most civilized
countries, and in America it provided the same service. By the time the American
Revolutionary war beginning an opium epidemic from England had reached the shores of
the America. Inaba and Cohen (2004) cited that opium was used in the American
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Revolutionary war mainly to treat injured soldiers; it was an effective painkiller. It was
also used to treat diarrhea, and prescribed for almost every illness. However, in 1803, a
German pharmacist F.W. Serturner isolated the active ingredient of opium and named the
substance morphine after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams and sleep (Narcotic
Anonymous, 1998). Morphine is ten times as powerful of a painkiller than opium.
During the American Revolution opium and morphine were used indiscriminately as a
painkiller and to relieve social aliments (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998).
About forty years later, the invention of the hypodermic syringe to administer
morphine indirectly into the blood steam would unknowingly launch America first
epidemic, morphine drug use. It use endure for more than a century (Narcotic
Anonymous, 1998). By 1868, morphine injections were cheaper than alcohol. Demand
fueled the low cost and lean to its widespread use. Most physicians believed morphine to
be a harmless substance, but an extremely effective painkiller (Narcotic Anonymous,
1998). American reliance on morphine as a medicinal painkiller reached it peak during
the Civil War period. Interestingly, most users were prescription drug users.
Ironically, the most common usage of opium was not soldiers, but was children
medicine labeled under friendly names such as Gofreys Cordial, Munns Elixir, and
Mother Bailey Quieting Syrup, Mrs Winslows Soothing Syrup, Darbys
Carminative, and Ayers Cherry Pectorial (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998). These
friendly paten medicines and tonics did not list ingredients ( Inaba &Cohen,2004). A
drug derived from opiate is laudanum that dissolved easily into a liquid form and was
given by adults to children to relief a variety of aliments. Narcotic Anonymous (1998)
claim that poor women who did textile work to support their family had few alternatives
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but to dope their children with laudanum quieting syrup. These patent medicines were
loaded with opium, morphine, cocaine, marijuana, and alcohol (Inaba & Cohen, 2004).
Many other opium-based mixtures were popular with older white women from middle
and upper socioeconomic classes.
Cocaine was introduced to Americas society in 1850 and became almost as
popular as patent medicine with opium. In 1887, the Hay Fever Association declared
cocaine its official remedy for aliments and social discomforts (Inaba & Cohen, 2004).
As a result, cocaine popularity grew immensely as businesses begin raking in huge profits
from its sale in drugs stores, by mail order, and in catalogues such as Sear Roebuck. It is
also known that even Coca-Cola, a popular drink, contained about 5 mg of cocaine from
1886 to 1903 (Inaba & Cohen, 2004). Cocaine was also known as an aphrodisiac, used to
treat asthma, used to treat morphine addicts. One would have to conclude that
Americas birthing pains manifested drug use, which would proliferate the next 100 years
of its history.
The Twentieth first Century Drugs
The dawn of the twentieth first century in America was explosive as industrial
and manufactory productivity evolved. But so did Americans history of psychoactive
substances use. By the early 1900, a drug kit sold by Macys and Sears Roebuck two of
the most famous corporations, included for sale to the public a vial of cocaine, heroin,
and reusable syringe; it could be purchased through mail order catalogues. In 1908,
marijuana use shifted from making rope to widespread smoking of marijuana; it was an
alternative high to alcohol. In 1920, cigarette use multiplied as pioneer of Camel
cigarettes produced by the J.R. Reynolds begin to expand its market to women, to young,
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and those who wanted to lose weight. After the 1920, Inaba and Cohen (2004) reported
that new pharmacological technologies and refinements of drugs led to the introduction
of new and more sophisticated drugs, which could reach the CNS faster and more
efficiently. Amphetamine, a stimulant, was first introduced during World War II to
improve physician performance, fight fatigue, heighten endurance, and elevate fighting
spirit. By the 1950s it was coined Americas drug for it help you stay awoke and alert
while increasing productivity with a nip of euphoria. It was an effective appetite
suppressant and had a calming and focusing effect on the CNS. A similar agent,
methamphetamines became even more popular because it provided longer effects on the
CNS. Both Amphetamine and methamphetamines have been used medically to treat low
blood pressure, narcolepsy, schizophrenia, and alcoholism.
The science of pharmacology recognized that chemical brain imbalance were
causes of mental illnesses, which led to the development of 50-100 new psychiatric
medicines and synthetic drugs during 1940s 1960s. Synthetic drugs were drugs that
were synthesized rather than being extracted from natural products such as alcohol,
opium, cocaine, coffee, and nicotine. Soon after their development, Sedative- hypnotics
and benzodiazepines such as Libruim, Valuium, Xanax, Ritlan, Amphetamine, Rohyprol,
Quaaludes, Tricyclic, and MAO inhibitors dominated the prescription drug market. These
upper drugs provided a feel of confident, outgoing, eagerness, and ecstatic feelings in
different degrees and intensity. Downers drugs such as codeine, OxyContin, Vicodin and
Demrol were effective designer painkillers. Synthetic all arounders were hallucinogenic
and new psychedelics such as LSD, MDA, PCP, CBR, and MOMA (estasy). All
Arounders were anesthetics and distorted sensory messages to and from the brain stem.
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Lastly, the design of Rave and club drugs were used by thousand of young people. The
most common psycho-stimulants were X and E, which delivered a sense of wellness,
togetherness, and unity. As a result of these new pharmacological technologies,
Americas drug use became commonplace and socially accepted. However, these new,
designers, high potent, and high dose drugs led to abuse and dependency (Inaba &
Cohen, 2004). Surprisingly, adding to the drug movement was increased recreational use
of stimulants and depressant spurred by the government allowing for personal freedom
and growth of a self controlling and monitoring middle class population.
Natural history of addiction
The automation of cigarette rolling machine in 1884, a milder strain of tobacco,
mass advertising, and a more plentiful supply vastly expanded the market of cigarettes
and its addictive agent nicotine. By mid 1950s cigarette smoking was entrenched in
America society as its use rise to millions. Inaba and Cohen (2004) research estimated
that America Revolutionary war produced 400,000 morphine addicts in the Army alone.
The social conditions of two populations, veteran and well-to-do white women were the
majority of addicts (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998). The problem of opiate addiction was
seen as unfortunate medical problem of war veterans and was looked upon with some
sympathy because they had fought for the countrys independency (Narcotic Anonymous,
1998). Because many physicians were not aware of the addictive potential of patent
medicines and opiate drugs, they indirectly caused iatrogenic ( physician induced)
addiction, which was a common problems. By 1900, Inaba and Cohen (2004) estimated
300,000 opiate-dependent people in the United States. However, the wave of immigrant
that overruns American shores at the turn of the century would begin to change
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Americans view of addicts dramatically within two decades (Narcotic Anonymous,
1998).
The proliferation of addiction had other allies heroin, cocaine, and amphetamine;
they became as popular as alcohol and shifted the cultures view of addiction as
compared to that of war veterans and citizen illnesses (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998).
American became addicted to heroin as a result on its availability, the hypodermic
syringe, and its calming effect on the CNS. Cocaine was a fashionable expensive high for
the upper class that snorted or injected it. But the development of smokable freebase
cocaine and a cheaper agent crack made cocaine available to the masses. As a result,
cocaine addiction specifically crack became prevalent among minorities. Smoked cocaine
reached the CNS quicker rising the risk of dependency. Freebasing and crack cocaine
became an epidemic by mid 1980. Media, new coverage, and the effect of drug itself
fueled the popularity of these drugs. The powerful rush of cocaine lasted 7-10, resulting
in a crash that can be only overcome by smoking again and again, which lead to
widespread addiction. Synthetic smokable methamphetamine called Ice and Crank
caused thousand of recreational users to be addicted to its euphoria effects. In 1940s and
1950s civilian truck drivers, workers of monotonous factory jobs, and college student
cramming for a exam used methamphetamines to stay awake and to increase
productivity. Moreover, amphetamine use soared as a diet drug between the 1950s and
1960s. In 1970, Inaba and Cohen (2004) estimated that 6-8% of Americans were using
12 billion pills, tablets, and capsules for weight loss, alertness, and energy.
However, it was not the drugs themselves that made addiction hideous; it was the
drug related crimes, poverty, lost souls, and families that became the source of
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considerable concern to social, political, and religious leaders. Despite several legal and
social stances, addiction would strengthen its grip in America as a wave of immigrants
from Europe and Asia increased the population of urban tenements and the development
of slums. As poverty among the new arrivals increased, so did the use of alcohol and
narcotics. By the middle 1900, addiction had taken a firm hold upon a significant number
of Americans (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998).
By the second World War addicts fitted neatly into two categories; addicts who
were addicted to pills and prescriptions drugs such as sedative, barbiturates, laudanum,
Demerol, or the other who were considered dope fiends who sought out any kind of
drugs to deal with physiological and psychological problems. The recklessness and
social tyranny of dope fiends in effect caused increased searches, harassments, and
incarceration by legal authorities as they tried to reduce social demands for drugs.
Unfortunately, Americas stance was met with resistant as social ideologies
encouraged drug use and addiction. In 1930, William Randolph Hearsts newspapers
uneventful popularized marijuana by making it sound foreign, demonic, and menacing.
The federal and state government and media portrayed the same kinds of fear tactics, but
it backfired and a new generation of marijuana users emerged (Inaba & Cohen, 2004). It
was symbol of youthful rebellion. Although marijuana had medicinal values, in 1950
many famous jazz musicians, poets, and writers glamorized it use for creativity. In 1960,
Dr. Timothy Leary, a known cocaine and psychedelics user, encourage the Youth of
America to turn on, tune in, and drop out. He advocated drug experimentation with
psychedelics, cocaine, LSD, marijuana, and mushroom to alter the mind to gain insight.
Learys ideology later led to the Hippie and Summer of Love movements in 1967 that
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The Criminalization of Addiction:
In opposition to health, social, and political liabilities, Americans enacted
hundreds of legislations to discourage all alcohol and drug use for non-medicinal
purposes since the 1800. The New Era American also called the Progressive Era fought
to eliminate moderation of alcohol temperance. The Anti-alcohol coalitions claimed that
there was no compromise because the great debaters claimed that alcohol abuse was the
result of or cause poverty. America was not the first civilization to experience social
disorders from alcohol and drug addiction. China and England had major addiction
problems that they were successful dealing with. Therefore, Americans would
incorporate drug laws from both governments in an attempt to control alcohol and use
(Narcotic Anonymous, 1998).
The Chinese appetite for opium inspired the first American drug laws. America s
first drug law was enacted in San Francisco, California in 1875 to deal with the ten
thousand Chinese railroad gangs who open up opium dens commonly used in their
homeland. The law was unsuccessful in dislodging opium and other drug use as similar
laws in Virginia City, Nevada, in 1876. By 1914, there were twenty-seven city and state
laws against citizens and immigrants smoking opium (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998). As
a result, America first attempts at opium legislation and control resulted in addicts going
underground to buy, sell, and trade drugs. Just as previous attempts, the laws stimulated
and new menace, illegal drug trading (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998. Thus, legislations
became inadvertently responsible for the hopelessness that characterized the disease of
addiction for the next half of twentieth century in America.
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Nevertheless, in 1900 Dr. Benjamin Rush founded the Temperance Movement;
his goal was to enact prohibition on alcohol and tobacco (Inaba & Cohen). His
movement was unsuccessful for several reasons. Inaba and Cohen (2004) cited that one
reason alcohol restriction and even prohibition was overturn was because alcohol was
valued as a source of major funds for corporations and excise tax. Likewise, state laws
that passed prohibition on cigarette sales, failed because they were unenforceable
resulting in a repealed by late 1920.
Later in 1900, Dr. John Witherspoon became the President of the American
Medial Association and cited in his speech that the medical community had a duty to
save people from the disease of opium addiction (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998). He
declared that drug addicts were a menace and called them hydra-headed monsters
stalking through the civilized world, wrecking lives and happy homes. He proceed to
elaborate that thousands of addicts were filling the countrys jails and lunatic asylums,
and taking from the unfortunates the precious promise of happiness and eternal life. As a
result of his compelling authoritative evidence, the Federal opium Commission was
established in 1903. Harris Wright was appointed its commissioner and postulated that
same year that America imported 16, 000 pounds of opium for smoking and eating and
that 2, 600,000 pounds of coca leaves were imported yearly (Narcotic Anonymous,
1998).
To rid America of tonic and patent medicines, The Pure Food and Drug Act of
1906 was passed. It prohibited interstate commerce of adulterated foods and drugs; it
also required accurate labeling of the ingredients. In 1909, the opium Exclusion Act was
enacted to encourage the reduction of opium worldwide and in the same year Congress
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increase in organized crime, Americans had mixed feelings about the benefits and
liabilities of alcohol. The majority felt that Prohibition created serious problems for the
country; thus, Prohibition was repeal in 1933 (Inaba & Cohen, 2004).
The federal Narcotic Division with it punitive interpretation of Harrison Act
intimidate doctors and medical centers into discontinuing treatment for drug addicts and
pressured them into reporting users to the authorities (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998). Over
the next two decades, the Federal Government swiftly legislated fifty-five laws defining
narcotics usage, sell, and distribution. Local government took the same stance and
enacted hundreds of local statues outlawing addiction. One interestingly example, a local
statue cited that it was illegal for any two known or suspected addicts to be seen together
resulting is fines or incarceration to insane asylums (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998).
The efforts of federal and state legislation appeared promising and fruitful on the
surface, but this type attitude only drove narcotic addicts underground. America adopted
an anti-maintenance position that resulted in the harassment and even imprisonment of
doctors who continue to treat addiction by prescribing opiates. By 1919, in the US v.
Doremus case the courts would officially cite that addiction and it medical treatment was
a crime. Drug policy has shifted from supply reduction to demand reduction.
In 1932, Harry J. Anslinger became the first Drug Czar of the newly established
Federal Bureau of Narcotics. He vigorously enforced cannabis laws while using fear of
rape, murder, and social chaos to support his propaganda campaign. Headlines of
marijuana use read drug-crazed Negroes; marijuana is an addictive drug; its effect on
the degenerate races; and sexual promiscuity with white women thrust federal and state
government to enact legislation to wipeout marijuana. His strong campaign against
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marijuana use led to 46 states passing antimarijuana legislations. The Federal government
responded likewise in 1937 and enacted The Marijuana Tax Stamp Act which banned the
growing, selling, and using of cannabis sativa, marijuana (Inaba & Cohen, 2004).
The passage of Baggs Act 1951 and the Narcotic Control Act 1956 were
additional acts that imposed harsher penalties. The Harrison Act and its rigid
interpretation was a one-two punch that driven addicts underground to street violence,
disease, arrest, conviction, and incarceration. Addicts could no longer seek medical
treatment; thus they engaged in more illegal activities to support their habits. The
environment for addiction was hostile. A portrait of the Americas addicts can be read in
William Borough famous book Junkie that described addicts of the forties and fifties
and the grim confirmation of limited treatment options available to addicts (Narcotic
Anonymous, 1998).
The Controlled Substance Act of 1970 was enacted to legislate against
methamphetamine, but the street market expanded (Inaba & Cohen, 2004). The act,
moreover, established and provided regulatory power to The Drug Enforcement
Administration (DEA). Within a year, the DEA categorized all drugs danger drugs into
five schedules, which limit the availability, use, and abuse of the major drugs such as
cocaine, marijuana, heroin, and methamphetamines (Inaba & Cohen, 2004).
Media, film, and literature have characterized the prosperity of the 1950 - 1980s,
but addicts suffered insurmountable pain and despair. Unfortunately, another significant
change would occur that spread the degradation of addiction in the United States. The
exodus of European immigrants moving out of the crowed cities while African
Americans and Hispanics and moved in exploded addictive behaviors. Stigmatization
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and criminalization mushroomed as report after report linked drug use to crime. Both
developments, however, would lay the foundation for the social interventions of alcohol
and drug dependency (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998).
The War between Psychiatry and Religious
For centuries in America there has existed conflicts between psychiatry and
religious treatment of addiction. In 1935, the most important and well-known
development in this century pertaining to the treatment of alcohol and drug problems was
the program of Alcohol Anonymous (Fajardo, 2005).Another paramount development
was an article published in 1939 by Dr. William Silkworth in The Lancet, A New
Approach to Psychotherapy in Chronic Alcoholism. In the article, Dr. William Silkworth
describes the process and principle for recovery from alcoholism (Fajardo, 2005).
Dr. William D. Silkworth speech acknowledged that doctors have recognized for
years that alcoholism was some form of moral psychology and of urgent importance to
alcoholics. He claimed that the treatment of alcoholism real, but the application
prescribed difficult beyond our conception (Alcoholic Anonymous, 2001). He cited that
an alcoholic should be freed from his physical craving though hospital procedure before
psychological measures can maximum benefits. He described chronic alcoholic as a
manifestation of an allergy, in which the phenomenon of craving develops. Thus allergic
aloholic types can never safely use alcohol. The sensation sought by alcoholic is so
elusive that while they admit it is injurious, they cannot differentiate the true from the
false. As a result of alcoholism insane acts are repeated over and over unless a person
can experience and entire psychic change; there is little hope of recovery. He postulated
that something was needed to produce an essential psychic change. Psychiatric efforts is
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considerable, but we physician most have made little impressive upon the problems.
Finally, he stated many type do not respond to the ordinary psychology approach
(Alcoholic Anonymous, 2001).
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde described the alcoholic and addict. The addicted person
was absolutely unable to stop on the basis of self-knowledge; thus he was on one more
journey to the asylum. The behaviors of addicts were absurd and incomprehensible with
respect to the disease of addiction. Using alcohol and drugs lead to extremes until they
lost everything in life. In the end, they took a trip, swearing off forever, physical
exercise, reading inspiritual books, going to health farm and sanitariums, accepting
voluntary committed to asylums, but nothing relieved them of their disease. The precise
definition of such damnation and dereliction we call plain insanity. People, who
exhibited splendid judgment and determination, yet relapse nevertheless. This
characterized the psychological life of alcoholic and addict (Alcoholic Anonymous,
2001).
To deal with hopeless of alcoholics and addicts, various treatment and dispensing
clinics were open to detoxification alcoholic and as opium maintenance (Narcotic
Anonymous, 1998). By 1919 thirteen municipalities in America had forty-four clinics.
Seeming to appear as threats to the Federal anti-maintenance policy the government had
all treatment and clinics closed by 1924; therefore leaving no government programs for
the treatment of addiction. Even though debate raged over the treatment of addiction,
crime and drug related problems continued to spiral out of control. America became
sincerely concern with the associated issues of narcotic use throughout the country.
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Sometime in 1930, Jung treated Rowland Hazard an investment banker and former state
senator from Rhode Island for one year. Jung told him he had seen alcoholic recovery
after experience some type of religious conversion. After their meeting, Hazard
associated with the Oxford Group a Christian movement action in America. The Oxford
Group a religious movement was founded in 1908 by Frank Buchman and was extremely
popular during the 1920s and 1930s (Finley, 2000). Bill Wilson a successful stockbroker
in New York had a progressively serious alcohol problem and was told by Hazard from
Oxford Group the peace of mind and sense of purpose he felt in his live because of the
Oxford Group practice.
Later, Wilson was prescribed with a copy of William James 1902 book The
Varieties of Religious Experience, which was recommended reading by the Oxford
Group. In 1909, Jung and Sigmund Freud travel to America to lecture at a celebration of
the 20th anniversary of Clark University while there they met with Williams James to
share psychological ideas. Jung (1948-1958) wrote A Psychological Approach to the
Trinity about conversion experiences; it acclaimed how spiritual experiences came to
people in dire circumstance, sever anguish, and calamity (Finley, 2000).
Lemanski (2001) reported that recovery movement over the past 250 years has
been more religious than a scientific enterprise. In 1840, the Washingtonians and the
Women Christian Temperance Union offered recovery program that required acceptance
of religious dogma. The Emmanuel Movement included some Freudian psychoanalysis
to it spiritual approach Christian base (Lamanski, 2001). The Oxford Group Movement
was Moral Re-Armament, in which finding God led to morality (Lamanski, 2001).
Lamanski (2001) report that religious does not work for everybody, but psychological
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treatment can help more clients achieve recovery by offering a broader arrow of
treatment modalities and matching client to the modalities that worked best for him or
her. All have been successful with some significant percentage of client, but Primary
psychotherapeutic intervention Freudian psychoanalysis to more successful intervention
(ML). Fajardo (2005) report that the first person alcoholism counselor was Courtney
Baylor in 1913. The Common Sense Drinking, a book that influenced both Dr. William
Silkworth and Bill Wilson was instrumental the development of treatment models. The
Minnesota Model born out of Dr. Nelson Bradley and Dr. Dan Anderson took a team
approach (Fajardo, 2005). In 1996, The American Society of Addiction Medicine
(ASAM) devoted five chapters to the twelve Step programs, which is one full section of
its manual (Fajardo, 2005). The 12 Step demonstrated effectively the ability to identify
the problems, define the solution and design a program of actions necessary to bring
about recovery (Fajardo, 2005). Iabna & Cohen Drug courts and laws like California
Proposition 36 mandated the availability to treatment had support of public and treatment
community.
The Countrys Dilemma
Beck et al (1993) report that addiction has become a countrywide dilemma of
serious and legal problems. In fact, addiction is responsible fro more than 25% of
property crimes, 15% of violent crimes, and 14% of homicides per year. American
financial loss is estimated at $1.7 billion per year. The cost of criminal activities against
addiction by federal agencies is approximately $2.5 billion in 1988, compared to $1.76
billion spent in 1986. In addition, at least 14 million Americans used illegal drugs every
month and peak months the total climbs to 25 millions users. Expert estimated that
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approximately 2.3% of Americans over 12 years of age have used illegal drugs. He also
states that one of every hundred people in the United States have serious problems with
alcohol and are by clinical standards considered alcoholics. The number of regular
cigarette smokers is estimated at approximately 49.4 million Americans. In addiction,
Beck et al (1993) found that 37% of addicts had coexisting Axis I mental disorder; thus
concluding that coexistence of addiction with other psychiatric disorder is very common.
Alcohol use effect every body organ, heart, brain, liver, and stomach. Cocaine use
is known to produce serious effects on the neurological, cardiovascular, and respiratory
system. Cigarette smoking is link to cancer, heart disease, and birth defects. A major
problem with heroin, nicotine, cocaine, and alcohol is chronic relapse; most addicts will
relapse within 3 months. Pharmacological interventions such as antabuse, 12-step
programs, methadone, naltrexone, and other preventive drugs are only limited in there
effectiveness in eradicating addiction.
Despite the American best efforts at domestic control through education,
international interdiction, and vocations, the problems of addiction seen to be
multiplying. Hunt, In a country with fluid social structure, a growing underclass of the
poor, delinquent , and criminal, and influx of million of ill educated immigrants, a
scientific way of treating alcohol and drug addiction was offered the leader of America a
way to make social order out of chaos.
Aaron Beck Substance Abuse Therapy
Beck et al (1993) cite that addiction affect the human reward mechanism of the
brain, which led to the two components of addiction, compulsive and obsessive
behaviors. He also noted that social, environmental, and personality factors greatly affect
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the development of addiction is way far beyond the pharmacological properties of the
agents. Moreover, Beck (1993) indicated that addiction have certain cluster of addictive
attitudes that lean to the despair associated with addiction.
Sociological problem as well as psychological issues factor poverty, lack education,
vocations (Beck et al) In 1960, Georgia Miller (Hunt, 1993) began a forceful movement
known as the cognitive revolution. The movement explored human mental processes and
expanded the knowledge of how the mind works. Later, an extraordinary development of
six old sciences, cognitive psychology, neuroscientist, logician, anthropologist,
psycholinguist, computer scientist collectively explored into a new dynamic knowledge
of mental processes, especially the study of addiction.
Therefore, successful treatment depends on the effectiveness in dealing with
addictive potentials. Cognitive therapy is a well documented and research efficacious
treatment model to deal with the pressing problems of addiction. Cognitive therapy is
recommend by many psychologists. Cognitive therapy is a useful mesh of medial and 12-
Step programs to deal with addiction.
Beck et al. the main variable that influence treatment is the addicts avail
themselves to all treatment opportunities, and the effects by the attitudes of treatment
providers and clinical. The high-risk situations of drug abuse are negative and positive
emotional and physical states, interpersonal conflict, social pressure or exposure to drug
cues. Beck describes four cognitive processes: self-efficacy refers to ones judgment t
deal competently with challenging on high-risk situation; outcome expectancies refer to
the anticipation about effect of a addiction A/D or activity. Attributable drug use to
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feeling better internal and external factors; decision-making that substance use is a result
of multiple decision dependency on decision may or may not lead to substance use
References:
Alcoholic Anonymous (2001) Fourth Edition. Alcoholic Anonymous World Services,Inc. New York City.
Bensely, D.A. (1998). Critical thinking in psychology: A unified skills approach. PacificGrove, CA: Brook/Cole Publishing.
Beck, A.T., Wright, F. D., Newman, C.F., & Liese, B.S. (1993). Cognitive therapy ofsubstance abuse: New York: The Guilford Press.
Fajardo, C. (2005) Alcohol/drug counseling and the 12 steps of Alcoholics Anonymous.Retrieved: January 17, 2006. fromhttp://www.manisses.com/AP/online/archives/2005/Jan.htm
Finlay, S.W. (2000) Influence of Carl Jung and William James on the origin ofAlcoholics Anonymous.Review of General Psychology, 4(1),pp. 3-12. RetrievedJanuary 12, 2006 from EBSCOhost database gpr413 athttp://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=pdh&an=gpr413.
Groves, P.M., & Rebec, G.V. (1988). The introduction of biological psychology (3rd ed.).
Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers.
Hunt, M. (1994). The story of psychology. New York: Anchor Books.
Inaba, D., Cohen, W.E. (2004) Uppers, downers, all arounders, (5th ed.).
Narcotic Anonymous. (1998). Miracles happens: the birth of Narcotics anonymous inwords and pictures. Chatsworth: CA. Narcotic Anonymous World Service
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Lemanski, M. (2001). A History of Addiction and Recovery in the United States.Tucson, AZ: Sharp Press. Retrieved: January 17, 2006 fromhttp://www.self-renewal.com/history_of_addiction_and_recovery.htm
Wein, S. (1998). Platos Moral Psychology. Retrieved January 15, 2006. fromhttp://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Anci/AnciWein.htm.
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