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HND – 6. Perception & Individual Decision Making. Lim Sei Kee @ cK. Perception. A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. . - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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HND – 6. Perception & Individual Decision Making
Lim Sei Kee @ cK
Perception
• People’s behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself.
A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.
Perception is the process by which individuals make sense of their world.
Individuals may look at the same thing, yet perceive it differently.
Differences in perceptions can cause problems ◦ Communication◦ Conflict◦ Motivation◦ Judgment◦ Decision Making
Perception
FACTORS IN THE PERCEIVER
Attitudes Motives Interests
Experience Expectations
FACTORS IN THE SITUATION
Time Work setting Social setting
FACTORS IN THE TARGET
• Motion• Sounds• Size
• Background• Similarity
PERCEPTION
Making Judgments About Others
Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations.
Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation.
Consistency: responds in the same way over time.
Attribution Theory
When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused.
Suggests that perceivers try to “attribute” the observed behavior to a type of cause:
◦Internal – behavior is believed to be under the personal control of the individual
◦External –the person is forced into the behavior by outside events/causes
Attribution Theory
1. Fundamental attribution error
The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others.
The tendency to attribute others' bad performance to internal causes & Attribute their good performance to external causes
Errors and Biases in Attributions
2. Self-serving bias
The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors.
attribute successes to ourselves – internal attribute failures to the environment – external
Errors and Biases in Attributions
Selective perception
Halo effect
Contrast effect
Projection
Stereotyping
Shortcuts in judging others
Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
Selective Perception
People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.
Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
Halo Effect
Drawing a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic
Contrast Effects
Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics
Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
Projection
Attributing one’s own characteristics to other people
Stereotyping
Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs
The Link Between Perceptions and Individual Decision Making
Perception of the decision
maker
Outcomes
ProblemA perceived discrepancy between the current state of affairs and a desired state.DecisionsChoices made from among alternatives developed from data perceived as relevant.
Making consistent, value-maximizing choices within
specified constraints.
Rational decision-making model – a decision-making
model that describes how individuals should behave
in order to maximize some outcome.
Rational decision-making process
Assumptions of the Rational Decision-Making Model
Model Assumptions• Problem clarity• Known options• Clear preferences• Constant preferences• No time or cost
constraints• Maximum payoff
Rational Decision-Making Model
Describes how individuals should behave in order to maximize some outcome.
1. Define the problem.
2. Identify the decision criteria.
3. Allocate weights to the criteria.
4. Develop the alternatives.
5. Evaluate the alternatives.
6. Select the best alternative.
Steps in the Rational Decision-Making Model
The ability to produce novel and useful ideas
Helps people to:◦ Better understand the problem◦ See problems others can’t see◦ Identify all viable alternatives◦ Identify alternatives that aren’t
readily apparent
Creativity in Decision Making
Three-Component Model of Creativity
Expertise
Intrinsic Task Motivation
Creative-Thinking Skills
Proposes that individual creativity requires expertise,
creative-thinking skills and intrinsic task motivation
Expertise – foundation for all creative work
Creative-thinking skills – personality characteristics
associated with creativity.
Intrinsic task motivation - desire to work on
something
Three-component model of creativity
How Are Decisions Actually Made in Organizations
Bounded Rationality
Individuals make decisions by constructing simplified models that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all their complexity.
Simpler than rational decision making, composed of three steps:
1. Limited search for criteria and alternatives – familiar criteria and easily found alternatives
2. Limited review of alternatives – focus alternatives, similar to those already in effect
3. Satisficing – selecting the first alternative that is “good enough”
Decision Making in Bounded Rationality
Overconfidence bias
Anchoring bias
Confirmation bias
Availability bias
Representative bias
Escalation of Commitment bias
Randomness Error
Hindsight bias
Common Biases and Errors
Overconfidence Bias◦ Believing too much in our own ability to make good
decisions◦ ‘no problem in judgment and decision making’
Anchoring Bias◦ Using early, first received information as the basis for
making subsequent judgments◦ a tendency to fixate on initial information as a starting
point.
Overconfidence bias; Anchoring bias
Confirmation Bias◦Using only the facts that support our decision◦a specific case of selective perception; we seek out
information that reaffirms our past choices, and we discount information that contradicts past judgments
Availability Bias◦Using information that is most readily at hand◦the tendency for people to base their judgments on
information that is readily available to them
Confirmation bias; Availability bias
Representative Bias◦ Assessing the likelihood of an occurrence by trying to
match it with a preexisting category using only the facts that support our decision
Escalation of Commitment◦ In spite of new negative information, commitment
actually increases◦ Increasing commitment to a previous decision in spite of
negative information.
Representative bias; Escalation of Commitment bias
Randomness Error◦ Creating meaning out of random events◦ difficulty dealing with chance.
Hindsight Bias◦ Looking back, once the outcome has occurred, and
believing that you accurately predicted the outcome of an event
◦ Hindsight = ability to see, after the event, what should have been done
Randomness Error; Hindsight bias
An non-conscious process created out of distilled experience
Increases with experience
Can be a powerful complement to rational analysis in decision making
Intuitive Decision Making
Eight conditions for intuitive decision making –
When high level of uncertainty existsWhen there is little precedent to draw onWhen variables are less scientifically predictableWhen ‘facts’ are limitedWhen facts don’t clearly point the wayWhen analytical data are of little useWhen there are several plausible alternative solutions from
which to chooseWhen time is limited and there is pressure
Intuition
Directive – low tolerance for ambiguity and seek
rationality
Analytic – greater tolerance for ambiguity
Conceptual – tend to use data from multiple sources
and consider many alternatives
Behavioral – strong concern for the people in the
organization and their development
Decision making style
Decision-Style Model
Source: A.J. Rowe and J.D. Boulgarides, Managerial Decision Making, (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1992), p. 29.
Ethical Decision Criteria◦ Utilitarianism
Seeking the greatest good for the greatest number.◦ Rights
Respecting and protecting basic rights of individuals such as whistleblowers.
◦ Justice Imposing and enforcing rules fairly and impartially.
Ethics in Decision Making
@ Utilitarianism
√ Promotes efficiency and productivity X Sideline the rights of some individuals
@ Rights
√ Protects individuals from injury and is consistent with freedom and privacy
X It can create a legalistic environment that hinders productivity and efficiency
Ethical Decision Criteria
@ Justice
√ Protects the interests of the underrepresented and less powerful
X It encourages a sense of entitlement that reduces risk taking, innovation, and productivity
Ethical Decision Criteria