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CHAPTER 1

ORIGIN OF LIFE1.1THE ORIGIN OF LIFE (Campbell page 513)

1.1.1 EPISTEMOLOGY FROM THESECULAR AND ISLAMICPERSPECTIVE

Epistemology (theory ofknowledge) - branch of philosophythat studies nature, methods,

limitations, and validity of knowledge

and belief.

Biology

Study of life.

Bios life; logos knowledge.

Definition - a science devoted to

study of all living organism.

Present scenario: sciences studied &

approached from secular point of view.

That is, knowledge is presented

withoutattributing it to ultimatecreator - Allah SWT.

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As Muslims, ultimate source ofknowledge is from Allah SWT.

Knowledge leads us to know ourcreator better.

Makes us men and women oft a q w aand submit ourselves to the will ofAllah SWT.

First surah revealed to mankind - Surah

96: AL `ALAQ.

Read, in the name of thy God and

cherisher, Who created.

Philosophy behind revelation - mankind

is knowledge-based (R e a d ) Separates us from animal kingdom

Knowledge enables us to eventually

know:

(i) who ourcreator is, and(ii) the purpose of ourcreation.

Knowledge taught from secularperspective

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Individual become knowledgeable but

rejects God as source of knowledge& creator of universe.

Knowledge is just information/data -can be verified through scientific

experiments.

Laws of physics, biology, chemistry,

etc. - Law of Nature.

Laws governing the universe happenby coincidence .

Formation of the universe, life, etc is a

product ofpure chance ofrandomcosmic activity - coincidentalwithout any purpose, happens by its

own self.

Science - from Latin word scientia: to

know.

Definition - systematic knowledgethat can be observed,experimented, and repeated.

Science - study of the naturalworld through observation,identification, description,experimental investigation andtheoretical explanations.

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It attempts to describe and understand

the nature of the universe in wholeor part.

Secular perspective of science - study

of the phenomena of nature that denyGod as the Creator.

Biology - science devoted to study of

living organism.

Any scientific discoveries and findings

are solely attributed to the scientist

who makes the discovery by his own

effort and intellect.

Knowledge taught from the Islamicperspective Universe and all living things

created by Allah SWT and with apurpose.

All thing created will bow andsubmit themselves to the ultimatecreator and eventually they willreturn to Allah SWT to be judgedand rewarded.

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Knowledge is information - leads

us to understanding Allah as ourcreator.

Islamic science - study of thephenomena of Gods creations thatproof the existence of a creator,Allah SWT.

Thus, science is the study of

tauhid, the study of the magnificentpower of Allah and his 99 attributes.

Biology - study of life crea ted byA l lah SW T .

Any scientific discovery by man is

attributed to guidance /ilham fromAllah SWT for the scientists efforts.

Allah through his revelations has

asked mankind to ponder thecreations of the universe as proofof the existence of an absolutecreator.

[http://quran.al-islam.com/Index/indexe1.asp]

Do they not reflect within themselves:

God did not create the skies and the

earth and that which is between them but

with truth, and (for) an appointed term?."

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(Quran 30:8)

Two forms of proof to guide mankind to

existence of absolute creator.1) Dalil Naqli (revealed knowledge)2) Dalil Aqli (reasoning)

Man through his reasoning, intellect,

scientific inquiries, and findings will

eventually discover his creator and

submit himself to Him.

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1.1.2 PROPERTIES OF LIFELife = living things/organisms sharing the

following fundamental properties:

1. Cellular organization

2. Sensitivity

3. Growth

4. Development

5. Reproduction

6. Regulation

7. Homeostasis

8. Heredity

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1.1.3 HYPOTHESIS ABOUT THEORIGIN OF LIFE (Raven 8th edition)

Three theories to explain origin of lifeon Earth.

(1) SPECIAL CREATION Life-forms put on earth by

supernatural or divine forces(God).

Core of most major religion.

Oldest hypothesis about lifes origin.

Sura 41, Verses 9 -12: Describes theCreation, by juxtaposing (to place side

by side especially for comparison or

contrast) an account ofearthlyevents and one ofcelestial events

(God is speaking to the Prophet)

[41:9]

"Say. Do you disbelieve Him Who created

the earth in two periods? Do you ascribe

equals to Him. He is the Lord of the

Worlds.

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[41:10]

"He set in the (earth) mountains standingfirm. He blessed it. He measured therein

its sustenance in four periods, in due

proportion, in accordance with the needs

of those who ask for (sustenance? or

information?).

[41:11]

"Moreover (tumma) He turned to heaven

when it was smoke and said to it and to

the earth: come willingly or unwillingly!

They said: we come in willing obedience

[41:12]

"Then He ordained them seven heavens

in two periods, and He assigned to each

heaven its mandate by Revelation. And

We adorned the lower heaven with

luminaries and provided it a guard. Such

is the decree of the All Mighty, the Full of

Knowledge."

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[41:9]

Say, "You disbelieve in the One whocreated the earth in two days, and you

set up idols to rank with Him, though He

is Lord of the universe."*

[41:10]

He placed on it stabilizers (mountains),made it productive, and He calculated its

provisions in four days, to satisfy the

needs of all its inhabitants.*

[41:11]

Then He turned to the sky, when it was

still gas, and said to it, and to the earth,

"Come into existence, willingly or

unwillingly." They said, "We come

willingly."

[41:12]

Thus, He completed the seven universes

in two days, and set up the laws for every

universe. And we adorned the lowest

universe with lamps, and placed guards

around it. Such is the design of the

Almighty, the Omniscient.

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(2) EXTRATERRESTRIAL ORIGIN(Campbell page 514)

Panspe rm ia Theo ry . Life may not have originated on

earth at all. Life may have infected

earth from some other planet.

Some organic compounds fromwhich the first life on Earth arose mayhave come from space frommeteorites.

Certain meteorite that bombarded

Earth are carbonaceous chondrites -rocks containing 1-2% carboncompounds .

Fragments of a 4.5 billion year old

chondrite collected in southern

Australia (1969) contained more than

80 amino acids.

So it is believed that amino acidsreached planet Earth on chondrites and

may have added certain amino acids

into the primordial soup.

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(3) SPONTANEOUS ORIGIN(Campbell page 514)

Life may have evolved from inanimatematter as associations amongmolecules became more and morecomplex (abiogenesis).

1.1.4 BIG BANG THEORY Dominant scientific theory about origin

of universe.

Universe created 15 billion yearsago from a cosmic explosion thathurled matter and in all directions.

Before creation of Universe by Allah

SWT, matter, time and space does not

exist.

Formation of universe started with

creation of a very small particle(matter) which we call thesingularity.

From this single particle of matter, a

huge explosion occurred. From onset of explosion, space, time,

matter and all laws governing theuniverse came to exist.

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From there on, the universe is

continuously expanding tillkiamah where it will collapse.

Four passages in Quran summarize the

universe - the beginning, the present,and how the universe will end.

Allah SWT also mentions in Al Anbiyaverse 30, the beginning/creation ofthe universe and the prerequisite ofany biological life must have theelement ofWATER.

Allah states that all biological life ismade of water. Life can only exist ifthere is water [the liquid phase] on thesurface of any planet.

Other life forms are non biological - the

angels are made from light while the

Jinns from fire.

Only the Al-Quran mentions in a

scientific manner the formation of the

universe, the early universe when it is

made of matter and gasses, the

expanding universe, and how it will

end.

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The 4 passages are listed below.

THE CREATION OF THE UNIVERSE.ALL BIOLOGICAL LIFE FORMS AREMADE FROM WATER.1. Some modern Islamic scholars believe

that the Qur'an parallels the BigBang in its account of creation,described as follows:

"Do not the unbelievers see that the

heavens and the earth were joined

together as one unit of creation, beforeWe clove them asunder. We made every

living thing of water .Will they not then

believe?

(Ch:21,Ver:30).

EARLY UNIVERSE IS MADE UP OFGASSES BEFORE THE FORMATIONOF GALAXIES, STARS, ANDPLANETS, ETC.

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2. The Quran mentions that at astage in its origin, the universewas gaseous:

An also, turned He to the sky when it

was as smoke.

The Quran 41:11

THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE, A FACTONLY TO BE DISCOVERED BYSCIENCE 50 YEARS AGO.3. The claim has also been made that

the Qur'an describes an expandinguniverse:"The heaven, We have built it with power.

And verily, We are expanding it."

(Ch:51,Ver:47).

HOW THE UNIVERSE WILL END. THEBIG CRUNCH. THE CONTRACTIONOR THE COLLAPSE OF THEUNIVERSE ON DOOMSDAY.

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4. Parallels with the Big Crunch and anoscillating universe have also beensuggested:

(The Big Crunch is the hypothesis thatthe universe will collapse upon itself after

its expansion eventually stops a

counterpart to the Big Bang. This

hypothesis is the subject of much heated

discussion.)

"The day when We shall roll back the

skies, like a scribe rolls up a written

document. As We began the first creation,

We shall surely repeat it. It is a promise(binding) upon us. Indeed it will happen.

(Ch:21,Ver:104).

Man with all knowledge of science willNEVER ever be able to predict theend of the universe.

End will come suddenly, to thebewilderment of mankind.

But clues about when it is due canbe found in the Quran and Hadiths. .

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"The Hour (End of the World) is surely

coming, I will keep it almost hidden. For

each soul must be paid for its works."

Surah :Ta- Ha Chapter 20 Verse : 15

THE PURPOSE OF THE CREATION OFMAN Man is a special creation as in

revealed in the Quran.

And (remember) when thy Lord said unto

the angels: Lo! I am creating a mortal out

of potter's clay of black mud altered.

So, when I have made him and have

breathed into him of My spirit, do ye fall

down, prostrating yourselves unto him.

SURAH 15, AYAT 28-29:

THE DUTY AND PURPOSE OF MAN1. To worship Allah.

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I created the jinn and humankind only

that they might worship Me.

SURAH AZ-ZARIYAT (51), AYAH 56:

2. Khalifah on Earth

And when thy Lord said unto the angels:

Lo! I am about to place a vicegerent inthe earth, they said: wilt Thou place

therein one who will do harm therein and

will shed blood, while we, we hymn Thy

praise and sanctify Thee? He said: Surely

I know that which ye know not.

SURAH 2, AYAT 30

HIS ENEMY Enemy of mankind is Iblis. The devil has vowed to lead mankind

away from the righteous path. So

beware of the evil whisperer!!!

And (remember) when We said unto the

angels: Fall prostrate before Adam, and

they fell prostrate, all save Iblis. He was

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of the Jinn, so he rebelled against his

Lord's command. Will ye choose him and

his seed for your protecting friends

instead of Me, when they are an enemy

unto you? Calamitous is the exchange for

evil doers!

SURAH AL-KAHF (18), AYAH 50:

HIS ACCOUNTABILITY Man will be held accountable for his

actions and will be judged andrewarded.

Whoever has done an atoms weight of

good shall get its reward and whoever

has done an atoms weight of evil shall

meet with its consequences

(Az-Zalzalah 99:7-8).

WHERE ARE WE HEADING? Paradise, Insya Allah.

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FORMATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM AND PLANETEARTH

Billions of years ago, our solar system was part of a massive

cloud of interstellar gasses and cosmic dust (Quran 41:11). As particles of matter were pulled together by gravitational

attraction, the vast cloud condensed into a gigantic,spinning disc.

Nearly 90% of the matter gravitated to the centre, causingtemperatures to rise high enough to ignite thermonuclearreactions.

It was in this scorching centre that the sun began to shine.

At the same time the sun was forming, nearly 5 billion years ago,

smaller eddies of leftover gasses and dust were condensinginto the planets of our solar system.

Heavier elements such as iron (refer to Surah Al Hadid),nickel sank inward to form the cores of the planet, whilelight gasses floated near the surface.

Most of the lighter gasses were blasted away when the sunsthermonuclear reactions began, leaving shrunken, denseplanets with virtually no gaseous atmosphere.

At this juncture Earth is dead (non living) and Allah will make itliving later in time.

Age of Earth 4.6 billion years old.

Immense quantities ofthermal energy from gravitationalcontraction, radioactive decay, meteorite impacts and solarradiation turned the primitive Earth into a red hot molted orb(sphere).

As time passed, collisions with meteorite became lessfrequent and the heat from radioactive decay and theEarths contraction lessened.

The Earths surface slowly cooled and a thin crust ofcrystalline rock formed.

Below the crust, the enormousheat of Earths interiorproduces massive buildups of hot gasses, sparking violentvolcanic eruptions that thrust molten rock and gasses outthrough the crust.

Repeated eruptions gradually built the Earths rugged landmasses and filled the once empty atmosphere with clouds ofhot gasses and steam.

Steam condensed into clouds and falls onto Earth as rainwater. With the creation ofwater by Allah, planet Earth became

living (Surah 41:19).

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AndamongHisSignsinthis:Youseetheearthbarrenanddesolate; butwhenWesenddownraintoit, itisstirredtolifeandyieldsincrease.Truly, HeWhogiveslifetothedeadearthcansurelygivelifetomenwhoaredead, for

Hehaspoweroverallthings.

Surah 41 Ha-Mim : Verse 39

Behold! Inthecreationoftheheavensandtheearth; inthealternationofthenightandtheday; inthesailingoftheshipsthroughtheoceanfortheprofitofmankind; intherainwhichGodSendsdownfromtheskies, andthelifewhichHegivestherewithtoanearththatisdead; inthebeastsofallkindsthatHescattersthroughtheearth;inthechangeofthewinds, andthecloudswhichtheyTrailliketheirslavesbetweentheskyandtheearth; HereindeedareSignsforapeoplethatarewise.

Surah 2 The Heifer : Verse 164

First collecting in small ponds and later forming the Earthsoceans, lakes, streams, rivers and ocean. In these bodies ofwater, life emerged.

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The Miraculous Planet Earth

Secular perspective: Sudden appearance of life on Earth due to random acts ofnature.

Formation of the universe: Occurred by chance, andsuddenly, defying any possible scientific explanation.

Islamic perspective:

Formation of universe attributed to the pleasure of AllahSWT.

Universe and its content, and life created for a purpose.

We, the created, will bow and submit to Him afterwitnessing the magnificent grandeur of his creation.

Man need to study the universe and look within himself inorder to know his creator, as these are clear proof of the existenceof a supreme and ultimate creator full of wisdom.

Conditions that make it possible for life to thrive on Earth:

1) SIZE OF EARTH

If Earth was smaller, it would lack themass necessary to generate enough gravitational forceto hold onto its atmospheric gasses.

Thus it will be devoid of theatmosphere.

If the mass was bigger, the gravitational force mightmake the atmosphere too thick for light to pass through

Thus, impossible forphotosynthesis to occur.

2) EARTHS RELATIVE POSITION TO SUN

Ifcloser to sun, the high temperatures on Earthssurface would have prevented the condensation of steaminto liquid.

Iftoo far from sun, the freezing temperatures would

have kept water in the solid phase. Life, as stated in Quran, requiresliquid phase of water.

Only on Earth does water exist in thethree phases: gas, liquid, and solid.

In Surah Al Hadid Allah mentions iron.

Molten iron forms the major component of the Earths core

generates magnetic fields surrounding Earth.

Function of magnetic field - shields Earth from harmful solar

radiation (solar winds).

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Solar winds can destroy the atmosphere which is so importantfor life on Earth.

Planet Mars has lost its magnetic field, and as a result, the solarwinds have stripped it of its precious atmosphere.

GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE(Campbell page 518)

Geologic record of Earths history - divided into three eons:(Refer Table 26.1, Campbell, page 519).

Boundaries between eras times ofMass Extinctions - manylife forms suddenly disappear from Earth and replaced by newlife forms:

1. The Permian mass extension

Marks the boundary between Paleozoic-Mesozoic era Extinction of 96% marine.

8 out of 27 orders of insect were wiped out.

Occurred in less than 5 million years.

Occurred during the time when Earth was undergoingmassive volcanic eruption.

2. The Cretaceous mass extinction

Occurred 65 million years ago

Marks the boundary between the Mesozoic-Cenozoic era.

Many species of dinosaurs, marine organism and ancientplants disappeared.

Eras divided in Periods.

During the Periods, we also find evidences of smallerincidences of extinction.

Periods are subdivided into intervals called Epochs.

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1.1.5 CHEMICAL EVOLUTION: MILLERUREYEXPERIMENT(Refer to Campbell page 513)

Building blocks of macromolecules are readily formed abioticallyboth in laboratory and on extraterrestrial bodies (meteorites).

No human or scientist has demonstrated that these simplermolecules can spontaneously assemble into reaction-catalyzingproteins or information-containing nucleic acidby the process of Chemical Evolution asoutlined by Oparinand others.

Since it is impossible to recreate the origin of life in thelaboratory, many different hypothesis have been offered toexplain the course of events that created life.

Hypotheses - controversial and met with skepticism by somemembers of the Origin of Life scientific community.

Conditions On Early Earth Made The Origin Of Life Possible

Secular view: Four stages in the evolution of life on Earth -approach used by the Spontaneous Origin Hypothesis.

STAGE 1

The abiotic (non living) synthesis of small organic molecules -amino acids and nucleotides.

STAGE 2

Thejoining of these molecules (monomers) into polymers -proteins and nucleic acids.

STAGE 3

The packaging of these molecules into protobionts or dropletssurrounded with a membrane that can maintain an internalchemistry different from that of their surroundings.

STAGE 4

The origin ofself replicating molecules - made inheritancepossible.

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Synthesis of Organic compounds on Early Earth / ChemicalEvolution

Early Earth atmosphere - thick with water vapor togetherwith various compounds released by volcanic eruptions.

Components of early Earth atmosphere - nitrogen, and itsoxides, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, hydrogen andhydrogen sulfide.

As Earth cooled, water vapor condensed into oceans, and muchH2 escaped into space.

1920s: A.I. Oparin and J.B.S. Haldane independentlypostulated that early Earths atmosphere was a reducingatmosphere (electron-adding) by which simple organiccompounds were formed from simple molecules.

Energy for this organic synthesis - from lightning and intenseUV radiation.

1953: Stanley Miller and Harold Urey tested the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis by creating laboratory conditionscomparable to those of early Earth.

Both were not 100% sure of the gasses and conditions thatexisted on early Earth.

Miller and Urey set up a closed system in their laboratory. They

tried to simulate conditions thought to have existed on earlyEarth. (See Figure 26.2, Campbell, page 513)

1. A warmed flask of water - the primeval sea.2. The reducing atmosphere - consists of hydrogen, methane,

ammonia and water vapor.3. Electrical sparks - lightning.4. Condenser cooled the atmosphere, raining water and

dissolved compounds into the sea.

Results

As materials circulated through the apparatus, they collectedsamples for analysis. Identified several organic molecules:

Amino acids: alanine and glutamic acid

Complex oily hydrocarbons

Conclusions

Organic molecules can be formed in a strong reducingatmosphere.

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Problems with the Reducing Atmosphere Hypothesis

Doubts about early Earth having a truly reducing atmosphere.

New evidence - early atmosphere was made primarily ofnitrogen and carbon dioxide - both non-reducing noroxidizing (electron-removing).

Scientist using experiment similar to MillerUrey experimentunable to synthesize any organic compound using this type ofatmosphere.

Speculate that perhaps small pockets of atmosphere nearvolcanic openings were reducing, thus facilitating formation ofsimple organic molecules.

To counter problems with the Reducing Atmosphere Hypothesisscientist has came up with new theory:

First organic compounds on Earth may be synthesized nearsubmerged volcanoes and deep sea vents which are weakpoints in Earths crust where hot water and mineral gushesinto ocean.

These regions are also rich in inorganic sulfur and ironcompounds which are important in ATP synthesis.

(See Figure 26.3, Campbell, page 514 A window to early life?

Conclusion

Scientist still speculating components of early Earthatmosphere unsure whether reducing or non-reducing.

Reaction of gasses in atmosphere produces simple organiccompounds which fell and accumulate in early oceans.

Early ocean = primitive soup contains many simple organiccompound.

In the primitive soup, simple organic compounds began to form

associations which results in the formation of complexmacromolecules.

Examples: amino acids, nucleotides, lipids, and simplecarbohydrates.

Scientist has also shown that amino acid polymers could beformed by dripping amino acid solution to hot sand, clay orrock.

Thus, polymers can form spontaneously without help of

enzymes or ribosomes.

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Life is defined by two properties:

1. Ability to replicate accurately/to produce exact copies of itsself.

2. Metabolism.

Replication can only be successful if instructions to replicateavailable in form of DNA and specific enzymes present, as wellas nucleotides (building blocks).

Energy for process - from metabolism.

Results from a Miller- Urey like experiment: only nitrogenousbases of DNA and RNA present, but no nucleotides.

Postulation: Building blocks of RNA or DNA not available inorganic soup but exist as self replicating molecule.

So, scientist proposed that the first step to formation of livingcell is by

1. formation of a self replicating molecules2. and presence of metabolism-like source

Both 1 and 2 must exist together in primordial soup

The next crucial step will be formation ofprotobionts.

Aggregates of abiotically produced molecules surrounded

by membrane or membrane-like structures. Protobionts shows some properties associated with life - simple

reproduction (budding), metabolism, and maintenance ofinternal environment different from their surroundings.

Figure 26.4, Campbell, page 515 simple reproduction of liposome

Laboratory experiments - protobionts can be formedspontaneously from abiotically produced organic compound.

Example, small membrane-bound droplets, liposomes, can

form when lipids/other organic molecules are placed in water. Hydrophobic molecules in the mixture will organize into a

bilayer similar to lipid bilayer of plasma membrane.

Bilayer is selectively permeable - can undergo osmoticswelling or shrinking when placed in solutions of differentconcentration.

Some can store energy in the form of a membranepotential.

However liposomes are still not a living entity

Pose problems to proponents of Spontaneous Origin

Hypothesis.

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Scientists speculate that the first genetic material was probablyRNA and not DNA.

Thomas Cech showed that certain RNA has ability to act asenzyme = ribozymes.

This type RNA was probably present in the primitive soupof early Earth.

Thus, when RNA, amino acids, and carbohydrates wereincorporated into protobionts, and with generation of energyfrom metabolism, the protobionts suddenly became alive/livingand forms the first prokaryotic living organism.

But, link from non-living to living has never been provedscientifically.

These are just hypothesis by those who deny Allah as thesupreme creator of living life forms.

As Muslims we know only Allah has the ability to create lifefrom non living matter.

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1.1.6 IDEAS ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF CELL- 515

The fact that advanced prokaryotic cells had already appeared3.5 billion years ago suggests that the process of chemical

evolution that led to the first life forms took place relatively rapidlyprobably within the Earths first 600 million years. For the first 2billion years only prokaryotes populated the primitive Earth.

The evolutionary leap from prokaryotes to eukaryotic cell took muchlonger than the formation of the first prokaryotic cell. The evolutionof the first unicellular eukaryotic cell took place 2.1 billion years agoand the first multicellular eukaryotes occurred a billion years later.

THE EVOLUTION OF EARLIEST CELL- PROKARYOTE- 521

The oldest known fossil is dated 3.5 billion years old .These arestromatolites . They are rock like structures composed of manylayers of bacteria and sediment. Scientist have speculated that lifemight have originated as early as 3.9 billion years ago.

Prokaryotes are simple single celled organism that do have anynuclear membrane or membrane enclosed organelles such asendoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and cytoskeleton .

Since they do not have any cytoskeleton they are unable toundergo the process of mitosis and meiosis. Their genetic materialare dispersed in the cytoplasm and are usually circular in structure.

Prokaryotes are divided into two different domains which is:-

a. Domain Bacteria

The vast majority of prokaryotes are bacteria. Some are

pathogenic but others are beneficial. Eg ; Nitrosomonas,Bacillus, Staphylococcus etc.

b. Domain Archaeabacteria

Archaea bacteria are a type of prokaryotes that lives invery extreme environments where few organisms cansurvive. They are also known as extremopiles. Theyare further subdivided into 3 groups:-

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1 Extreme thermophiles : They thrive in very hotenvironment such as sulphur rich volcanic springs.E.g Sulfolobus

2 Extreme Halophiles :They live in highly saline

environment.

3 Methanogens : They produce energy by using O2to oxidize H2 and releasing methane as a byproduct.

THE EVOLUTION OF THE EUKARYOTIC CELL:523-524

The evolution of the eukaryotic cell from prokaryotes can be

explained by two theories :-Figure 26.13

1 Membrane Invagination Theory

This theory tries to explain the formation of theendoplasmic reticulum and the nuclear membrane bythe process of plasma membrane in folding. This willproduce a cell with a nucleus and an endomembrane

system.

2 The Serial Endosymbiosis Hypothesis

Subsequently the new organism will engage in asymbiotic relationship with an energy producing aerobicheterotrophic prokaryote. This is achieved by engulfingthe aerobic heterotrophic prokaryote. The aerobicheterotrophic prokaryote will eventually evolved to form

the mitochondrion. At this point this organism will beknown as an ancestral heterotrophic eukaryote. Someof this ancestral heterotrophic eukaryote will engulf aphotosynthetic prokaryote and again forms a symbioticrelationship with the engulfed prokaryote. Thisphotosynthetic prokaryote will eventually evolved tobecome the plastid which is found in plants.

Present day plastids and mitochondria have their owncircular DNA which is not associated with histones or

other proteins just like the bacteria.

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Plastid and mitochondria have their own tRNAs, andribosomes . The ribosomes of plastids and mitochondriaare more similar to prokaryotic ribosomes than they areto the cytoplasmic ribosomes of eukaryotic cells.

Thse evidences gives strength to the serialedosymbiosis theory.

1.1.7 THE DIVERSITY OF LIFE- 13

Living things are classified into six kingdoms:

1. Kingdom Bacteria.

2. Kingdom Archaebacteria.3. Kingdom Protista

Eukaryotic

primarily unicellular (although some algae aremulticellular)

photosynthetic or heterotrophic organisms2. Kingdom Fungi

Eukaryotic

mostly multicellular (although yeasts are unicellular)

heterotrophic

3. Kingdom Plantae Eukaryotic

multicellular

usually terrestrial

photosynthetic organisms

4. Kingdom Animalia

Eukaryotic

multicellular

heterotrophic organisms

From perspective of Islamic Science, humans are not classifiedunder Kingdom Animalia . Man is created by Allah as a Khalifah.Man is ranked above all these Kingdoms of living organism.