HM PP Slides Ch13

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Chapter 13

Leadership in Schools

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011


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W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Leadership Defined

Bennis (1989): like beauty, (or pornography), leadership ishard to define, but you know it when you see it

Chemers (1997:1): a process of social influence in which

one person is able to enlist the aid and support of others in

the accomplishment of a common task Most definitions agree that leadership involves a social

influence process; beyond that, scholars dispute the meaning

of leadership.

We define leadership broadly as a social process in which anindividual or a group influences behavior toward a shared

goal.


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Life as a School Administrator

Structured observation studies reveal similarcharacteristics of administrative jobs across countriesand organizational settings: School administrators work long hours at a physically

exhausting pace

School leaders rely on verbal media, and spend much timewalking through the building and talking to individuals andgroups

Administration requires the ability to change gears andtasks frequently

Span of concentration for school administrators is shortthe job is fragmented and discontinuity is prevalent

How does this leave room for leadership? Look totheoretical approaches of leadership for answers.


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Trait Approach to Leadership

Trait approach to leadership: Key leadership traits are

inherited.

Aristotle thought individuals were born with the qualities that

would make them good leaders

Bass (1990) chronicles historical approaches to leadership

qualities in the US. and underscores Stogdillsmajor review of

the leadership research.

Stogdillsmeta-analysis casts dim view on pure trait research:

impact of traits varies widely from situation to situation, so aperson does not become a leader based on the possession oftraits alone


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Personality

There are some traits and skills associated with effective leadership, whichcan be broken into three groups: Personality, Motivation, and Skills

Personality:relatively stable dispositions to behave in aparticular way--four are of particular note:

Self-confident leaders: more likely to set high goals and persist

Stress-tolerant leaders: make good decisions, stay calm, provide decisivedirections under stress

Emotionally mature leaders: have accurate awareness of strengths andweaknesses, are oriented toward self-improvement

Leaders with integrity: behaviors are consistent with stated valuestheseleaders are seen as honest, ethical, responsible, and trustworthy


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Motivational Traits

Motivation: set of energetic forces from both within and beyond an

individual to initiate work-related behavior and determine its form,

direction, intensity, and duration

Four motivational traits are key for effective leaders:

Task and interpersonal needs: effective leaders have drive for the task andconcern for people

Power needs: effective leaders seek positions of authority and are comfortable

exercising influence over others

Achievement orientation: effective leaders have a desire to excel, a drive to

succeed, willingness to assume responsibility

High expectations for success: effective leaders believe they can do the job

and will receive valued outcomes for their efforts

Physical traits, such as energy and activity, allow individuals to show their

competence through active engagement

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011


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Skills

Yukl (2002) and Northouse (2004) note three important

categories of skills for effective leadership

Technical Skills: specialized knowledge about a specific

type of work, activity, procedure, or technique

Interpersonal Skills: understanding of feelings and

attitudes of others, knowing how to work with people in

individual and cooperative work relationships

Conceptual Skills: ability to conceptualize, think logically,

reason analytically, deductively and inductively

Effective leaders need all three sets of skills.


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Situational Approach to Leadership

Response to trait approach: Researchers tried to identify settingcharacteristics that influenced leader success

Possible situational determinants of leadership:

Structural properties of organizationsize, hierarchy, formalization,technology

Role characteristicstype and difficulty of task, rules, content, performanceexpectations, power

Subordinate characteristicseducation, age, knowledge, experience,tolerance for ambiguity, responsibility, power

Internal environmentclimate, culture, openness, participation levels, groupatmosphere, values, norms

External environmentcomplexity, stability, uncertainty, resourcedependency, institutionalization

It is clear that both the situation and traits are important in effectiveleadership; it is not one or the other. Both are needed.


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Leader Behavior

Early conceptualizations of leadership relied on twocategories of leader behavior: Emphasis on people, interpersonal relations, groups

Emphasis on production, task completion, and goals

Ohio State leadership studies LBDQ (leader behavior description questionnaire) studies

at OSU in 1940s measure two dimensions of leaderbehavior

Initiating structure: delineates relationship between leader and

subordinates, establishes defined patterns of organization,procedures, channels of communication. Consideration: indicates friendship, trust, warmth, interest, and

respect in the relationship between the leader and members ofthe work group


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Major findings of OSU studies

Four major findings of LBDQ studies (Halpin, 1966)

Initiating structure and consideration are fundamentaldimensions of leader behavior

Effective leaders exhibit frequent behaviors on both dimensions

Superiors and subordinates attribute success to behaviors inopposite dimensions: superiors tend to credit initiating structurebehaviors; subordinates tend to credit consideration behaviors

Weak relationship between leadersexpressed beliefs on howthey shouldbehave, and subordinatesdescriptions of howleaders dobehave; Knowing how to behave and behaving thatway are two different events.


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Recent Perspectives on Leader Behavior

Same style of leader behavior is not optimal across all

situations: The appropriate style depends on the situation.

Yukl (2002) proposes three basic dimension to leadership:

Task-oriented behaviors: clarifying roles, planning andorganizing operations, monitoring organizational functions

Relations-oriented behaviors: supporting, developing,recognizing, consulting, and managing conflict

Change-oriented behaviors: scanning and interpretingexternal events, articulating an attractive vision, proposinginnovative programs, appealing for change, creating a

coalition to support and implement changes

Leaders typically engage in all three types of behavior

The particular situation plays an important role in determiningbest mix.


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Leadership Effectiveness

Both objective and subjective dimensions areused to assess leadership effectiveness

Accomplishment of organizational goals ,e.g.

student achievement (objective) Self-assessments(subjective)

Reputation (subjective)

Perceptual evaluations by significant reference

groups (subjective)

Overall job satisfaction of subordinates(subjective)


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Contingency Models of Leadership

Contingency theory postulates that effectiveness of the leader

is contingent upon the appropriate match of the leadership

traits and skills with the situation.

Some examples of Contingency Models:

Instructional Leadership

Fielders Contingency Model of Leadership

Substitutes for Leadership

Distributed Leadership


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Instructional Leadership: Alig & Hoy

The effectiveness of the principals instructional leadership is

contingent upon a climate of academic emphasis.

Instructional Leadership Model postulates that effective

instructional leaders perform three functions:

Define and communicate goals Monitor and provide constructive feedback on teaching Promote and emphasize professional development.

However, such leadership will not lead to high student

achievement (effectiveness) unless there is also a climate,which emphasizes academic success.


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Fiedlers Contingency Theory

Fiedler (1967): First major theory to propose specificcontingency relationships

Situational control: power and influence leaders have toimplement plans, decisions, and strategies is the situationalvariable

Determined by three factors:

Position power

Task structure

Leader-member relations Effectiveness:extent to which group accomplishes primary

goal

Leadership Style: Task-oriented or Relations-oriented


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Fiedlers Three Propositions

1. In high-control situations, task-oriented leaders are more effective than

relationship-oriented leaders

2. In moderate-control situations, relationship-oriented leaders are more

effective than task-oriented leaders

3. In low-control situations, task-oriented leaders are more effective thanrelationship-oriented leaders

Model tested rigorously, with mixed, but mainly supportive results

Criticisms:

LPC has been a moving target: first measured emotional reaction to difficultsubordinates, then relationship orientation, then the leaders motivational

hierarchy


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Substitutes for Leadership Model Kerr and Jermier (1977) question basic assumption that formal leadership

is necessary; their model is their alternative Substitutes: situational elements that replace or reduce a leaders

ability to influence attitudes, perceptions, or behaviors of followers

Neutralizers: situational factors that prevent leader from acting in aparticular way or that nullify effect of leaders actions

Three categories of situational variables have these influences: Characteristics of subordinates: abilities, training, experience, and

knowledge, professional orientation, and indifference toward rewards

Task characteristics: structured routine tasks, intrinsically satisfyingtasks, and feedback

Organizational characteristics: formalization of roles and procedures,flexibility of rules and policies, work group cohesiveness, spatialdistance between administrator and followers

Leadership behavior and effective performance is moderated bysubordinate, task, and organizational characteristics.


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Distributed leadership Distributed leadership models challenge the assumption that

one person has to be in charge to make change happen; inthis model leadership is an organizational quality.

Distributed leadership embraces leadership by teams andgroups.

Spillane et al (2001, 2003):Define leadership around the

technical core-- the identification, acquisition, allocation,coordination, and use of social, material, cultural resourcesnecessary to establish the conditions forteaching and

learning

The distribution and quality of leadership varyacross a variety of situational factors; henceeffective distributed leadership depends uponmatching leadership teams with the appropriate

situation.

T f ti l L d hi


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Transformational Leadership

Pioneers: Burns (1978), Bass (1985): Three main types of leadership

Laissez-Faire leadership: absence of transactions with followers. These

leaders avoid expressing views or taking action, avoid or delay decisions,ignore responsibility, provide little feedback. Most passive, least effectiveof three types.

Transactional leadership: motivate followers by exchanging rewards forservices. Leaders identify what followers want and try to provide it as

reward for effort. Respond to followers

immediate self-interest.Exchanges are economic: pursued on basis of cost-benefit.

Contingent reward leadership: leader behaviors focus on role and taskrequirements; provide rewards contingent on performance.

Active management-by-exception: leaders maintain high levels ofvigilance to ensure standards are met; take corrective action quickly.

Passive management-by-exception: leaders fail to intervene untilproblems are serious.

Transformational leadership: leadership is expanded to go beyond simpleexchanges and agreement.


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Transformational Leadership

Transformational leadership posits four main

dimensions (the 4 Is):

Idealized Influence

Inspirational motivation

Intellectual motivation

Individualized consideration


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Idealized Influence

Idealized influence: builds trust, respect in followers, thus

forming basis for acceptance of big changes.

Leaders display conviction and high standards of conduct,

share risks, consider needs of others first, and never use

power for personal gain. Followers admire and trust leader

and thus buy into mission, even if it requires radical changes

in the organization.

Attributed idealized influence: followersperceiveleader as

being charismatic, confident, powerful, and focused onhigher-order ideals.

Idealized influence as behavior: charismatic actionsof leaders

that focus on values, beliefs, and sense of mission


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Inspirational Motivation

Inspirational motivation: changes expectations ofgroup members: problems CAN be solved

Develops appealing vision to guide development oforganizational goals and operating procedures

Leader behaviors provide meaning, challenge forfollowers

Project attractive and optimistic future

Emphasize ambitious goals

Create idealized visions for organizations Clearly communicate that vision is obtainable

Results: team spirit, enthusiasm, optimism, goalcommitment, shared vision within the work group


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Intellectual Stimulation

Intellectual stimulation: encourage followerscreativityquestion old assumptions, traditionsand beliefs, reframe problems

Encourage followers to design new procedures andprograms and solve problems

Encourage unlearningeliminate fixation on wayweve always done it

Insist on constant open examination of procedures,receptivity to change

Nothing is sacred: any procedure, policy, or operationcan be contested on the merits


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Individualized Consideration

Individualized consideration: leaders pay particular attentionto each individuals needs for growth and achievement

Leaders act as mentorshelp followers and colleagues develop

potential and take responsibility for own development

Create new learning opportunities in supportive climate

Recognize and accept individual differences in needs and values

Use two-way communication, and interact personally with

others


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Research findings Research on transformational leadership clarifies three

generalizations: Idealized influence and inspirational leadership most satisfying and effective (Avolio,

1999; Bass, 1990)

Transformational leaders receive higher ratings, are perceived to lead more effectiveorganizations, and have subordinates that exert greater effort than transactional leaders(Yukl, 1998; Bass, 1998)

Transformational leadership in schools directly influences teacher perceptions of studentgoal achievement and student grades (Leithwood, 1994)

Influences three psychological characteristics of staff:perception of school characteristics, commitment to change,and organizational learning

Depends upon attending to all four Is, with individualizedconsideration as a base

Support for Leithwoods claims from other studies: Silins(1992), Marks & Printy (2003)

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Servant LeadershipServant leadershipis behavior that nurtures individual

development in the organization through listening, empathy,

stewardship, and an awareness to develop followers who thinkethically and foster sound interpersonal relations with theircolleagues.

The servant leader attends to individual growth, to realizingthe organizations goals, and to the ethical and moral effects onthe broader community

Servant leadership inverts the power pyramid to show therelative placement of leaders: The leader supports theorganization and the responsibility for action is dispersed

across the organization. Servant leadership stands on seven pillars: personal

character, people first, skilled communication, compassionatecollaboration, foresight, systems thinking, and moral authority

Evolutionary Leadership Theory (ELT)


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Evolutionary Leadership Theory (ELT) The basic premise ELT is that leadership and followership emerged during the

course of human evolution.

Leadership and followership are psychological adaptations that have been sculptedinto our brain; they are instinctive and universal and have become the naturalorder of things. We are programmed to live in groups, to be led, and to be obedientmost of the time.

ELT also postulates the particular traits associated with initiative taking andintelligence are largely inherited and propel people to power positions.

Leadership has three important functions: it binds groups; it helps the group learnnew things; and it teaches others how to lead.

We have evolved to follow authority and we have developed an innate follow themajority rule; in fact, the desire to conform overwhelms the desire to be correct.

The instincts of reciprocity, fairness, and hierarchy are hard wired into our psyches.

ELT emphasizes followers as a vital component of leadership. Increasingly leadersneed to learn how to shift their pattern of leadership as they as they interact withfollowers up the ladder of commitment from subordinatesto supportersto loyaliststo apprenticesto disciples.

Leaders need to be a source of inspiration for disciples, a teacher for apprentices, adefender for loyalists, a figurehead for supporters, and a provider for subordinates.

Practical Imperati es


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Practical Imperatives Know your leadership style and be flexible: There is no one best style.

Match your leadership style to the situation: Effectiveness depends on

the appropriate matching. Mission first, people always: Task achievement and supportive socialrelations are essential for success.

Strive to be broadly effective: Your reputation, subordinate satisfaction,and goal achievement are all important aspects of effectiveness.

Be both an instructional and organizational leader: Effective instructional

leadership depends on a school climate of academic emphasis. Delegate and distribute leadership widely: Expertise drives success.

Be inspirational, intellectual, idealistic, and tailor you leadership to yoursubordinates: Transformative change requires it.

Lead by serving: Servant leadership creates moral authority.

Make informality a virtue: Formal structures often interfere withauthentic action.

Be just: Favoritism and nepotism erode fairness.

Avoid the Dark Triad: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and a Psychopathy.

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Documents

HM PP Slides Ch13