HobbesHobbes LockeLocke RousseauRousseauSta

te o

f natu

re:

Sta

te o

f natu

re:

Multitude of Multitude of individualsindividuals

Equality, warEquality, war

Natural law, Natural law, property (labor property (labor creates property), creates property), community justicecommunity justice

Noble savagesNoble savages (A-social (A-social individuals)individuals)

Decay (property, Decay (property,

institutions, manners, institutions, manners, civilization)civilization)

Civil SocietyCivil SocietyR

easo

ns fo

r en

terin

g th

e co

ntra

ctR

easo

ns fo

r en

terin

g th

e co

ntra

ct

To gain peace & To gain peace & security (≠ prospects security (≠ prospects of a violent death)of a violent death)

To establish To establish organized law and organized law and order provided by order provided by predictable and predictable and impartial impartial institutionsinstitutions

(impossibility of returning (impossibility of returning to the past) Need for a to the past) Need for a social contract that social contract that recuperates the best of recuperates the best of the state of nature + the the state of nature + the best of civilization best of civilization

Ind

ivid

uals a

lienate

…In

div

iduals a

lienate

…

All of their rights (but All of their rights (but self-protection)self-protection)

Sovereign power is Sovereign power is delegated and given delegated and given a form a form Subjects Subjects

No alienation of No alienation of rights, but rights, but “Fiduciary power” “Fiduciary power” institute the institute the governmentgovernment

All of their rights (“total All of their rights (“total alienation of each alienation of each associate”)associate”)

No delegationNo delegation

Sov

Sov Absolute (alienable)Absolute (alienable) ≠ ≠ Symbol of Symbol of

AbsolutismAbsolutismAbsolute & inalienable Absolute & inalienable (the people)(the people)

1642-1651--1642-1651--England's Puritan Revolution and Civil WarsEngland's Puritan Revolution and Civil Wars1648--1648--Peace of Westphalia ends Thirty Years' WarPeace of Westphalia ends Thirty Years' War1648--1648--King Charles I of England is publicly beheaded in London --King Charles I of England is publicly beheaded in London --

Outbreak of the Fronde (revolt of the nobility) in France 1649Outbreak of the Fronde (revolt of the nobility) in France 164916511651—Thomas Hobbes publishes —Thomas Hobbes publishes LeviathanLeviathan, “the first general , “the first general

theory of politics in the English language” (E & E 356)theory of politics in the English language” (E & E 356)1660--1660--English monarchy is restoredEnglish monarchy is restored1661--1661--Louis XIV begins his personal rule at age 14Louis XIV begins his personal rule at age 141663--1663--Eight proprietors are granted Carolina in the New World by Eight proprietors are granted Carolina in the New World by

Charles IICharles II1670--1670--Secret treaty between Charles II and Louis XIV (Treaty of Secret treaty between Charles II and Louis XIV (Treaty of

Dover)Dover)1673--1673--England's Test Act excludes Roman Catholics from holding England's Test Act excludes Roman Catholics from holding

officeoffice1682--1682--Louis XIV moves government and court to Versailles Louis XIV moves government and court to Versailles 1688--1688--England's Glorious Revolution –Birth of Constitutional England's Glorious Revolution –Birth of Constitutional

MonarchyMonarchy1689-90—1689-90—John Locke publishes The John Locke publishes The Two Treatises of GovernmentTwo Treatises of Government1689--1689--England's Bill of Rights England's Bill of Rights 1707--1707--Union between Scotland and England under the name of Union between Scotland and England under the name of

"Great Britain" "Great Britain"

Hobbes & Locke

RousseauRousseau1723--Louis XV attains majority1723--Louis XV attains majority1750—Jean Jacques Rousseau’s essay 1750—Jean Jacques Rousseau’s essay A Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and A Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and

SciencesSciences is awarded by the Academy of Dijon is awarded by the Academy of Dijon 1751-72—Publication of 1751-72—Publication of The Enciclopédie The Enciclopédie in France (edited by Diderot, with contributions by in France (edited by Diderot, with contributions by

d’Alembert, Holbach, Helvetius, Turgot, Haller, Morellet, Quesney, Voltaire, and d’Alembert, Holbach, Helvetius, Turgot, Haller, Morellet, Quesney, Voltaire, and Montesquieu)Montesquieu)

1752--September 14, Great Britain adopts the Gregorian calendar this day 1752--September 14, Great Britain adopts the Gregorian calendar this day 1755—Rousseau’s 1755—Rousseau’s Discourse on the Origin of InequalityDiscourse on the Origin of Inequality. Rousseau also publishes his . Rousseau also publishes his Discourse on Political EconomyDiscourse on Political Economy in Diderot’s Enciclopédie in Diderot’s Enciclopédie

1756-1763--The Seven Year's War 1756-1763--The Seven Year's War 1762—Rousseau publishes 1762—Rousseau publishes The Social ContractThe Social Contract1777--American Revolution 1777--American Revolution 1778--Alliance between United States and France 1778--Alliance between United States and France 1783--Peace of Versailles between France, England, Spain, and United States 1783--Peace of Versailles between France, England, Spain, and United States 1787--Signing of the Constitution of the United States 1787--Signing of the Constitution of the United States 1789--Outbreak of hostilities in France with the fall of the Bastille July 14 -- Abolition of 1789--Outbreak of hostilities in France with the fall of the Bastille July 14 -- Abolition of

French feudal system, Declaration of Rights of Man, nationalization of church property French feudal system, Declaration of Rights of Man, nationalization of church property begins begins

1792--French Revolutionary Wars begin -- 1792--French royal family imprisoned 1792--French Revolutionary Wars begin -- 1792--French royal family imprisoned 1793--Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette executed 1793--Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette executed 1793--Robespierre joins Committee on Public Safety -- Roman Catholic faith banned in 1793--Robespierre joins Committee on Public Safety -- Roman Catholic faith banned in

France France 1793--First Coalition against France of Britain, Austria, Prussia, Holland, Spain 1793--First Coalition against France of Britain, Austria, Prussia, Holland, Spain 1794--U.S. navy established 1794--U.S. navy established 1795--France makes peace with Prussia, Tuscany, Spain 1795--France makes peace with Prussia, Tuscany, Spain 1795--White Terror and bread riots in Paris 1795--White Terror and bread riots in Paris 1795--Napolean assumes commander-in-chief 1795--Napolean assumes commander-in-chief 1799--Second coalition against France as Austria declares war -- French Directory 1799--Second coalition against France as Austria declares war -- French Directory

overthrown, Bonaparte coup d'etat and made First Consul overthrown, Bonaparte coup d'etat and made First Consul

The Enlightenment (18th The Enlightenment (18th century)century)

Natural Sciences: discovery of LAWS Natural Sciences: discovery of LAWS that regulate the physical world.that regulate the physical world.

The The PhilosophesPhilosophes aspired to discover aspired to discover

the LAWS that regulate human the LAWS that regulate human beings and society.beings and society.

18th century: 18th century: Faith in Reason and Science… Faith in Reason and Science… Transforms Transforms political thoughtpolitical thought

Development of a critique of Development of a critique of Absolutism and the power of the Absolutism and the power of the Church in behalf of Church in behalf of human freedomhuman freedom

Commitment to Social and PoliticalCommitment to Social and Political ReformReform

Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, Smith, Condorcet, KantRousseau, Smith, Condorcet, Kant

Enlightenment Enlightenment

= =

Promethean (Classical) Promethean (Classical) DreamDream

EpistemesEpistemes Truth is understood as...Truth is understood as...

AntiquityAntiquity

Renaissance & the Renaissance & the EnlightenmentEnlightenment

Modernity Modernity (onwards)(onwards)

Revealed Revealed

Discovered (in Discovered (in Nature)Nature)

ConstructedConstructed

ReactionaryReactionaryConservativeConservative

Moderate (Center)Moderate (Center)

ReformistReformistRevolutionaryRevolutionary

Classical political categorization (RF):Classical political categorization (RF):

RightRight

Social Social OrderOrder

LeftLeft

Rousseau: Rousseau: The Social ContractThe Social Contract

Radical Democratic Radical Democratic Contractualism, or Precursor Contractualism, or Precursor

of Totalitarianism?of Totalitarianism?

Jean-Jacques RousseauJean-Jacques Rousseau 1712-1778 Born in Geneva, rebelled against the

Calvinist atmosphere and left the city in 1728.

Travels (Italy), Mme. de Warens. 1742, Paris. 1745, Meets Therese Levasseur.

Main WorksMain Works 1750: Discourse on the Arts and the

Sciences (1st prize Academy of Dijon).

1755: Discourse on inequalityDiscourse on Political Economy

1762: On the Social Contract. Emile

Work lost (destroyed)Work lost (destroyed)

Political Institutions

Rousseau’s ideas Rousseau’s ideas influenced the 1789 influenced the 1789

Revolution...Revolution...

On the Social ContractOn the Social Contract

“I want to inquire whether there can be some legitimate and sure rule of administration in the civil order, taking men as they are and laws as they might be.” (Social Contract 17)

““Man is born free, and Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains. everywhere he is in chains.

One thinks himself the One thinks himself the master of others, and still master of others, and still

remains a greater slave than remains a greater slave than they.” (452)they.” (452)

““The social order is a sacred The social order is a sacred right which serves as a right which serves as a foundation for all other foundation for all other

rights” (452)rights” (452)

The Social Order...The Social Order...

Does not have its origins in nature, but in a conventionconvention.

The First Societies (II)The First Societies (II)

•Family: children remain bound to their father only so long as they need him.

•Equality and independence.

•Political societies Family

(pleasure of commanding) (love)

The Right of the Strongest The Right of the Strongest

•“The strongest is never strong enough to be master all the time, unless he transforms force into right and obedience into duty.” (452)

•“Force is a physical power, and I fail to see what moral effect it

can have.”(452) Arendt

““Obey the powers that Obey the powers that be.”be.” ( Saint Paul)...

“If that means giving in to “If that means giving in to force, the precept is sound, force, the precept is sound,

but superfluous.” (452)but superfluous.” (452)

““All power comes from All power comes from God...”God...”

““...but so does every disease. Does ...but so does every disease. Does this mean that calling in a this mean that calling in a physician is prohibited?”physician is prohibited?”

Conclusion:Conclusion: ““one is obliged to obey one is obliged to obey only only

legitimate powerslegitimate powers.” (452).” (452)

On Slavery On Slavery Conventions are the source of Conventions are the source of

authority among men.authority among men.

Problems: is a contract of slavery Problems: is a contract of slavery conceivable?conceivable?

According to ...According to ... Grotius: an individual can alienate his Grotius: an individual can alienate his

liberty and turn himself into a slave.liberty and turn himself into a slave. A people can also do thisA people can also do this Also Hobbes.Also Hobbes.

Contract of SlaveryContract of Slavery I give up my freedom in order to I give up my freedom in order to

survive.survive. The same does a multitude.The same does a multitude.

The despot assures his subjects The despot assures his subjects civil civil tranquilitytranquility (= Hobbes) (= Hobbes)

Rousseau against...Rousseau against...•Grotius

•Hobbes

•(Caligula)

... Suggested that a certain part of the human species was destined to slavery (like Aristotle)

Can we renounce liberty?

Rousseau...Rousseau... ““A tranquil life is also had in A tranquil life is also had in

dungeons; is that enough to make dungeons; is that enough to make them desirable?”(453)them desirable?”(453)

““To say that a man gives himself To say that a man gives himself gratuiously is to say something absurd gratuiously is to say something absurd and inconceivable. Such an act is and inconceivable. Such an act is illegitimate and null...” (453)illegitimate and null...” (453)

““Renouncing one’s liberty is Renouncing one’s liberty is renouncing one’s dignity as a renouncing one’s dignity as a man, the rights of humanity and man, the rights of humanity and even its duties. There is no even its duties. There is no possible compensation for possible compensation for anyone who renounces anyone who renounces everything. Such a renounciation everything. Such a renounciation is incompatible with the nature of is incompatible with the nature of man.” (453)man.” (453)

“Every man born in slavery is born for slavery; nothing is more

certain.”

Because...Because... ““In their chains slaves lose everything, In their chains slaves lose everything,

even the desire to escape.” (19)even the desire to escape.” (19) ““If there are slaves If there are slaves by natureby nature, it is , it is

because there have been slaves because there have been slaves against against naturenature.” (19).” (19)

What is wrong about the idea that What is wrong about the idea that slavery can be created through a slavery can be created through a contract?contract?

““For what kind of right is it For what kind of right is it that perishes when the force that perishes when the force

on which it is based on which it is based ceases?”ceases?”

WarWar as source of slavery as source of slavery The victor –who has the right to kill The victor –who has the right to kill

the vanquished- pardons his life if he the vanquished- pardons his life if he agrees to become his slave.agrees to become his slave.

HEGELHEGEL’S ’S MASTER/SLAVEMASTER/SLAVE DIALECTICS. DIALECTICS.

But...But... There is no right to kill the enemy There is no right to kill the enemy

derived from war... derived from war... Men are not naturally enemies (Men are not naturally enemies (

Hobbes)... It is the relationship Hobbes)... It is the relationship between between things things and not that between and not that between men that brings about war.men that brings about war.

Fights, duels, encounters... Fights, duels, encounters... (individuals)(individuals)

...do not make a state....do not make a state. ““War is not therefore a relationship War is not therefore a relationship

between one man and another, but between one man and another, but a relationship between one state a relationship between one state and another.”and another.”

Only Only StatesStates are enemies... are enemies... And States may be killed without And States may be killed without

any single individual be killed (454).any single individual be killed (454).

Rousseau claims his Rousseau claims his principles are based on principles are based on

Reason.Reason.

Therefore...Therefore... ““Neither a person enslaved during Neither a person enslaved during

wartime nor a conquered people wartime nor a conquered people bears any obligation whatever bears any obligation whatever toward its master, except to obey toward its master, except to obey him for as long as it is forced to do him for as long as it is forced to do so.” (454)so.” (454)

SlaverySlavery and and RightRight are are contradictory terms.contradictory terms.

Differences between...Differences between... A multitudeA multitude

AggregationAggregation

A society (people)A society (people)

AssociationAssociation

Body PoliticBody Politic

How does How does the peoplethe people originate? originate?

FOUNDATION OF SOCIETYFOUNDATION OF SOCIETY

The Social Compact (V)The Social Compact (V) Men cannot engender new forces.Men cannot engender new forces.

Thus, they have to unite the forces Thus, they have to unite the forces they have in a single major force... they have in a single major force... (455)(455)

The Social Contract The Social Contract creates...creates...

A form of association that “defends A form of association that “defends and protects with all common forces and protects with all common forces the person and goods of each the person and goods of each associate, and by means of which each associate, and by means of which each one, while uniting with all, nevertheless one, while uniting with all, nevertheless obeys only himself and remains as free obeys only himself and remains as free as before.”( 455)as before.”( 455)

The Clauses...The Clauses... Are UNIVERSAL.Are UNIVERSAL.

Main clause:Main clause: “the total alienation of “the total alienation of each associate, together with all of each associate, together with all of his rights, to the entire community.” his rights, to the entire community.” (455)(455)

Each person...Each person... ““gives himself whole and entire.”gives himself whole and entire.” (so) nobody wants to make the (so) nobody wants to make the

condition burdensome...condition burdensome... ... Actually, each person gives ... Actually, each person gives

herself to no one.herself to no one.

““Each of us places his person and Each of us places his person and all his power in common under all his power in common under the supreme direction of the the supreme direction of the general will; and as one we general will; and as one we receive each member as an receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole.” indivisible part of the whole.” (456)(456)

Contract.Contract.Twofold commitmentTwofold commitment

Individuals commit themselves...Individuals commit themselves...

As members of the sovereign to private As members of the sovereign to private individuals;individuals;

As a member of the state toward the As a member of the state toward the sovereign. (456)sovereign. (456)

This act of association This act of association generates “a generates “a moral and moral and

collective bodycollective body composed of as composed of as many members as there are many members as there are

voices in the assembly, which voices in the assembly, which receives from this same act its receives from this same act its unity, its common unity, its common selfself, its life , its life

and its will.”and its will.”

““This public person, formed This public person, formed thus by union of all the others thus by union of all the others formerly took the name formerly took the name citycity, ,

and at present takes the name and at present takes the name republicrepublic or or body politicbody politic, which , which is called is called statestate by its members by its members when it is passive, when it is passive, sovereignsovereign when it is active, when it is active, powerpower when when compared to others like itself.compared to others like itself.

The The associatesassociates “collectivelly “collectivelly take the name take the name peoplepeople; ;

individually they are called individually they are called citizenscitizens, insofar as participants , insofar as participants in the sovereign authority, and in the sovereign authority, and subjectssubjects, insofar as they are , insofar as they are subjected to the laws of the subjected to the laws of the

state.”(456)state.”(456)

The sovereign cannot The sovereign cannot derogate the original act of its derogate the original act of its institution, that is... It cannot institution, that is... It cannot

annihilateannihilate itself.(456) itself.(456)

Emergence of...Emergence of...

A MORAL AND COLLECTIVE A MORAL AND COLLECTIVE BODYBODY

(is “body” here a metaphor?)(is “body” here a metaphor?)with a...with a...

General Will General Will

No Guarantees.No Guarantees. ““the Sovereign, being formed wholly of the Sovereign, being formed wholly of

the individuals who compose it, neither the individuals who compose it, neither has nor can have any interest contrary has nor can have any interest contrary to theirs; and consequently the to theirs; and consequently the sovereign power need give no sovereign power need give no guarantee to its subjects, because it is guarantee to its subjects, because it is impossible for the body to wish to hurt impossible for the body to wish to hurt its members.” (457)its members.” (457)

The General WillThe General Will Individuals may have a private will Individuals may have a private will

different from the General Will.different from the General Will.

In case of conflict (implicit rule) In case of conflict (implicit rule) “whoever refuses to obey the general “whoever refuses to obey the general will will be forced to do so by the entire will will be forced to do so by the entire body.”body.” That is, “he will be That is, “he will be forced to be freeforced to be free.” (457).” (457)

The General Will...The General Will... Emerges from Emerges from DeliberationsDeliberations..

General Will General Will The Will of All The Will of All (Common (Private(Common (Private

Interest) Interests)Interest) Interests)

The passage from nature to The passage from nature to civil society...civil society...

Changes a stupid and unimaginative Changes a stupid and unimaginative animal into an intelligent being and a animal into an intelligent being and a man man Master of himself. Master of himself.

Develops feelings of Develops feelings of Justice, Moral Justice, Moral Liberty, Liberty, and the experience ofand the experience of Reason Reason in in individuals.individuals.

Changes Changes possesionpossesion into into propertyproperty..

Natural LibertyNatural Liberty

Civil LibertyCivil Liberty

Moral LibertyMoral Liberty

““[I]nstead of destroying natural equality, [I]nstead of destroying natural equality, the fundamental compact substitutes, for the fundamental compact substitutes, for such physical inequality as nature may such physical inequality as nature may have set up between men, an equality have set up between men, an equality that is moral and legitimate... [so that]... that is moral and legitimate... [so that]... Men become every one equal by Men become every one equal by convention and legal right.”convention and legal right.”

EqualityEquality

Sovereignty is Sovereignty is InalienableInalienable

““Sovereignty, being nothing less Sovereignty, being nothing less than the exercise of the general will, than the exercise of the general will, can never be alienated, and ... The can never be alienated, and ... The Sovereign, who is no less than a Sovereign, who is no less than a collective being, collective being, cannot be cannot be represented except by himselfrepresented except by himself: the : the power indeed may be transmitted, power indeed may be transmitted, but not the will.” (458)but not the will.” (458)

Sovereignty is Sovereignty is IndivisibleIndivisible

Sovereignty is Sovereignty is AbsoluteAbsolute State = BodyState = Body ““As nature gives each man absolute As nature gives each man absolute

power over all his members, the social power over all his members, the social compact gives the body politic absolute compact gives the body politic absolute power over all its members also, and it is power over all its members also, and it is this power which, under the direction of this power which, under the direction of the general will, bears, as I have said, the the general will, bears, as I have said, the name of Sovereignty.”name of Sovereignty.”

No Representation...No Representation...

Foundation for DIRECT Foundation for DIRECT democracydemocracy

““The deputies of the people, therefore, are not The deputies of the people, therefore, are not and cannot be its representatives: and cannot be its representatives: they are merely its stewards, they are merely its stewards, and can carry through no definitive acts.” (470)and can carry through no definitive acts.” (470)

RepresentationRepresentation

““The idea of representation is The idea of representation is modern; it comes to us from feudal modern; it comes to us from feudal government, from that iniquitous and government, from that iniquitous and absurd system which degrades absurd system which degrades humanity and dishonours the name humanity and dishonours the name of man.” (470)of man.” (470)

GovernmentGovernment ““What then is government? An What then is government? An

intermediary body set up between the intermediary body set up between the subjects and the Sovereign, to secure subjects and the Sovereign, to secure their mutual correspondence, charged their mutual correspondence, charged with the execution of the laws and the with the execution of the laws and the maintenance of liberty, both civil and maintenance of liberty, both civil and political.” (466)political.” (466)

““The members of this body are called The members of this body are called magistrates or magistrates or kingskings, that is to say , that is to say governorsgovernors, and the whole body bears the , and the whole body bears the name name prince.prince.”(466)”(466)

The Right of Life and DeathThe Right of Life and Death

The social contract seeks the The social contract seeks the preservation of the life of the Whole, so...preservation of the life of the Whole, so...

We must be ready to give up our own life We must be ready to give up our own life for its sake... for its sake...

The Right of Life and DeathThe Right of Life and Death ““the citizen is no longer the judge of the the citizen is no longer the judge of the

dangers to which the law desires him to dangers to which the law desires him to expose himself; and when the prince says expose himself; and when the prince says to him: ‘It is expedient for the State that to him: ‘It is expedient for the State that you should die,’ he ought to die, because it you should die,’ he ought to die, because it is only on that condition that he has been is only on that condition that he has been living in security up to the present, and living in security up to the present, and because his life is... [now] a gift made because his life is... [now] a gift made conditionally by the State.”conditionally by the State.”

(Ex: Socrates)(Ex: Socrates)

DemocracyDemocracy

““If we take the term in the strict If we take the term in the strict sense, there never has been a real sense, there never has been a real democracy, and there never will be.” democracy, and there never will be.” (468)(468)

““Were there a people of gods, their Were there a people of gods, their government would be democratic. So government would be democratic. So perfect a government is not for perfect a government is not for men.” (469)men.” (469)