Hmong Youth: What do we know about them?

Zha Blong Xiong, Ph.D.Associate Professor

Family Social Science

College of Education and Human Development

University of Minnesota

Hmong Resettlement in the United States, 1975-1994

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

40,000

1975-1976

1977-1978

1979-1980

1981-1982

1983-1984

1985-1986

1987-1988

1989-1990

1991-1992

1993-1994

Hmong families in Minnesota

During the past three decades, Hmong have made significant progresses: Public assistance dependency changed from 71% in 1990 to 34%

in 2000; Poverty rate was down from 60% in 1990 to 38% in 2000; High school completion rates increased from 37% to 47% at the

same period; Rates of homeownership changed from 0% in 1980 to 39%

nationally and 54% in Minnesota in 2000; And educational attainment with a bachelor’s degree or higher

rates jumped from 4% to 8%.

Source: Grover & Todd, 2004; Thao & Pfeifer, 2004.

Hmong families in Minnesota

Hmong are among the poorest citizens in the Twin Cities (median household income of $35,917 vs. Caucasian ($56,642) and other Asians ($51,948). Their median home value of $93,200 is the lowest compared to other racial and ethnic groups’ home value (Mind the Gap, 2005).Approximately 47 percent of the Hmong adults were not in the labor force compared to 29 percent Minnesota adults (2000 Census).Only 4 percent of the Hmong in the Twin Cities have jobs in high-paying occupations, with annual salaries ranging from $60,000 to $97,000 vs. Asian (24%) and Caucasian (20%).

The largest Hmong population is under the age of 19 years old

0%5%

10%15%20%25%30%35%40%45%50%

2000

Hmong

AmericanIndianAfricanAmericanVietnamese

Source: Star Tribune (2002, April 10).

48%

32% 31%

22%

Note: Youthful refers to the percentage of children between ages 5-19.

School Enrollment in 2000

0.00%1.00%2.00%3.00%4.00%5.00%6.00%7.00%8.00%9.00%

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school,

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school:

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Gra

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gra

de 4

Gra

de 5

to

gra

de 8

:

Gra

de 9

to

gra

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2:

In c

olle

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underg

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years

In g

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fess

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U.S. Male U.S. Female Hmong Male Hmong Femlae

Total sample size for the study

gender

173 56.9 56.9 56.9

131 43.1 43.1 100.0

304 100.0 100.0

male

female

Total

ValidFrequency Percent Valid Percent

CumulativePercent

Total sample size for the study

Statistics

304 304 300 304 302

0 0 4 0 2

1.43 16.28 2.49 4.75 3.45

.496 2.575 .646 1.974 .698

1 11 1 1 1

2 40 4 6 4

Valid

Missing

N

Mean

Std. Deviation

Minimum

Maximum

gender age

where wereyou born(coutry)? group

If born outsidethe US, how

long have youlived in the

US?

Segmented Assimilation Theory

Diverse Paths of Adaptation

Assimilateto the

middle-class,mainstream

culture

Adapt and integrate

biculturally

Segmentedassimilate to the

underclassculture

Sources: Portes & Rumbaut, 2001; Zhou & Banston, 1998.

Language usage

When you talk to your friends, what language do you most often use?

51 16.8 27.7 27.7

20 6.6 10.9 38.6

113 37.2 61.4 100.0

184 60.5 100.0

120 39.5

304 100.0

English

hmong

mixed

Total

Valid

SystemMissing

Total

Frequency Percent Valid PercentCumulative

Percent

English usage

How often do you use English when talking with your friends?

4 1.3 2.2 2.2

56 18.4 30.6 32.8

107 35.2 58.5 91.3

16 5.3 8.7 100.0

183 60.2 100.0

1 .3

120 39.5

121 39.8

304 100.0

seldom

from time to time

often

always

Total

Valid

9999

System

Total

Missing

Total

Frequency Percent Valid PercentCumulative

Percent

Language usage

When you talk to your parents (or guardians), what language do you most oftenuse?

7 2.3 3.8 3.8

128 42.1 69.6 73.4

47 15.5 25.5 98.9

2 .7 1.1 100.0

184 60.5 100.0

120 39.5

304 100.0

English

hmong

mixed

other (specify)

Total

Valid

SystemMissing

Total

Frequency Percent Valid PercentCumulative

Percent

Youth’s perception of parents’ acculturation:

To what extent have you adopted the American ways of doing things?

Scale Frequency Percentage

Note at all 13 11.5

A little 70 61.9

Much 21 18.6

Very much 9 8.0

Total 113 100

Note. Change the percentages in your handout.

Acculturation GapsAcculturation Item

Parents

(n = 94)

Youth

(n = 177)

Sig.

Speak English 2.63 (1.23) 3.39 (.58) <.05

Speak Hmong 4.76 (.67) 3.24 (.73) <.05

Adopted American Ways*

1.63 (.67) 2.58 (.61) <.00

Language fluency was assessed on a 5 Likert-like scale where 1 = not at all, 3 = enough to get by, and 5 = very well.Acculturation item was assessed on a 4 Likert-like scale where 1 = not at all, 2 = a little, 3 = much, and 4 = very much.* n = 30 for parents and 78 for youths for this item.

Parent-Adolescent Conflict

Cambodia 24.7 55.1 33.7

Hmong 30.0 66.0 46.0

Lao 32.6 42.4 50.0

Vietnamese 27.7 49.4 43.9

Chinese 34.2 37.4 21.9

Philippines 28.6 46.7 24.3

Mexico 38.6 32.2 31.2

Cuba 35.8 38.3 24.3

Variables Family Cohesion Parent-Child Conflict Familism(% High) (% High) (% High)

Source: Portes & Rumbaut (2001). Legacies: The story of the immigrant second generation. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Key Findings: Most Frequently Mentioned Issues of Parent-Adolescent Conflict by Youth

Topic of Conflict Boys (%) Girls (%) (n=102) (n=79)Conflict with Father Getting low grades 30.23 25.70 Watching television 29.20 18.63 Helping around the house 27.14 35.70 Not doing homework 26.00 14.31 Play stereo/radio loudly 25.03 17.12Conflict with Mother Helping around the house 35.33 54.43 Not coming home on time 28.40 39.24 How neat clothing looks 27.50 24.10 Not doing homework 26.73 23.14 Getting low grades 26.71 24.10

Note. (1) Fewer F-D conflicts vs. M-S conflicts. (2) Fathers’ conflicts were gender specific vs. mothers’

Key Findings: Issues of Most Intense Parent-Adolescent Conflict by Youth

Topic of Conflict Boys (%) Girls (%) (n=102) (n=79)Conflict with Father Acting like gangsters 3.73 3.11* Doing drugs 3.29 4.00* Dyeing hair 3.31 3.05 Not wanting to get a job 3.18 3.00 Not going to school 3.09 3.54Conflict with Mother Dyeing hair 3.21 2.56 Not going to school 3.16 3.71* Talking back to parents 3.15 3.39 Doing drugs 3.06 4.09* Drinking beer/liquor 2.94 3.89*

•Significance at p < .05•Scale: 1 = very calm to 5 = very angry

Note. Gender biased when looking at the intensity of conflicts.

Daily stressItem Yes No

Frequency % Frequency %

1. You had to translate for one of your parents who does notspeak English

121 28.3 168 39.3

2. Your parents talked about having serious money problems 104 24.3 186 43.5

3. You did poorly on an exam or school assignment 89 20.8 205 47.9

4. You heard people say bad things or make jokes about yourculture or race

82 19.2 206 48.1

5. Your close friends got drunk or high 78 18.2 213 49.8

6. A close family member or someone you live with got drunk orhigh

73 17.1 218 50.9

7. You had to do almost all the cooking, cleaning, or childcare inyour home because your parents had to work

72 16.8 214 50.0

8. You liked someone who didn't like you 69 16.1 219 51.2

N = 286-296

Ethnic Identity (%)

Item Stronglyagree

Somewhatagree

Stronglydisagree

Somewhatdisagree

I am happy that I am a member of thegroup I belong to.

56.4 35.9 5.5 2.3

I have a lot of pride in my ethnic groupand its accomplishments.

52.3 40.5 6.4 0.9

I feel good about my cultural or ethnicbackground.

58.6 34.5 5.9 0.9

I feel a strong attachment toward myethnic group.

47.3 43.2 8.6 0.9

N = 220.Note. Most youth still have a strong ethnic identity despite the rate of acculturation and language shift.

Self-esteem (%)

Item Agree alot

Agree alittle

Disagreea lot

Disagree alittle

I am able to do things as well as most otherpeople.

47.5 43.0 1.8 6.3

I feel that I am a person of worth, at least onan equal basis with others.

44.4 49.3 4.5 0.4

I feel I do not have much to be proud of. 35.6 24.2 10.5 29.7

At times I think I am no good at all. 28.4 20.6 13.3 37.6

N = 218

Depression (%)

Item Rarely (less than once a week)

Some of the time (1 to 2 days a week)

Occasionally (3 to 4 days a week)

Most of the time (5 to 7 days a week)

In the past week I felt sad.

58.3 29.4 7.8 4.6

I felt depressed. 60.6 20.0 11.0 6.4

N = 219

Delinquent actsProblem/Delinquent Behavior No Yes

run away from home 159 29

cut classes 107 81

taken a car 159 29

beat up somebody 121 68

gone to court 140 49

placed in jail 145 44

broke into building 165 24

attacked with weapon 174 15

used weapon or force 187 2

picked up by police 152 37

School attachmentItem Strongly

disagree/disagreeMixed Strongly

agree/agree

In general, I like school a lot. 41.8% 45.1% 11.8%

I feel very close to at least one of my teachers. 43.1% 33.9% 21.8%

I get along well with my teachers. 70.1% 22.7% 5.9%

Other students think I am a good student. 61.9% 28.9% 7.9%

My teachers think I am a good student. 64.5% 30.9% 3.3%

I often get in trouble at school for arguing, fighting or not following the rules.

11.2% 18.8% 68.8%

How often have you been in trouble for skipping or not attending school?

Never/seldom Fairly often

often

17.2% 26.3% 54.9%

Note. The percentage may not add up to 100% due to missing data. N = 304.

Results: Fathers’ Model

Affiliation Deviant Peers

School Commitment

Participation Organized Activities

Problem Behavior

Monitoring

Attachment

Conflict

School Performance

2 (95) = 111.78 (p = .12)RMSEA = .03; 90% CI = [.00 – .06] CFI = .99N = 142

- .34 ***

Mothers’ Model

Affiliation Deviant Peers

School Commitment

Participation Organized Activities

Problem Behavior

Monitoring

Attachment

Conflict

School Performance

2 (95) = 124.85 (p = .02)RMSEA = .04; 90% CI = [.01 – .06] CFI = .98N = 146

- .33 ***

Males: Summary of Stepwise Regression Analysis for Self-Reported Delinquency

VariableB SE B

Model 1 .204

School commitment -.099 .018 -.451***p<.05, **p<.01N= 206

2R

Females: Summary of Stepwise Regression Analysis for Self-Reported Delinquency

2R2R

VariableB SE B Beta change

Monitoring of mother -.087 .029 -.281** .189

Antisocial attitudes .197 .055 .327** .083

GPA -1.028 .246 -.376** .059

School commitment .077 .026 .285** .060

Peer delinquency .770 .283 .232** .049

*p<.05, **p<.01. N = 206

Sibling differences in delinquencyMeasure Delinquent

siblings:Mean (SD)

Non-delinquent siblings:Mean (SD)

Eta Squared (η2)

School Performance“How well do you think you keep up with your schoolwork?”

2.66(1.26) 3.75(0.91) .20**

Trouble for Skipping School“How often have you been in trouble for skipping or not attending school?”

2.14(1.09) 1.43(0.56) .15**

Antisocial Attitudes“When I get mad, I say nasty things.”“If someone hits me first, I let him/her have it.”

15.13(3.86) 12.39 (2.58) .15**

Organized Activities“How much time you spend with organized sports like swimming, baseball, football, soccer, etc.?”

7.59(1.90) 8.80(1.47) .12**

Parent’s Labeling“How often have your parents labeled you as a “bad” child?”

2.38(0.78) 1.90(0.82) .09*

* p<.05; ** p<.01; n = 58. Forthcoming publication in the Jounal of Psychology.

ConclusionIndividual level:

Young people are facing tremendous pressure from parents (i.e., family responsibilities, such as translation and household chores, and doing well in school).

Although they still identify themselves with the Hmong culture, a third of them feel they don’t have much to be proud of.

About one in four youth doesn’t feel very close to at least one of their teachers, and close to three in four youth reported of getting in trouble at school for arguing, fighting or not following the rules.

Family level: Significant parent-child relationships seem to be shifting from reciprocal respect and

cohesion to ambiguity and conflict. Girls tend to receive more scolding vs. boys, esp. from mothers. Paradoxically, this

seems to protect girls from many of the delinquent activities. Family dynamics, particularly lack of monitoring, serve as the most robust determining

factor in adolescent problem behaviors.Peer and Community levels:

Delinquent peers and lack of organized activities serve as the most robust mediating factors in changing the course of adolescent problem behaviors.

Implications for Practice

Adolescence is a period of life that is considered more difficult due to multiple changes (Arnett, 1999):

Biological change (e.g., puberty) and sex driveEarly maturation vs. late maturationBiological change associated with cultural expectation of courtship and marriageBiological change (i.e., acne), physical appearance, and self-esteem

Cognitive change (e.g., reasoning skills) and thinking abilityCalm, obedience to moodiness and disobedienceDemand a more matured relationship, yet with lots of guidance

Changing school setting (e.g., elementary to middle or junior high) (Eccles , Buchanan, et. al., 1991; Eccles, Midgley, et. al., 1993).

Tips For Parents

Parents want obedience, quiet, modest, self-control vs. individuality, self-expression, loud, and assertiveness from youths. Lead to daily power struggles – nagging and

rebellionParents expect diligence by getting up early in the morning, cooking for and helping parents and relatives during family events vs. weekend is supposed to be a space for relaxation, recuperation, and socialization with friends for youths. Lead to heartfelt argument and name calling (tub

nkeeg, tsis paub tab)

Tips for Professionals

Teach youths to deal with difficult parents and resist the temptation of belonging to a “cool” group (and/or acting “cool”) and be accepted by others. More than half of the youth do not feel they have much to be proud of. Youths need to get access to quality out of school time

programs and activities. The earlier the better!

Youths need to be connected to other positive youths and caring adults. Fulfill their desire to belong and be accepted. Boost their self-esteem and enhance their resistant skills.

Tips for Professionals

Cultural diversity training on Hmong culture and family life is needed for teachers, administrators, and professionals who work with Hmong youth.Teachers and professionals working with Hmong need to make efforts to connect with these young people and/or connect these young people to other caring adults.Teachers and professionals need to re-evaluate how they work with these youth (i.e., pressure at home; loneliness at school; feeling defeated).Support groups for Hmong youth and/or with other non-Hmong youth may be necessary.

Questions and Answers