History Year by Year

8/10/2019 History Year by Year

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/history-year-by-year 1/322







LONDON, NEW YORK,MELBOURNE, MUNICH, AND DELHI

Senior Editor Francesca Baines

Senior Art Editor Sheila Collins

Editors Steven Carton, Clare Hibbert, Andrea Mills

Designers David Ball, Jeongeun Park, Stefan Podhorodecki,

Mary Sandberg, Jane ThomasIllustrator Jeongeun Park

Managing Editor Linda Esposito

Managing Art Editor Diane Peyton Jones

Category Publisher Andrew Macintyre

Producer Mary Slater

Senior Producer, Preproduction Ben Marcus

Producer, Preproduction Rachel Ng

Picture Researcher Nic Dean

DK Picture Librarian Romaine Werblow

Jacket Editor Manisha Majithia

Jacket Designer Mark Cavanagh

Jacket Design Development Manager Sophia MTT

Publishing Director Jonathan Metcalf Associate Publishing Director Liz Wheeler

Art Director Phil Ormerod

DK INDIA

Editor Bharti Bedi

Art Editors Deep Shikha Walia, Shipra Jain, Pankaj Bhatia

DTP Designers Neeraj Bhatia, Tanveer Abbas Zaidi

Deputy Managing Editor Kingshuk Ghoshal

Deputy Managing Art Editor Govind Mittal

Preproduction Manager Balwant Singh

Production Manager Pankaj Sharma

SMITHSONIAN ENTERPRISESSenior Vice President Carol LeBlancDirector of Licensing Brigid Ferraro

Licensing Manager Ellen NanneyProduct Development Manager Kealy Wilson

Smithsonian Institution consultants from: Freer-Sackler Galleries of Art

National Air and Space MuseumNational Museum of American HistoryNational Museum of Natural History

First American Edition, 2013Published in the United States by

DK Publishing375 Hudson Street

New York, New York 10014

13 14 15 16 17 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

001—186993—9/13

Copyright © 2013 Dorling Kindersley Limited

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval

system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.

Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited.

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN 978-1-4654-1418-2

DK books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk for salespromotions, premiums, fund-raising, or educational use. For details, contact: DK PublishingSpecial Markets, 375 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014 or [email protected].

Color reproduction by Opus Multimedia Services, Delhi, IndiaPrinted and bound in Hong Kong by Hung Hing

Discover more atwww.dk.com



Written by

Peter Chrisp, Joe Fullman,and Susan Kennedy

Consultant

Philip Parker

s m i t h s o n i a n



Contents

Before historybegan

8 6.5–0.2 MYA

10 Hunter-gatherers

12 200,000–10,000 BCE

14 Magical creatures

16 10,000–3000 BCE

18 The first farmers

Traveling through timeThe earliest events in this book took place a very long time ago.

Some dates may be followed by the letters MYA, short for “million

years ago.” Other dates have BCE and CE after them. These are short for

“before the Common Era” and “Common Era.” The Common Era

was originally based on the birth of Jesus. When the exact date of an

event is not used, the letter c. is used. This is short for the Latin word

circa, meaning “round,” and indicates that the date is approximate.

Really ancienthistory

22 3000–2500 BCE

24 Into battle!

26 Gods and temples

28 2500–2000 BCE

30 The first writing

32 2000–1500 BCE

34 The metal ages

36 1500–1000 BCE

38 Hidden treasures

40 An Egyptian scribe

42 1000–700 BCE

Much morecivilized

46 700–600 BCE

48 Growing up in Sparta

50 600–500 BCE

52 The Greek-Persian wars

54 500–400 BCE

56 Celtic warriors

58 400–300 BCE

60 300–200 BCE

62 Tomb army

64 200–100 BCE

66 100–1 BCE

68 The Roman Empire

70 1–100 CE

72 Riot in Pompeii

74 100–200

76 200–300

78 A Roman girl’s life

80 300–400

82 400–500

6.5 MYA–3000 BCE 3000 BCE–700 BCE 700 BCE–500 CE 500–1450

The marvelousMiddle Ages

86 500–600

88 The Maya

90 600–700

92 China’s golden age

94 700–800

96 The world of Islam

98 800–900

100 The Vikings

102 900–1000

104 Boy monk

106 1000–1100

108 1100–1200

110 The Crusades

112 Samurai battle

114 1200–1300

116 Young apprentices

118 Mongol warriors

120 1300–1400

122 Battle of Agincourt

124 1400–1450

126 Aztecs and Incas



Exploring andreforming

130 1450–1475

132 The Renaissance

134 1475–1500

136 Age of Exploration

138 1500–1525

140 1525–1550

142 Ottoman Empire

144 1550–1575

146 Mercator’s map

148 Europe’s Wars of

Religion

150 1575–1600

152 1600–1625

154 The trial of Galileo

156 Edo Japan

158 1625–1650

160 Mughal India

162 1650–1675

164 1675–1700

166 Qing China

168 1700–1725

170 The rise of Russia

172 1725–1750

174 Life at sea

1450–1750

Time for change

178 1750–1760

180 1760–1770

182 The Industrial Revolution

184 Working at the

cotton mill

186 1770–1780

188 The American

Revolution

190 1780–1790

192 The French Revolution

194 1790–1800

196 The execution of Louis XVI

198 1800–1810

200 The slave trade

202 1810–1820

204 1820–1830

206 Medical science

208 1830–1840

210 Revolutionary reaper

212 1840–1850

214 Heading west

1750–1850

Empires andWorld Wars

218 1850–1860

220 1860–1870

222 American Civil War

224 1870–1880

226 Unification of Germany

and Italy

228 1880–1890

230 The Scramble for Africa

232 Children of Ellis Island

234 1890–1900

236 1900–1910

238 Learning to fly

240 1910–1915

242 World War I

244 1915–1920

246 1920–1930

248 1930–1935

250 The Great Depression

252 Worthless money

254 1935–1940

256 War in Europe

258 War in the Pacific

260 1940–1945

262 Fleeing the Nazis

1850–1945

Fast forward

266 1945–1950

268 The Cold War

270 Divided Berlin

272 1950–1960

274 1960–1965

276 Civil Rights

278 1965–1970

280 Man on the Moon

282 1970–1975

284 Arab-Israeli Conflict

286 1975–1980

288 1980–1985

290 Decolonization

292 1985–1990

294 Unknown rebel

296 Fall of Communism

298 1990–1995

300 Living under aparthe

302 1995–2000

304 2000–2005

306 War on Terror

308 2005–2012

310 The history of the

United States and Canada

314 Glossary

316 Index

320 Acknowledgments

1945–present





6.5 MYA–3000 BCE Before history began

The human story began more than six million years ago, in Africa, whenour apelike ancestors first began to walk upright. Over time they evolved,becoming bigger and more intelligent. One species, Homo erectus,learned how to use fire and to make stone tools. They were followed bymore advanced species until, around 200,000 years ago, our own species, Homo sapiens, appeared. As hunter-gatherers, modern humans settledevery inhabited part of the planet. Then, around 9500 BCE, humansbegan to farm, which led to a new way of life.



8

6.5▶0.2 MYA

6 MYA 4 MYA5 MYA

The “cradle of humankind”Humans belong to a family of upright walking apes, calledhominins, which evolved in East and South Africa. Weknow about hominins thanks to their fossils. One of themost important sites is the Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania,where hominin fossils date from around 1.9 MYA. Thegorge is known as “the cradle of humankind.”

“We hope to find more

pieces of the puzzle,which will shed light onthe connection between

this upright, walking ape,our early ancestor, and

modern man.”Richard Leakey,Kenyan anthropologist

Fossil footprints

reveal a species

walking on

two legs.Two-legged apesThe first apes able to walkupright appeared in the forests of

Africa. They combined walkingwith swinging from trees. Theearliest evidence found so far iscalled Sahelanthropus tchadensis(“Human fossil from Sahel”).

Human ancestorsA new group of hominins,called Australopithecines,

spread across the drygrasslands of East and SouthAfrica. They were small, with

brains a third the size of those ofmodern humans, but their

footprints were much like ours.

6.5 MYA 3.9 MYA

AFRICA

AUSTRALIA

NORTHAMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

EUROPE

ASIA

Atlantic

Ocean

Antarctica

IndianOcean

PacificOcean

12,500years ago

15,000 years ago

25,000years ago

50,000years ago

45,000years ago

45,000years ago

60,000years ago150,000

years ago

120,000years ago

Homo sapiensevolved in EastAfrica around

200,000 years ago

12,000years ago



9

BEFORE HISTORY BEGAN

Modern humansThe first modern humans,called Homo sapiens (thinking man), appearedin Africa 200,000 years ago.They were larger-braineddescendants of Homo

heidelbergensis. Ourdistinguishing features area high forehead with slightbrow ridges, a small face,and a projecting chin.

2 MYA 1 MYA3 MYA

Early toolmakersA new hominin species, Homo

habilis (handy man), learned howto make stone tools by strikingpebbles with other stones to createa cutting edge. They used theirtools to dig up roots, open nuts,and smash open bones to get atedible marrow on the inside.

Less than 100,000 years ago, ourspecies, Homo sapiens, moved outof Africa to settle the world, asshown on this map. We were not thefirst hominins to leave Africa. Around1.9 MYA Homo erectus moved outof Africa into Eurasia.

Longest-standing hominin Homo erectus was the longest-survivinghominin species. They lived across largeareas of Africa, Southern Europe, Asia, and

Indonesia for more than 1.5 million years.

High skull

case to hold

large brain

First sheltersDescendants of Homo erectus, called Homo heidelbergensis, moved into Europe, where

they hunted elephants and hippos withstone-tipped spears. They were the firsthominins to build shelters out of wood.

Human-sized Homo erectus (upright man), a descendant

of Homo habilis, evolved in East Africa. Thediscovery of an almost complete skeleton,

called the Turkana Boy, showed that Homoerectus was the first hominin to grow as tall

as modern humans.

2.5 MYA

1.9 MYA0.5 MYA

0.2 MYA

Homo sapiens

skull

Homo erectus

skull fromKenya,East Africa

Skull ofTurkana Boy

A new tool Homo erectus inventeda new kind of stone tool,the leaf-shaped hand ax,in Africa around 1.9 MYA.

This was the first tool to bemade to a design, and itwould remain the mainhominin tool for over a

million years.

Making fire Homo erectus learnedhow to make fire. This

provided warmth, light, andprotection from wild animals,and was used to cook meat.

Fire allowed hominins tomove into colder areas

of the planet.

OUT OF AFRICA

Back-sloping

forehead, low

brain case, and

thick brow ridges



10

Hunter-gatherersUntil just 10,000 years ago, all humans survived by huntinganimals and gathering plants for food. This can only supporta small population, so hunter-gatherers usually lived in bandsof fewer than fifty people, who often had to move on to findfresh food supplies. It was as hunter-gatherers, searching fornew sources of food, that people settled every continent ofthe world except Antarctica.

Hunting with dogsAt some point before 35,000 BCE,hunters domesticated dogs.Dogs were skilled trackers,with their acute senses of smelland hearing, and they providedspeed and sharp teeth for thekill. Dogs also learned newskills, such as how tounderstand human emotions.

Arrowheads, found in aSouth African cave, providethe earliest evidence of thebow and arrow. The bowallowed hunters to kill theirprey from a distance.

People in Europe beganto make cave paintings ofanimals, such as wild horses,mammoths, and aurochs(wild cattle).

Earliest evidence ofdomesticated dogs, from acave in Belgium. Dogs weredomesticated from wolves,by raising them from puppies.

People in Europe firstused spear-throwers, toolsthat increased the speedand force of a spearthrough the air.

After the Ice From around 12,000 BCE, the wo

climate warmed. As ice sheets meforests spread and rivers and

formed. During the new period, cthe Mesolithic (Middle Stone)

people ate a wider variety of plant fThe bow, ideal for woodlands, betheir most important hunting wea

Spear-throwerHunting methods changedover time. One invention,before 21,000 BCE, was thespear-thrower, whichadds length and leverageto a throwing arm. InEurope, people decoratedtheir spear-throwers withcarvings of the animals

they hunted.

Carved antlerspear-throwerin the shape

of a mammoth

“The choice for hunterswas brutal: starve

or move.”Dr. Jacob Bronowski,The Ascent of Man, 1973

Cave painting of a hunter from Tassili-n-Ajjer, Algeria

62,000 BCE 35,000 BCE 21,000 BCE39,000 BCE

Key events




11

Choose your weaponDuring the Mesolithicperiod, people inventedmany specialized tools fordifferent purposes. Huntersmade antler and boneharpoons, arrows with flintblades, and spears, traps,and nets for fishing.

Mesolithic hunter-gatherersin the Near East became soskilled at gathering wild foodsthat they were able to settledown in early villages.

As the climate in NorthernEurope warmed up, manylarge mammals, includingwoolly rhinos and mammoths,became extinct.

Mammoth hunters in Ukrainebuilt constructions fromthe bones of their prey. Itis not known if these weresimply shelters or had someritual purpose.

Antler harpoon with serrated edge

Fishing spear

Arrow with flint blade

Hunter-gatherers today

In a few areas of the world today, people still live as hunter-gatherers. Learning about these societies can help usunderstand how the first people might have lived. In mostcases, hunting is left to men, while the gathering of plant foodsis the work of women and children. People own few personalpossessions, and share everything they have.

Tracking preyThe San Bushmen of South Africa are modern-dayhunter-gatherers. Expert trackers and hunters, theyuse bows and arrows to kill deer, antelope, zebra,and other animals. They tip their arrows with poison,which they extract from beetle larvae.

Bow

Prehistoric menuMesolithic people learnedto eat a highly varied diet.Here are some of the foodsthey would have eaten:

• Berries• Nuts• Seeds• Leaves• Grasses• Roots• Shellfish• Snails• Fish• Meat• Eggs Cranberries

Hazelnuts

Snail

Flintarrowhead

Blackberries

13,000 BCE 12,000 BCE12,000 BCE



12

200,000▶10,000 BCE

200,000 150,000 100,

Ice sheetsThis period marked the

beginning of a 100,000-year-

long cold phase in the Earth’sclimate, in which ice sheets

periodically spread south fromthe Arctic and sea levels sank.In Eurasia, forests gave way to

steppe and grassland, inhabitedby animals adapted to the cold,

such as the woolly mammothand woolly rhinoceros.

110,000 BCE

Woollymammoth

In Europe and the Near East,Neanderthals, a new humanspecies adapted to cold conditions,appeared. Stocky and muscular,Neanderthals hunted largemammals using spears at closequarters. Neanderthals dressedin skins and lived in caves, wherethey also buried their dead.

200,000 BCE NEANDERTHALS

Flintscraper

Antlerhammer

NeanderthalNeanderthals probably livedin extended family groups,in rock shelters or caves.

Skin scraperNeanderthals made a wide

range of tools and weapons.This scraper, for preparing

skins, was shaped by chippingflakes from the flint with ahammer of bone or antler.



13

50,000 10,000

“If we went back 100,000 years...there might have been as many assix different kinds of humans onthe Earth. All those other kindshave disappeared, and left us as

the sole survivors.

”Dr. Chris Stringer of the Natural History

Museum, London

Into AsiaModern humans, Homo sapiens,moved out of Africa and intoAsia. They then spread east

across South Asia, keeping to thewarmer southern regions. Theprevious human species in Asia,

Homo erectus, had alreadybecome extinct.

85,000–70,000 BCE

Last NeanderthalsFollowing a period of extremeclimate change, Neanderthalsbecame extinct. Their lastknown outpost was a cavein Gibraltar, south of Spain.With the disappearance ofthe last Neanderthals, Homo

sapiens was the only humanspecies on Earth.

First artistsEarly humans

created works ofart—cave paintings

of animals andcarvings of animals

and people. Theyalso left images of

their own hands onthe cave walls, by

spitting or blowingpigment over them.

24,000 BCE

39,000 BCE

15,000 BCE

First pots

Hunter-gatherers in Japan made the firstpots—clay copies ofwoven baskets called“Jomon” (cord patterneware. In most otherplaces, pottery was oninvented once peoplebecame settled farmer

Into America

Modern humans from Asiacrossed into the Americas,following herds of game.They were able to do thisbecause the lower sealevels created a landbridge between thetwo continents, wheretoday the Bering Straitdivides Russia from Alaska.

14,000 BCE

40,000 BCE

Cro-MagnonsThe first modern humans in Europeare called Cro-Magnons, after a site

in France. They were the firstpeople to make tailored clothes

using bone needles.

50,000 BCE

First sea voyages

Modern humans from Asiamade the earliest known boat journeys, crossing the sea to

settle Australia. There, theyfound unfamiliar new animals,

including the Giant Kangarooand many large flightless birds.

Many of these became extinctfollowing the arrival of humans.

Hand painting from a cave at Chauvet, France

Jomon pot



14

17,000 YEARS AGO, FRANCE



15


“Most people don’trealize how huge some of

the paintings are. There arepictures of animals therethat are ten, fifteen feet

long, and more.”Ralph Morse, US photographer, whotook the first photos of the Lascaux

caves, in 1947.

MagicalcreaturesAround 17,000 years ago in Lascaux,France, early people decorated anetwork of caves with paintingsof 2,000 animals, including horses,aurochs (wild oxen), bison, and stags.Perhaps these paintings were usedin ceremonies to bring good hunting.We do not know. But when they wereilluminated by the flickering light ofstone lamps, the beasts must haveseemed to have magical powers.

The Hall of Bulls in the Lascaux caves, France



16

10,000

The earliest-known town

is Catalhöyük, in what isnow Turkey. The settledlifestyle enabled farmersto grow a surplus tosupport craftworkers andto trade. People importedcowrie shells, obsidian(volcanic glass), andcopper, and exportedobsidian daggers,mirrors, and jewelry.

Crowded townPeople lived in mud-brick housesthat were tightly packed together.There were no doors, and houses wereentered through ladders from the roofs.

First farmers

People in Egypt and the NearEast became the first farmers.With the arrival of farming,a new period called theNeolithic (New Stone) Agebegan. In other parts of theworld, where people stilllived as hunter-gatherers,the Mesolithic (Middle Stone)Age continued.

7300 BCE CATALHÖYÜK

10,000▶3000 BCE

Cowrie shells

Ax head

Obsidian

9500 BCE

Polished stone ax

head made by

Neolithic people

Deer disguiseThis deer antler headdresswas worn by a Mesolithichunter in northern Britain

around 7500 BCE. It may havebeen worn as a disguise when

stalking game, or for ritualdances, perhaps tocontact the spirits

of the deer.



17


Tomb buildersFarming people in Europeset up large stone tombs.The earliest, called dolmens,used standing stonessupporting a horizontaltable stone. Originally,

dolmens would have beencovered with earth mounds.A tomb of the ancestorsshowed the right of theliving to hold the land.

First writing

The Sumerians invented an earlywriting system called cuneiform.Around the same time, Egyptiansinvented another writing system

called hieroglyphs. It usedpicture signs, which stood for

words, ideas, and sounds.

30006000

Horse ridersPeople began to ride horses onthe steppes, or grassy plains, ofEurope and Asia. They lived as

shepherds, leading flocks ofsheep across the steppes in

search of fresh grazing.

Copper toolsPeople in Central Europe and western

Asia made the first metal tools, fromcopper. Stone tools remained the mostcommonly used, and so historians call

this period of prehistory the Chalcolithic(Copper-Stone) Age.

Narmer palette

First citiesThe first cities emerged in Mesopotamia(modern-day Iraq). Each city was ruled ba king on behalf of a local god, who wasworshipped in a great temple.

Chinese bronzeIn China and western Asia,people discovered that bymixing tin with copper,they could make a muchharder metal—bronze.

The first kings

The first kings ruledin Egypt. The earliestwe know was namedNarmer, shown onthis carving wearing twhite and red crownsof Upper (southern) aLower (northern) EgyNarmer may have un

the two lands ia single kingdo

Here, the king

wears thewhite crown of

Upper Egypt.

Narmer strikes

his enemies

with his mace.

In 1991, hikers in theÖtzal Alps, betweenAustria and Italy,discovered the bodyof a man in meltingice. At first, theythought he was amodern-day victim.In fact, he was 5,300

years old. The man,nicknamed Ötzi, haddied after being shot

with an arrow.

Ötzi’s axÖtzi’s ax had

a copper bladebound to a woodenhandle with leatherthongs. This is the

only completeprehistoric ax

ever found.

Clothing and equipmentThe body was found wearing a bearskin hat,clothes of deer and goat hide, and deer-and-bearskin shoes stuffed with grass. Ötzi alsohad a bow and arrows, a copper ax, a flintdagger, a fire-making kit, and berries for food.

The Poulnabrone dolmen in Ireland

3300 BCE ÖTZI THE ICEMAN

Mesopotamiantemple door plaque

5000 BCE

3300 BCE 3100 BCE

3500 BCE

4000–3000 BCE

4000–2500 BCE 4000–3000 BCE

King is shown

larger than

his subjects

Handle is 2 ft

(60 cm) long, and

made from yew.



18

The Fertile CrescentFarming began in an area known as the“fertile crescent” (shown in green above),which stretched from the Mediterranean tothe Persian Gulf. It followed the courses ofthree great rivers—the Nile, the Tigris, and theEuphrates—which flooded regularly, depositingsilt to make the soil fertile. Here grew wildgrasses, ancestors of wheat, barley, rye,and other food crops.

The first farmersFrom 9500 BCE, people in Egypt and western Asialearned how to sow, harvest, and store crops. Theyalso domesticated animals, such as goats, sheep, cattle,and pigs—they had become farmers, beginning a new

period called the Neolithic (New Stone) Age. In EastAsia and the Americas, farming was adopted later,

and different native crops were grown.

Changing wheatThe wild ancestors of wheat had brittle heads thatshattered when ripe, releasing grains to be spreadby the wind. By harvesting plants with larger, moreintact ears, people gradually changed wheat. Itevolved into bread wheat, a plant whose grains

wait for the plant to be harvested.Hard labor

Farming people had to work harderthan hunter-gatherers. Women spentlong hours grinding grain by pushinga small stone backward and forward

on a large stone, called a quern.Skeletons from this period show

that kneeling at thequern caused arthritis

and damaged toesand ankles.

9500 BCE 8500 BCE 8000 BCE 6500 BCE

First farming beganin Egypt and westernAsia, as people settledto cultivate wild grasses.

Goats and sheepwere domesticatedin the Near East.

In Mesoamerica, peoplelearned to grow squash.Rice was firstdomesticatedin China.

Chinese farmersgrew milletalong the YellowRiver, and riceby the Yangtze.

An early varietyof wheat

A flint sicklefor harvestinggrasses

Key events

MESOPOTAMIA

EGYPT

Mediterranean Sea

RedSea

PersianGulf

An Egyptian womangrinding grain on a stonecalled a quern

7000 BCE

Pigs were domesticatedin Turkey and cattle inthe Near East. Corn was

developed from wildteosinte in Mexico.

NileRiver

EuphratesRiver

TigrisRiver




19

Settled lifeFarming allowed peopleto stay in one place,settling in villages thatthen grew into towns.Settling down changedmany aspects of dailylife, bringing with it

advantages anddisadvantages.

Ancestor worshipLiving in one place, farming

people became aware ofthe ancestors who had

lived before them. Theybelieved that the deadwatched over them. In

‘Ain Ghazal, Jordan,statues of people,

perhaps ancestors,were found buried in pitsbeneath houses. This mayhave been part of a ritual

of ancestor worship.

6000 BCE 5000 BCE 4000 BCE5000 BCE

In Sumeria,Mesopotamia,the cultivation ofcrops occurred ona large scale.

Farming spreadacross Europe,West Asia, andNorth Africa.

In the Andesmountains of SouthAmerica, llamaswere tamed.

Paddy field cultivation ofrice began in China. Inthe Mediterranean, vinesand olives were farmed.

Teosinte

CornDomesticated in Mesoamerica from

a wild grass called teosinte.

PotatoesWild potato species grew across

the Americas.

Llamas and alpacasUsed for their meat, wool, dung

(for fuel and fertilizer), and

also as pack animals.

Guinea pigsThese animals are a major

meat source in the Andes.

Animal adaptationAnimals changed when they weredomesticated. Cattle and sheepbecame smaller and more docilethan their wild ancestors. Sheeplost their long horns and developeda thick woolly fleece.

American farmersAround 8000 BCE, farming was developedin Mesoamerica (present-day Mexico andCentral America) and South America.There were few large animals suitablefor farm work, so Americans neverinvented wheeled transportation or theplow. Many different native crops andanimals were found in this region:

‘Ain Ghazalstatue

High-rise living

In many early

settlements,

people lived

on top of

one another.

Practical potsMost pottery was too heavyand fragile to be carried byhunter-gatherers, but when

people settled, pots revolutionizedtheir lives. They could use themto carry liquids, store grain, and

cook food over a fire. Pottery wasalso decorative, and becamea way of displaying wealth.

Pros

Easier to raisebigger familiesLife was morecomfortableThere was access togoods, through trade

Potential for wealthand power, for some

Cons

OvercrowdingRisk of disease, caughtby living alongside otherpeople and animalsDisposal of rubbish andsewage was a problem

Farmers’ wealthattracted attackers





3000–700 BCE Really ancient history

The invention of farming changed human life forever. Peoplenow lived a settled life that could support many more people thanhunting and gathering. As the population exploded, villages grewinto towns and cities, and different classes appeared. The earliestcivilizations developed in Egypt and Mesopotamia, with kings,organized religion, and writing. A great advance was made whenpeople learned how to use metals, for tools, weapons, and jewelry.Competition over land and resources also led to the first wars.



22

Longshan pot

3000▶2500 BCE

3000 BCE

3000 BCE

During the Egyptian Old Kingdom, a series of

pharaohs built the largest stone tombs in history.Each pyramid tomb acted as an eternal home forthe dead king, and a place where he was thoughtto change into an immortal god. The tallest ofthem, The Great Pyramid, stood 481 ft (147m) high.

First stateIn Egypt, pharaohscreated the world’sfirst state. The king

was seen as divine, aliving representativeof the sky god,Horus. Pharaohswere the first rulersto wear crowns.

StonehengeIn Britain, farming people

began to build Stonehenge, aceremonial center aligned with

the midwinter sunset. It began asa circular ditch and bank. The first

stones were erected in 2600 BCE,

followed by larger uprights withhorizontal stones in 2500 BCE.

How Stonehenge was usedremains a mystery.

2686–2181 BCE OLD KINGDOM EGYPT

Step pyramidsPharaoh Djoser (ruled2670-2651 BCE) built thefirst pyramid, with sixstepped levels. This wasthe world’s first largebuilding made of stone.

Kingdom of the NileThe civilization of AncientEgypt grew up beside the

desert along the banks of theNile River. Each year the riverflooded, depositing fertile soil

along the banks where peoplewere able to farm. The firstperiod of Ancient Egyptiancivilization, known as the

Old Kingdom, was a time ofpeace and prosperity.

Great PyramidThe largest pyramid of all wasbuilt by Pharaoh Khufu (ruled

2589-2566 BCE). The GreatPyramid of Giza is theonly pyramid to have

the king’s burialchamber high up

in the tomb.

3000

3000 BCE

Chinese townsAlong the Yellow River, people built the firstlarge walled towns in China. The Longshanpeople, named after the town where the firstexcavations took place, made beautifulpottery and silk textiles from moth cocoons.

2900

Chamber to relieve

weight from above

King’s burial

chamber

Grand gallery

rises toward the

burial chamber

SAHARADESERT

Memphis

RedSea

LOWER EGYPT

UPPEREGYPT

Mediterranean Sea

N i l e

R

i v e r

Mortuary temple,

where offerings could

be made





24

3000 BCE, MESOPOTAMIA

Into battle!This mosaic reveals how, five thousand years ago inMesopotamia, rival armies from city-states battled forsupremacy. At the top, prisoners are dragged before theking, who has stepped down from his chariot. Below, ranksof infantry advance, and other soldiers kill the enemy withaxes and lead away prisoners. At the bottom, soldiers inchariots, each pulled by four donkeys, trample the dead.



25

REALLY ANCIENT HISTORY

“

The asses at the rear walk sedately,

while those drawing the other cars becomemore and more excited as they encounter thecorpses strewn on the ground, until those at

the front have broken into a gallop whichthreatens the balance of the riders.”Sir Leonard Woolley, the British archaeologist

who discovered the fragments of the mosaic,from his book Ur of the Chaldees , 1929

Mosaic panel from a box found in a roytomb in the city of Ur in Mesopotam



26

Key events

Gods and templesThe ancient civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamiawere among the first to practice organized religion.People worshipped many gods, each one responsiblefor a different area of life. Gods were worshipped in

large temples, staffed by priests. In these and inother early civilizations, organized religion wasa powerful unifying force.

The oldest-known Sumeriantemple, to Enki, the god offresh water, was built in Eridu,Mesopotamia. It was called the“House of the Cosmic Waters.”

5300 BCE

The Temple of KarnakThe most famous Egyptian temple, atKarnak, was dedicated to the creator godAmun-Re, his wife Mut, and Montu, thewar god. Over hundreds of years, thetemple was enlarged by succeedingpharaohs to become one of the largestreligious complexes in the world.

RaGod of the Sun, shown inmany different forms, oftenwith a solar disk on his head.

HorusGod of the sky and protectorof the Pharaoh, shown asa falcon or a falcon-

headed man.ThothGod of wisdom and writing,shown as a baboon or an ibis,or a man with their heads.

KhnumGod of pottery who made thefirst humans out of clay,shown with a ram’s head.

HathorGoddess of joy and music,shown as a woman with theears or head of a cow.

Egyptian godsEgyptian gods took the form ofanimals, humans, and sometimes amixture of the two. Re-Horakhty,above, combined the features of

Ra and Horus.

FestivalsGods each had their own festivals,when their statues were carried in

processions. Music played a major role.The sistrum, a metal rattle, was used in

ceremonies for the goddesses Hathor andIsis (goddess of motherhood and magic).

Temple of Ra, the EgyptianSun god, was built inHeliopolis. Ra was themost important godworshipped duringthe Old Kingdom.

2600 BCE

Sistrumrattle

Egyptian priestsperform a ritual

A painting of the columns of theGreat Hypostyle Hall, Karnak



27


Mesopotamian godsThe gods of Mesopotamia wererepresented in human form.Although there were hundredsof them, the most importantwere the patrons of major cities.The gods are known by twonames. They have a Sumerianname, which was used until thesecond millennium BCE, and alater Akkadian name.

Ziggurat of UrFrom around 2200 BCE, Mesopotamian

temple complexes included tall steppedtowers called ziggurats. These may haverepresented a sacred mountain, or a

ladder for the god to climb up toheaven. They dominated the flatlandscape, a visible reminder of thepower of the god and the peoplewho had built the temple.

Enki / EaGod of fresh water, mischief,and crafts, and patron of thecity of Eridu.

Inanna / IshtarGoddess of love, war, andthe planet Venus, and thepatron of Uruk.

Nanna / SinGod of the moon, patronof Ur, and known asfather of the gods.

Worshipper statuesOrdinary Mesopotamians visited their

temples with offerings, such as animalsto sacrifice, to please their gods. They leftbehind worshipper statues, which wouldpray continually to the god on their

behalf. These reveal that theMesopotamians clasped their

hands together when praying.

“I offered incense in front of the ziggurat…The gods smelled the sweet scent, and collected

over the sacrifice like flies.”The Epic of Gilgamesh, a Mesopotamianpoem from the 18th century BCE

IncenseBoth the Egyptians and theMesopotamians believed thattheir gods loved sweet-smelling incense. This was a mixof resin, wood, herbs, and spicesimported from Arabia, which theyburned. Its fragrant smoke wasan offering to the gods.

he first ziggurats were builtn Mesopotamia. They weremade of mud bricks, facedwith glazed bricks and tiles.

2200 BCE

The earliest known templeto Amun-Re, Mut, andMontu, was built atKarnak in Thebes.

2055–1985 BCE

During the New Kingdom,when Thebes became thecapital of Egypt, Amun-Rebecame chief god and histemple at Karnak wasmassively enlarged.

King Nebuchadnezzar II ofBabylon rebuilt the zigguratdedicated to Marduk, whichhad been destroyed bythe Assyrians.

605 BCE1550–1295 BCE

Ningirsu / NinurtaGod of war andrainstorms, and patronof the neighboring citiesof Girsu and Lagash.

Great Ziggurat of Ur

Shrine containing

the god’s statue

Mesopotamian musician,followed by a priest

Incense resin



28

2500 ▶2000 BCE

In Pakistan and northwestIndia, the mysteriouscivilization that grew upby the Indus River was atits height around 2500 BCE.Across the region, a

uniform way of life wascreated—with sharedmeasurements and thesame pottery styles.

2500 BCE INDUS CIVILIZATION

2500 BCE

Norte Chico

In Peru, the Norte Chicocivilization continued toflourish, lasting until 1800 BCE.Unusually for an urbancivilization, the Norte Chicopeople did not make pottery.There is also no evidence of art.

Priest kingThere is no evidence of

kings or organizedreligion in the Indus.However, archaeologistscalled this imposingstatuette the “priest king.”

Indus landsThe Indus region was big enoughto hold both Mesopotamia and Egypt,but we know very little about it.

Mohenjo-daro

Indus people built the firstlarge planned cities, usingstandard-sized bricks. Everyhouse had its own watersupply, bath, and toilet.This is a view of the ruinsof Mohenjo-daro, the mostimportant Indus city, inwhat is now Pakistan.

“Sargon marchedto Kazallu and

turned Kazallu intoa ruin heap, so thatthere was not even

a perch for abird left.”Babylonian Chronicleof Early Kings

2500 23002400

First empireIn Mesopotamia, King

Sargon of the region ofAkkad began his conquest ofthe region of Sumer, creatingthe world’s first empire. As a

result, Akkadian, a semitic languagerelated to Arabic and Hebrew, replaced

Sumerian as the language of Mesopotamia.

2334 BCE

Mohenjo-daro

Arabian Sea

Bronze head of anAkkadian ruler,believed tobe Sargon I

I n d u

s R

i v e r

Harappa

ASIA



29


The Minoans are named after Minos, a legendary king of Crete.We do not know what they called themselves.

2180 BCE

End of theOld KingdomFollowing a period of

famine, caused by lowNile floods, the EgyptianOld Kingdom fell apart.A period of disorderfollowed, with manyrulers governing differentparts of Egypt.

2100 BCE

Minoan prosperity

On the island of Crete in theMediterranean, a people we calthe Minoans flourished. Theybuilt large palaces, including aparticularly fine example atKnossos. These were alsoreligious and industrialcenters, with workshops formetalworkers and othercraftsmen. A wall painting fromKnossos (left) shows a ritual inwhich people leap over a bulland perform acrobatic stunts.It is thought that athletes wouldgrasp the bull’s horns and then

vault over its back.

ChinesekingdomAccording tolegends, the

first kingdom,ruled by theXia Dynasty,appeared in

northwest China.It is thought

to have beenfounded along

the Yellow Riverby Yu the Great.

Ziggurat of UrKing Ur-Nammu of Ur(ruled 2112–2095 BCE) made

his city the most powerfulin Mesopotamia. He also

built a great ziggurattemple, dedicated to the

moon god Nanna/Sin.

Middle KingdomMentuhotep II, ruler of

Thebes, defeated his rivalsand reunited Egypt, beginning

the Middle Kingdom, whichlasted until 1650 BCE. During

this period, the cult of Osiris,god of the dead, became

increasingly important.

2200 2100

2200 BCE 2112 BCE

2040 BCE

Ziggurat of Ur today—the lowest level hasbeen reconstructed.

Wall painting fromKnossos showingacrobats bull-leaping

The Egyptian

god Osiris

2000

G ods and te mple s See pag es 26– 27



30

The Egyptians used hieroglyphson bone and ivory tags to labelgoods. These are among theoldest surviving examplesof writing.

The Sumerians were writing withcuneiform (wedge-shaped) scripton clay tablets. The first signs werepictures of animals and objects, latersimplified to patterns of wedges.

Indus people of northwestIndia and Pakistan inventeda script. The only textsknown to exist are veryshort, and written onmerchants’ seals.

The Minoans of Creteinvented a writing systemcalled Linear A, with 90picture signs, standing fsyllables and objects. It hnot been deciphered.

3300 BCE 2600 BCE 1800 BCE3300 BCE

Key events

The first writingIn different parts of the world, as civilizations grew more complex,people started to write. The earliest systems were invented bythe Egyptians and the Sumerians of Mesopotamia. Their reasonfor inventing writing was to record commercial transactions. Later

writing was used for letters, religious texts, law codes, and to recorhistorical events. With the coming of writing, history begins. For thfirst time, we know the names of ancient peoples and their rulers,and we can read their stories, written in their own words.

Two namesTuthmosis III was calledMenkheperre, meaning “Eternal isthe form of Re,” and TuthmosisNeferkheperu, meaning “Born ofThoth, beautiful of forms.”

Reed signsA writing technique used in theMiddle East between 2500 and330 BCE was called cuneiform,meaning “wedge-shaped.” The signswere formed by pressing a pointedreed into wet clay, each timeproducing a wedge shape. Theresulting picture signs stood for

words, sounds, ideas, and objects.

HieroglyphsEgyptian hieroglyphs (sacredsigns) used pictures of everydayobjects to represent objects,ideas, and sounds. The names ofpharaohs, shown in oval shapescalled cartouches, included thesigns of the gods they claimed asrelatives. Each pharaoh had tworoyal names. On the right are thenames of Pharaoh Tuthmosis III,

with a red disk for Re, and an ibisbird for Thoth.

Re Men Kheper Thoth Mes Nefer Kheper

Re Eternal Forms Thoth Born of Beautiful Forms

Menkheperre Tuthmosis Neferkheperu

Hieroglyphsfrom theTemple ofHatshepsutin Luxor

Egyptian scribe




31

The Phoenicians began usingan alphabet. There were earlieralphabets in the Near East,but it was the Phoenicianswho spread the idea.

Some archaeologists believe thatthe first written texts in the Americasdate from around 900 BCE, based ona carving from Veracruz in Mexico,which appears to have 28 signs.

The Mayans used glyphs (signs)to carve monumental inscriptions,paint text on vases, andwrite books.

The Chinese wrote on“oracle bones,” using picturesigns called ideograms,each standing for an idea oran object. There are nosound signs.

1250 BCE 1050 BCE 300 BCE900 BCE

Mayan glyphsThe Mayans of Mesoamericainvented a writing systemwith signs, called glyphs,that represented syllablesand ideas. They wrotereligious texts in screenfoldbooks, called codices,made from fig tree bark.

Indus sealsThe Indus people invented

a writing system that hasnot been deciphered.

Indus writing, using 300picture signs, only

survives on stone seals,used to identify goods

and their owners. Around 1050 BCE, there was a huge advancewhen the Phoenicians began using an alphabet, asystem with signs standing for consonants. Theadvantage of this was that there were just 22signs to learn. It was now easy for ordinarypeople to learn to read and write.

Adapting the alphabetThe Phoenician alphabet was copied by theGreeks, who added new signs for vowels. Thiswas then adapted by the Romans, who createdthe alphabet we use today.

Phoenician alphabet

Chinese oracle bonesThe oldest surviving Chinese writing is on “oraclebones,” used for divination (telling the future).A diviner wrote questions, such as when cropsshould be planted, on ox shoulder-blade bonesor turtle shell. Thesewere then heatedand the divinerinterpreted the

cracks that appearedto give the answers.

The impression

when the seal is

pressed in clay

aleph beth gimel daleth he waw zayin

heth teth yodh kaph lamedh mem nun samekh

ayin pe tsade qoph resh shin taw

Oraclebone

Some earlyChinese characters

Mayan painted codex (book)

Indus stone seal

Sun

Moon

Scatter

Jaguar Snake

Book

Mountain

Rain



32

“To the end of days,forever, may the kingwho happens to be inthe land observe the

words of justicewhich I haveinscribed.”King Hammurabi,

Law Code

Minoan palaceswere equippedwith sophisticatedplumbing systemsand flushing toilets.

2000▶1500 BCE

Minoan seafarers

The Minoan civilization, on theisland of Crete, dominated the easternMediterranean. The Minoans were greatseafaring traders, exchanging Cretangoods, such as olive oil, wine, anddecorated pottery, for Egyptian ivoryand copper from Cyprus. They alsofounded trading settlements on otherislands, such as Karpathos and Thera(Santorini). Minoan pottery (above)was often decorated with marinecreatures, such as octopuses.

1600 BCE SHANG CHINA

2000 1900 1800

Stele of Hammurabi

Minoan pot

1800 BCE

Peruvian advancesMajor advances in northern Peru led to

the introduction of pottery, weaving, andintensive farming. The population grew

and new urban centers were built.

Babylonian empire

King Hammurabi of Babylonconquered Mesopotamia, creatinga short-lived empire. He is bestknown for his law code, inscribedon a stele (stone) that he had setup in public so all could see it.The carving (left) shows himreceiving his laws from Shamash,god of justice.

1760 BCE2000 BCE




1600 BCE

MycenaeThe Mycenaean civilization rose to power in Greece.They were influenced by the Minoans, copying their artand fashions, but were much more warlike. They builtfortified palaces and conquered Crete around 1450 BCE.

New Kingdom

Pharaoh Ahmose droveHyksos invaders out ofEgypt and a new periodof rule began, known asthe New Kingdom. Pharaoruling from Thebes, laterconquered an empire inAsia. It was a time ofprosperity, during which thhuge temple complex atKarnak was built.

Thera eruption

A massive volcaniceruption on the Greekisland of Thera buriedMinoan settlements onthe island. It also setoff tidal waves thatdevastated nearbyislands, and coastalsettlements on Crete.

16001700 1500

The kings of the Shang Dynasty ruledChina from 1600 BCE. People worshippedancestors, and the massive gulf betweenrulers and ordinary people grew. Whena king or noble died, he was buried

with hundreds of slaves or prisoners,executed by beheading, to serve himin the next life.

The temple complexat Karnak today

Mycenaeangold mask

Fresco from Theraof a boy with fish

1650 BCE

Egypt invadedThe Hyksos, a people from westernAsia, conquered the Egyptian delta,fighting from horse-drawn chariots

later adopted by the Egyptians.

Hittite conquerors

The Hittites conquered anempire that encompassed mostof Asia Minor, also known asmodern-day Turkey. They rodeinto battle on chariots, andwere one of the first peoples touse iron, from around 1550 BCE.They traded iron goods, butkept the technology secretfor 300 years.

Burial customsFound among theitems in a Shang royaltomb were this chariot,and the skeletons oftwo charioteers andthe horses to pull it.

Age of bronzeThe bronze industryflourished at this time.Skilled craftsmen madetools, weapons, musicalinstruments, and ritualitems, such as this blade.

1550 BCE1628 BCE

1650 BCE



34

Key events

The metal agesPeople made a huge advance when they learned howto use metals. Metal tools were easier to shape thanstone ones, and they could be mass-produced using

molds. Unlike a stone ax, which was useless whenbroken, a copper or bronze one could be melted downand recycled. Shiny metals, such as gold and silver,were also perfect materials for jewelry and coins.

At Varna, Bulgaria,wealthy peoplewere buried intombs containing3,000 gold artifacts.

In western Asia,people learnedhow to makebronze by mixingcopper and tin.

People in southeasternEurope and western Asialearned to extract copperfrom mineral oresby smelting.

5000 BCE 3200 BCE6500 BCE

Smelting copperAround 6500 BCE, people learned to extract copperfrom ores (rocks containing minerals and metals),which they recognized by their bright green color.They heated the rocks until the red metal flowed out—a process called smelting. The molten metal couldthen be poured into molds.

By 3200 BCE, people learned thatby mixing a small amount of tin

with copper, they could makea much harder metal calledbronze. Tin is a scarcemetal, which made bronzeextremely valuable.

The age of ironAlthough iron is the most commonmetal, it was the last to be used bypeople. It has a much higher meltingpoint than other metals, which makes it

difficult to extract and work. It could notbe poured into a mold, but had to behammered into shape. It is often heatedin an extremely hot furnace, called aforge, which makes it easier to work.

Chinese metalworkThe most skilled earlybronzeworkers were

the Chinese, who usedcasting techniques

to make sculptures,vessels, and weapons

such as this ax blade.

Using moldsLike copper, bronze was cast:heated until it melted, thenpoured into a mold to makeitems such as this pin fromMorigen, Switzerland,which is 3,000 years old.

Brilliant bronze

Greek ironworkerat a forge

Copper isheated over afire by Egyptianmetalworkers.

Copper ore

Gold and copper, fromnaturally occurringnuggets, were used tomake jewelry in westernAsia and Egypt.

7000 BCE




35

Iron was firstsmelted in thearea that is nowTurkey, beginningthe Iron Age.

Ironworking reached westernEurope. The coming of iron weaponsled to an increase in warfare.

The Chinese usedbronze to makethe world’s firstlife-size statuesof people.

Chinese metalworkers learnedhow to heat iron until it melted,creating the first cast iron.

1200 BCE1200 BCE 500 BCE1550 BCE

Glorious goldGold, which is beautiful and

scarce, has always been prized allover the world. Soft and easy towork, it does not tarnish or rust,

and is the perfect materialfor jewelry. Some of the world’soldest gold jewelry, dating from

5000 BCE, was found in graves inVarna, Bulgaria.

American metalIn the Americas,

people made jewelry,statuettes, and masksfrom gold, silver, and

copper, but did notdiscover how to work

the harder metals. Thisgold mask comes from

a royal tomb in Sipan,

Peru, dating from 250 CE.

Pure ironIron’s hardness made itthe perfect material fortools and weapons. Thisdagger dates from around100 BCE–100 CE. The tophandle is shaped likea human face.

Each metal was used for differentpurposes, according to its availabilityand properties, such as hardnessor color.

Choose your metal Gold, the most valuable metal, was made intoroyal funeral masks and jewelry for the rich.

Silver, the second-most-prized metal, was usedfor jewelry, cups, and coins.

Copper, an attractive red metal, was used fordecorative items and tools, such as axes andchisels. Copper is soft, so these needed

to be resharpened regularly.

Bronze was used for high-status objects, such asswords, spearheads, shields, helmets, brooches,and mirrors.

Iron, the hardest and most common metal, wasused for weapons and everyday items, such astools, nails, and wheel rims.

Bull-shaped goldornament from Varna

Greeksilver coin

Gold was oftenrecycled, soancient gold

jewelry usually

only survivesin graves.

Bronze razorfrom Cambridge,England, 500 BCE

Reapinghook



36

“All eyes are on your beautyuntil you set. All work ceaseswhen you rest in the west.”Akhenaten, Hymn to the Aten

1352 BCE

Sun worshipperPharaoh Akhenaten tried

to make the Egyptiansworship a single god, the

Aten or Sun disk (right). He

founded a new capital,Akhetaten, with open-airtemples for worshippingthe Sun. After his death,around 1334 BCE, the old

religion was restored.

1400 BCE

The OlmecThe first

Mesoamericancivilization developed

in the jungles of thenorth coast of Mexico.

The Olmec builtearth mounds and

temples, and carvedcolossal sculptures of

the heads of rulers,ancestors, or gods— all wearing helmets.

Rameses II, known as Ramesesthe Great, ruled Egypt for 66

years. His long reign broughtstability and prosperity to theEgyptian Empire, and he was amajor figure in the Middle East.He even claimed to have defeatedthe threat from the Hittite Empirein the north single-handedly, atthe battle of Kadesh. In fact, thebattle was inconclusive.

1302 –1213 BCE RAMESES THE GREAT

Father of manyIt is said that Rameseshad seven wives andfathered more thana hundred sons. Hisfavorite wife was hisfirst, Nefertari, whom hemarried at the age of 15.

Famous faceRameses built a huge

number of monumentsand temples, which

often included colossalstatues of himself,

such as the temple atAbu Simbel (right).

1500▶1000 BCE

The Olmec were makingrubber from the saplike fluidof trees 3,000 years ago.

1500 1400 1300

G o d s and t e mp l e s S ee p ag es 26 – 27



37


1046 BCE

Zhou dynasty

In China, King Wu of Zhoudefeated the last Shangemperor in battle, and foundedthe Zhou Dynasty. Under theZhou, ironworking wasintroduced to China.

1000 BCE

The AryansSince the middle of the second

millennium, a people called the Aryanshad been settling in northwest India.

They brought with them an early formof Hinduism. Most of what we knowof them comes from their collection

of religious poems, the Vedas.Their language, Sanskrit, isclosely related to many

European languages.

PhoeniciansAfter the Bronze Age,the Phoenicians, who

lived on the coast ofmodern-day Lebanon andSyria, became the leading

seafaring merchants ofthe Mediterranean. They

traded in purple dye,extracted from themurex sea snail.

From 1250–1100 BCE, the eastern Mediterranean was inturmoil. There was a mass movement of peoples lookingfor new lands to settle, and some of the great BronzeAge civilizations, including the Mycenaeans and Hittites,

were violently destroyed by unknown enemies. OnlyEgypt was strong enough to fend off foreign invaders,whom the Egyptians called the “Sea Peoples.”

1250 –1100 BCE BRONZE AGE COLLAPSE

Egypt enduresPharaoh Rameses III defeated a great seaborne invasion bythe Sea Peoples in the Nile delta in 1178 BCE. Rameses hadscenes of his victory carved on temple walls, showing acaptive people called the “Peleset.” They later settled on thecoast of Canaan, where they gave their name to Palestine.We know them from the Bible as the Philistines.

Greek Dark AgeSometime around 1100 BCE,

Mycenae (right) and the otherfortified palaces in Greecewere sacked and burned.

A period now called theGreek Dark Age followed.The knowledge of writingwas lost, and population

levels fell.

1000

Agni, one of themost importantVedic gods

Trojan horseA Bronze Age legend

tells of the siege of Troy. TheGreeks built a huge wooden

horse, hid soldiers inside, andpretended to sail away. When theTrojans took the horse into thecity, the soldiers crept out, and

opened the gates to theGreeks, who captured

the city.



38

1327 BCE, ANCIENT EGYPT



39


“As my eyes grew accustomedto the light, details of the roomwithin emerged slowly from themist, strange animals, statues,

and gold—everywherethe glint of gold.”Howard Carter, Tomb of Tutankhamun, 1923

A panel on the back of Tutankhamun’s gold throneshows the king being anointed with scented

oil by his queen, Ankhesenamen.

Hidden treasuresFor seven years, archaeologist Howard Carterhad been searching the Valley of the Kings in Egyptfor the lost tomb of a little-known pharaoh namedTutankhamun. Then, in November 1922, the teamuncovered some steps leading down to a sealed door.With trembling hands, Carter made a tiny opening inthe doorway, and peered in by the light of a candle.Before him lay the greatest collection of Egyptiantreasures ever discovered. Never before had a royaltomb been unearthed that had not been emptied bygrave robbers. The treasures had remained in the tombfor 3,000 years, ever since they were buried with the

young pharaoh Tutankhamun for use in the afterlife.



40

CHILDREN IN HISTORY

An Egyptian scribeChildren in Ancient Egypt were usually taught at home,and expected to do the same work as their parents, usually

farming. Only the sons of scribes and nobles went to schoolwhere they learned writing and accounting. Scribes keptall the official records in Egypt, and could become verysuccessful. However, their training was long and rigorous.

An early start

From the age of four, a boy went to scribal school, where he wouldtrain for up to ten years. Lessons began early in the morning, andpupils would take their midday meal of bread and beer with them.The boys sat cross-legged on the floor, ready to learn.

Tools of the trade

One of the boys’ first lessons was to make pens. They learned howto chew the ends of reeds to separate the stiff fibers into delicate

nibs. The pens were kept in a wooden palette, along withcakes of red and black ink. Scribes wrote on paper madefrom the papyrus plant, which grows in the Nile marshes.However, to save papyrus, pupils practiced on slabs oflimestone or broken pieces of pottery.

A lot to learn Students had to learn more than 700 hieroglyphic signs, as wellas simplified versions of the symbols used in everyday lettersand accounts. The boys copied out literary texts to practicewriting, and also studied mathematics and accounting.

Best behavior Young scribes must have envied other children their own age,

who did not have to go to school. For them, discipline wasstrictly enforced and unruly or lazy pupils were often beaten.They were also reminded of the benefits of the life ahead of them.A scribe could look forward to authority, freedom from manuallabor, and exemption from taxes in times of flood.

“By the hypnotic process of

repetition, the boy was filledwith elaborate repertoire of formand phrase that made up the

literary language of the state.”Extract from Egyptologist John Romer’sbook, Ancient Lives, 1984

Ostracon

Pieces of stone or pottery used for writing

were called ostraca. This ostracon shows

a copy of a classic poem from Egyptian

literature, written in hieratic script.

Goose census

This scribe is counting geese

for taxation records. His palette of pens

is tucked under his arm, and he keeps

his scrolls in the basketwork

“briefcase” in front of him.

Wooden palette

This palette of pens

is inscribed with thename of Rameses I,

indicating that the

scribe who used it

worked for the

pharaoh’s palace.

“The ears of a boy are onhis back. He hears when

he is beaten.

”School text quoted by the historian AdolfArman in The Literature of the Ancient

Egyptians, 1927



41


“I shall make you love booksmore than your mother, and Ishall place their excellence

before you. It [the scribe’s office]is greater than any office. There

is nothing like it on earth.

”The Teachings of Dua-Khety, a school text, c. 2000 BCE



“In the fourth year ofSolomon’s reign over

Israel, in the month ofZiv, the second month,he began to build thetemple of the Lord.

”The Bible: 1 Kings 6:1

1000▶700 BCE

1000 BCE

City of JerusalemAccording to the Bible, Jerusalemwas conquered by the Israelite

king David (ruled c. 1006–965 BCE).This painting shows the Ark of theCovenant, a portable shrine, beingcarried into the city. Jews believethat the Ark held stone tablets,inscribed with ten commandmentswritten by God.

Solomon’s TempleDavid’s son, Solomon, built

a temple in Jerusalem, a sitestill sacred to Jews today.After Solomon’s death, thekingdom split into two:Israel in the north, and Judah in the south.

960–600 BCE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE

By the 9th century BCE, the Assyrians, fromnorthern Mesopotamia, had become the mostfeared military power in the Near East. Theirarmies conquered both Judah, whose kingshad to pay tributes of gold and silver, and Israel,whose people were resettled in Assyria. TheAssyrians’ enemies, led by the Babylonians, later

joined forces to destroy the Assyrian Empire.

900

From Egypt to IraqThis map shows theAssyrian Empire in670 BCE, when it stretchedfrom Egypt to Iraq. Withinthe empire, peopleswho rebelled againstAssyrian rule wereruthlessly punished.

Lion huntThe Assyrians loved

hunting as much asthey loved warfare.This relief carving,from the Palace of

Nineveh, in modern-day Iraq, shows King

Ashurbanipal huntinglions from his chariot.

In Ancient Assyria,

lion hunting was

the sport of kings.

965 BCE

Nineveh

Babylon

MediterraneanSea

EGYPT

JUDAH

ISRAEL

BABYLONIA

ASSYRIA



43


Wars were oftenstopped so peoplecould travel tothe OlympicGames in safety.

750 BCE

753 BCE

The Greeks adopted an alphabet from thePhoenicians. Not long after, The Iliad andThe Odyssey , two long poems by the poetHomer, were first written down. Thismarks the beginning of Western literature.

Greek coloniesThe Greeks founded colonies around theMediterranean and Black Seas. These includeMassilia (Marseilles, France), Neapolis (NaplesItaly), and Tripolis (Tripoli, Libya).

The founding of RomeAccording to Roman legend, Rome was founded bthe twin brothers Romulus and Remus in 753 BCE.

Archaeology shows that the city really began as ahumble farming settlement in the 9th century BCE.

750 BCE GREEK WRITING

The hero OdysseusThe Odyssey tells the story of Odysseus, returning homefrom war. Here, he has encountered the menacing sirens,half-women, half-birds, who try to lure the ship to its doom.

776 BCE

Olympic games

The Olympic Games, held inhonor of the chief Greek god,Zeus, were first held in Greece.During the games, peoplefrom all over the Greekworld gathered to compete.

700800

Chavin de Huantar

The Chavin civilization dominated Peruat this time. The most important sitewas Chavin de Huantar, a political andreligious center filled with carvings of

jaguars (below), eagles, andsupernatural beings.

800 BCE

The twinbrothersRomulus andRemus wereraised bya she-wolf.

Arctic huntersIn the Canadian Arctic, from800 BCE, people hunted seals

and walruses through holes inthe ice, using elaboratelycarved bone harpoons.

These hunters are calledthe Dorset people.

The Ancient Greekpentathlon includeddiscus and javelinthrowing, jumpingwith weights, runningand wrestling.





As the world’s population grew, farming and trade expandedand civilizations emerged in different parts of the world—around theEastern Mediterranean, in Persia, India, and China. By 500 CE, most of theworld’s major religions, except Islam, had been founded. New skills andtechnologies allowed artists, poets, architects, and thinkers to be creativein new ways. Many of the things we now take for granted, such as coins,paper, drama, sports, philosophy, and mathematics, first came intobeing during what is now known as the Classical Age.

700 BCE–500 CE Much more civilized



46

After the Greek city-state of Sparta crushed theneighboring land of Messenia, Sparta forced theMessenians to become slaves (helots). But thehelots outnumbered the Spartans. The risk of arevolt turned Sparta into a military state ruledby two kings and a Council of Elders.

Battle-ready troopsSparta became the strongest

military power in Greece.Sparta never bothered to builddefenses against invaders. Itsstrength lay in its formidable

army. All adult male Spartanswere full-time soldiers, ready to

fight for their city at any time.

Killer looksBeneath theirbronze helmets,Spartan soldierswore their hairlong to appearmore ferocious.Their tunics weredyed red to hide

any bloodstains.

700▶600 BCE

Babylon sacked

Assyria was still the dominantcivilization in Mesopotamiaafter its armies destroyed the

city of Babylon. During thereign of Ashurbanipal (ruled

668–627 BCE), Assyria evenconquered Egypt, but

its empirehad collapsed

by 612 BCE.

First emperorAccording to legend, Jimmu became thefirst emperor of Japan in 660 BCE. He was

said to be descended from Amaterasu,the Japanese goddess of the Sun.

Scythian success

The Scythians defeated theMedes tribes of northernIran. The Scythians were

nomads from Central Asiawho migrated west to founda powerful empire in what is

now Ukraine and southernRussia. They were skilled

horsemen and buried theirleaders in large mounds

called kurgans.

685–668 BCE THE RISE OF MILITARY SPARTA

700 680 660

Golden stag froma Scythian shield

Bronze helmet

King Ashurbanipalis shown herehelping to rebuilda templein Babylon

689 BCE

660BCE

652 BCE

MysteriousEtruscans

The Etruscans of northernItaly lived in cities and builtelaborate tombs. They left

many beautiful objects, such asthis head overlaid with gold.However, their written script

is difficult to decipher, sothey remain a

mystery.

G ro w i ng u p i n S pa r ta

See pages

48 –49



47

MUCH MORE CIVILIZED

“Draco’s code was writtennot in ink but in blood.”Plutarch, Greek historian

The world’s first true coins wereproduced in the kingdom of Lydiain Anatolia (Turkey). They weremade of electrum, a mixture of goldand silver. Before this, metal bars

and ingots (blocks) were used formoney. Coins were more portable,

and the Greek city-states around theMediterranean quickly adopted the idea.

When a Scythian leader died, hiswife, servants, and horses were

sacrificed. They were buried ina circle around his body.

Painting from the Chronicles of Japan, 1891,showing Jimmu (standing) spying a sacred bird

Lydian coinmade of electrum

Draco’s lawsA man named Draco gave

Athens, Greece, its firstset of laws. Because he

prescribed the deathpenalty for nearly every

crime, his name liveson—harsh laws havecome to be described

as “draconian.”

African round tripAccording to the historian

Herodotus, writing 160 yearslater, the Egyptian Pharaoh

Necho II sent a Phoenician fleeto explore the east coast o

Africa. The Phoenicians weretraders from Lebanon, admired

for their seafaring know-howTheir ships sailed on around the

tip of Africa into the Atlanticreaching the Mediterranean

Sea three years later

King of RomeTarquinius Priscus, who was anEtruscan by origin, became the fifthking of Rome (the first, Romulus,was said to have ruled from 753 to716 BCE). Tarquinius Priscus won a

series of battles over the neighboringtribes of Sabines, Latins, and Etruscansto make Rome the most importantpower in central Italy.

620–600 BCE FIRST USE OF COINS

640 620 600

Phoenicianships

616 BCE621 BCE

600 BCE



48

CHILDREN IN HISTORY

Growing upin SpartaFrom the moment he or she was born, every Spartan boy orgirl belonged to the state. A council of elders would inspect thnewborn baby to see if it was healthy and strong. If it seemedweak, it would be left to die on a hillside. The lives of bothboys and girls were dedicated to the military power of Sparta.

To the barracks

At the age of seven, a boy was taken from his family and sent to militarschool to be turned into a soldier. The boys lived and slept in barracks,where they were taught the arts of war. Their sisters started theireducation at the same age. They learned to wrestle, run, and throwthe javelin. The Spartans believed that this training would producestrong mothers, who would give birth to strong sons.

Toughening up Young Spartans were trained to be tough. The boys wereforced to go barefoot at all times—which would havebeen painful over rough, thorny ground—and were keptpermanently short of food. Once a year, they were takento the sanctuary of the goddess Artemis and publiclywhipped to test their resilience.

Everything to prove Before he became a citizen, a young Spartan had to provehis courage and ferocity in a special ritual. He was sentout alone into the countryside at night, armed with

only a dagger, and allowed to kill any helot he cameacross. Helots were despised slaves, who wereforced to farm the land for the Spartans.

Life as a warrior At the age of 20, a Spartan man becamea full-time solidier called a hoplite, a namederived from his large heavy shield, called ahoplon. From then on, he lived as part of a pack of15 men who ate, drank, trained, and fought together.He would have to marry by the age of 30, to producethe next generation of warriors.

Tough training

This 19th-century woodcut depicts

young Spartans in training. They

are naked, as was usual in Greece.

Running girlThis bronze figurine

from around 500 BCE shows a

Spartan girl, wearing a short

tunic, taking part in

a running race.

Sturdy dagger

A typical Greek dagger

was about 16 in (40 cm)

long, with a blade

3 in (7.5 cm) wide.

“Son, either with

this [shield] or on it!”This was a Spartan mother’s traditionalfarewell to her son, urging him to be brave.

Only cowards lost their shields. Fallen heroeswere carried home on theirs.

“After they were12 years old, they were nolonger allowed to wear atunic and were given one

cloak a year; their skinwas hard and they hadpractically no baths.”The Greek scholar

Plutarch, c. 95CE



49

MUCH MORE CIVILIZED

“A Spartan boy stolea young fox and hid it under his

coat. He let it tear out hisintestines with its teeth and

claws, and died upon the spot,rather than be found out.”Story told by the Greek

scholar Plutarch

Vase painting

This vase painting

from around 510 BCE

shows a Spartan

footsoldier carrying

his shield.



50

In a little over 30 years, King Cyrus the Great of Persia(ruled 559–530 BCE), a small unimportant kingdomin what is now southern Iran, conquered the largestempire the world had yet seen. It was known asthe Achaemenid Empire, from the name of its rulingdynasty. Under King Darius I (ruled 522–486 BCE),the empire set its sights on the lands of Greece.

“Even deathis not to befeared byone who

has livedwisely.”The Buddha(563–483 BCE)

The city of PersepolisDarius I built Persepolis ashis ceremonial capital. Itsmagnificent pillared hallsreflected the might andsplendor of the empire.

559–486 BCE THE PERSIAN EMPIRE

600 580 560

585 BCE

590 BCE

587 BCE 563 BCE 550 BC

550 BC

African pharaohsThe kings of Nubia, a kingdom

on the Nile in what is now

Sudan, made their residence atMeroe. The Nubian rulersmodeled themselves on the

pharaohs. They wrote in a typeof hieroglyphs and buried their

dead in pyramid tombs.

Nebuchadnezzar

When the Jews rebelled againstBabylonian rule, Nebuchadnezzar IIordered the destruction of their

temple in Jerusalem. The city wasburned and thousands of Jews

were sent to Babylon.

Birth of the Buddha

According to tradition, SiddharthaGautama was born a prince innorthern India. He was so distressedby human suffering that he gave uphis life of luxury and fasted beneath

a tree for six yearsuntil he reached

enlightenment. Hebecame known as

the Buddha, the“enlightened one,”

whose teachingsare followed

by millions ofpeople today.

Birth of Confuciu

Confucius (Kung Fuzi) wa Chinese philosopher ateacher whose writin

stressed respect for famelders, authority, and traditio

Confucianism, the way of lbased on his teachings, wou

have great influence Chinese ideas and politic

Rise of the CeltIn central Europe, the Ce

began spreading out frotheir original heartland in th

northern Alps (Austria anSwitzerland). They controll

long-distance trade in salt aniron, and their rich buria

included luxury goods Greek and Etruscan origi

traded through the city Massilia (Marseilles, Franc

Solar eclipseThales of Miletus, a Greek

city-state in Anatolia (modern-dayTurkey), correctly predicted a solar

eclipse. Thales was one of theearliest Greek philosophers— thinkers who asked questions

about the natural world.

Carving ofthe Buddha’sfootprints,1st century BCE

Wheel of life

symbol on

each sole

C e l t ic

wa r r io r s

See pages

56 –5 7

600▶500 BCE



SportyGreeks

This bronze discusbelonged to an athlete namedExoidas, who won a sportingcontest with it. The Greekscompeted in many sports,including running, discus,

boxing, wrestling,and javelin-throwing.

MUCH MORE CIVLIZED

540 520 500

535 BCE 509 BCE

507 BCE

Battle at sea

Phoenicians founded thecity of Carthage (modernTunis) in 814 BCE. Growing

rivalry with the Greekcity of Massilia led to a seabattle at Alalia, off Corsica.

The Greeks lost, leavingCarthage in control of the

western Mediterranean.

Roman Republic

Rome was still a tinycity-state when its citizensdecided to throw out their

kings and govern themselves.They set up a republic headed

by two consuls—electedmagistrates who ruled

with the help of the Senate.

People powerThe city-state of Athenschose a new form ofgovernment: democracy

(meaning “rule of thepeople”). All male citizenwere able to vote on majdecisions affecting the ciWomen, foreigners, andslaves were excluded.

Emblem of the Roman Republic.In Latin, SPQR stands for Senatus

Populusque Romanus , which means“Senate and People of Rome.”

“I am Cyrus, King of

the World, Great King,Mighty King!”Cyrus the Great, 538 BCE

Persian landsCyrus the Great’s conquests stretched fromAnatolia (Turkey) in the west, to Afghanistan inthe east. His son Cambyses (ruled 530–522 BCE)added Egypt, and Darius I added Thrace(the southeast Balkans).

Immortal PersiansThese soldiers, who once decorated the walls

of Darius’s palace, represent the Immortals, elitetroops who formed the king’s personal bodyguard.In real life, the king had 10,000 Immortals—if one

was killed, a new recruit immediately replaced him.

The Royal Roadwas a 1,600-mile (2,575 km)highway thatran from the

city of Susa inPersia all theway to Sardis iwestern Turkey

T h e Ro ma n E m p i r e

See pages

68 –69

PERSIA

PersepolisSusaEGYPT

Sardis

THRACE

RedSea Persian

Gulf

BlackSea Caspian

Sea

MediterraneanSea

Babylon



52

The Greek-Persian warsIn the early 5th century BCE, the Persians twice attemptedto conquer Greece. The Greek city-states, especially Athensand Sparta, were always squabbling with each otherbut they united against the Persians. Though hugely

outnumbered, the Greeks finally fought the Persians off.

Quick-moving PersianThe Persians had greater mobility onthe battlefield thanks to their lighterequipment. This archer is wearing a

soft felt cap and mail coat in contrastto the heavy bronze helmets and body

armor of the Greeks. The Persiansfought at a distance, using their archers

to break up the advancing enemy andbringing in cavalry to ride them down.

Hoplites on the runThis vase painting shows Greek soldiers (hoplites).The Greeks fought on foot in formations calledphalanxes, of 8 to 50 ranks (rows). With their shieldslocked tightly together to form a protective wall andthe spears of those in front pointing toward theenemy, the phalanx advanced at a run.

Key events

547 BCE 490 BCE

Cyrus the Great, kingof Persia, conqueredthe Ionian city-statesof Anatolia (modern-day Turkey).

Darius I sent a huge armyto punish Athens. TheAthenians defeated thePersians at Marathon.

Two years into his reign,Xerxes began preparationsfor a massive invasionof mainland Greece.

The Atheniangeneral Themistoclespersuaded Athensto start buildinga fleet.

Modern copy ofa hoplite sword

499 BCE

During the reign ofDarius I, the Ioniancity-states revoltedagainst Persia. Athenscame to their aid.

Persian archerpainted on acup, c. 300 BCE

484 BCE 483 BCE



MUCH MORE CIVILIZED

53

ArtemisiaQueen of Halicarnassus (acity on the site of Bodrum,

Turkey), Artemisia sentfive ships to join Xerxes’fleet. She took part in theBattle of Salamis.

LeonidasKnown as Leonidas theBrave, this king of Sparta

led an elite force of 300Spartans on a suicidemission at Thermopylae.

XerxesDarius I’s son, Xerxes,became king of Persia in

486 BCE. Six years later,he invaded Greece inrevenge for his father’sdefeat at Marathon.

Who’s who?

The Battle of ThermopylaeThis 19th-century painting

shows the heroic Spartan kingLeonidas. The Greeks metXerxes’ invasion force at a

narrow mountain pass. Knowingdefeat was inevitable, Leonidas

sent the rest of the Greeks awaywhile he and his Spartanforce delayed the Persian

advance. They all died.

Marathon manPheidippides was a Greek messenger who ran all

the way from Athens to ask the Spartans forhelp before the Battle of Marathon but they refused to

come. Another story says that he ran 25 miles(40 km) from Marathon to Athens to announce theGreek victory—the origin of the modern marathon.

Major battles490 BCE MarathonThis battle was fought on the plainof Marathon, north of Athens. Ledby the Athenian general Miltiades,a much smaller Greek army defeatedDarius I’s invasion force.

Forces

Greeks: 10,000 hoplites: 9,000from Athens, 1,000 from PlataeaPersians: 25,000 foot soldiers;1,000 cavalry; 600 ships

480 BCE ThermopylaeAs Xerxes’ invasion force movedsouth into Greece, the outnumberedGreeks met it at a mountain pass.They held it up for two days beforethe Persians found a route around.

Forces

Greeks: 7,000, including 300 eliteSpartan troopsPersians: Up to 250,000, including10,000 “Immortals” (elite infantry)

480 BCE SalamisThemistocles, commanding theAthenian fleet, lured the Persianfleet into an ambush off the islandof Salamis. King Xerxes watchedfrom the shore as his much largerfleet was rammed and destroyed.

Forces

Greeks: 378 shipsPersians: 800 ships

479 BCE PlataeaThe Greek and Persian armies

clashed on Theban territory. Asurprise Spartan phalanx chargemade the Persian army turn andflee, giving the Greeks final victory.

Forces

Greeks: 40,000Persians: 120,000 (includingGreek allies)

The Persians reachedAthens and burnedthe city.

480 BCE 480 BCE 479 BCE 477 BCE c. 440 BCE

Xerxes crossedthe Hellespontinto Europe tomarch on Greece.

The Persians weredefeated at Plataeaand never invadedGreece again.

Athens headed ananti-Persian allianceof city-states. Spartarefused to join.

The history of theGreek and Persian warswas written down byHerodotus, the ancientGreek historian.

“Come and get them!”Leonidas’s answer to Xerxes when heordered the Spartans to lay down

their weapons at Thermopylae

Persian ship



54

Trouble in RomeThe plebs (ordinarypeople) of Rome went onstrike until the patricians(nobles) agreed to letthem elect two of theirown officials. Thesetwo elected magistrateswere called tribunes.

Rise of the ZapotecsThe Zapotec people of southernMexico built a ceremonial centerat Monte Albán, in the Oaxacavalley. The site stayed in use for1,000 years. This clay burial urn(left) was crafted in the shapeof a Zapotec god.

Drama originated in Athenswith plays put on each yearat a festival to honor thegod Dionysus. From there,it spread across the Greekworld. The works of threeAthenian dramatists— Aeschylus, Sophocles,and Euripides—are stillperformed today.

Acting in the open airEach city had its own theater.

Ancient Greek theatersconsisted of tiers of stone

seats built in a semicircle intoa hillside. The action tookplace in the central area,

called the orchestra.

Funny faceBoth tragedies andcomedies were puton. The actors incomic plays woregrotesque masks.This mask is of aslave, a popularbutt of jokes.

484–405 BCE THE GOLDEN AGE OF ATHENIAN THEATER

Warring China

China, which was muchsmaller then than it istoday, entered the WarringStates period. The Zhoukingdom broke up intoseven states, whoseprinces competed witheach other for dominance.It was a time of greattechnological advancesboth in warfare andagriculture.

Ancient Greek actors

King Xerxes looks across the sea toward G

500▶400 BCE

500 BCE

494 BCE

480 BCE

475 BCE

500 480 460

T he G r e e kP e r s ian w aSee pag es52– 53

Xerxes at the HellespontThe Persian king Xerxes assembled a huge armyto invade Greece. At the Hellespont, the stretchof water that separates Asia from Europe, Xerxesordered a bridge to be built by lashing lines ofboats together so that his army could cross.



Celts on the moveGroups of Celts began to migrate

into the Po valley in northern Italy,where they attacked the Etruscancities, and into southeast Europe.

55

MUCH MORE CIVILIZED

“Xerxes the King will cross you, with

or without your permission.”Xerxes defies the Hellespont after a stormhas destroyed his first bridge

In 430–429 BCE, a plague swept the cityof Athens. Its victims included theAthenian leader and general Pericles.

When the Persians attackedAthens in 480 BCE, they burnedthe temples on the Acropolis,the sacred hill overlooking thecity. The Athenians never forgave

this act of blasphemy. They builta new temple on the site, theParthenon, dedicated to thegoddess Athena.

Greeks at warThe PeloponnesianWar broke out betweenAthens and its allies on

one side, and Sparta andits allies on the other.

Athens was successfulat first, but its army andfleet were destroyed in

a misguided attackon Syracuse, in Sicily,

in 415–413 BCE.It surrendered to

Sparta in 404 BCE.

Classical architectureThe Parthenon, one of the most famousworks of classical architecture, wasconstructed at the height of Athens’spower in the mid-5th century BCE.

Athenianwarships atthe Battle of

SyracuseChinese moneyAncient Chinese moneywas cast in bronze orcopper. It was made inthe shape of tools, such

as knives and spades, andpieces often had a punched

hole, so that several ofthem could be strung

together.

431 BCE

400BCE

440 420 400

THE PARTHENON



56

Celtic godsCeltic religion was tied in with thefarming year and nature. Hundredsof gods were worshipped underdifferent names throughout theCeltic world. Here are four:

BelenusThe god of sun and fire, Belenuswas associated with the Beltanefestival on May 1, when fireswere lit to purify cattle.

BrigitAlso known as Brigantia, Brigitwas the goddess of healing, poetry,and fertility. In Ireland, she waslater adopted as a Christian saint.

CernunnosThis horned god was associated

with fertility, nature, harvest,and the underworld.

EponaThe goddessEpona (left) wasthe protector ofhorses. Roman

soldiers adoptedher, and built hera temple in Rome.

The world of the druidsCeltic priests were called druids.The druids carried out many ritualsand may have offered up humansacrifices to the gods. This picture

shows a druid using a golden sickleto cut mistletoe in a grove of oak trees.Mistletoe was a sacred plant to the Celts.

Celtic warriorsThe Celts (called “Gauls” by the Romans) were nota single people but consisted of scattered tribes ruledby warrior chiefs. Originally from an area north ofthe Alps, some tribes migrated south after 400 BCE,

clashing with the Greeks and Romans. Archaeologistscall the Celtic culture of this period La Tène, aftera Swiss site. By 100 BCE, the La Tène culturehad spread throughout Europe.

Key events

Celtic heroThis Celtic head, found at a site nea

Prague, in the Czech Republic, hasstaring eyes and a swept-back

mustache. Around its neck is a torc—the metal neck ring worn by Celtiwarriors. The Romans admired the

courage of the Celts, but thought theywere boastful and drank too heavily

Sacredmistletoe

The Romansdefeated theGauls ofnorthern Italyat the Battleof Telamon.

225 BCE

The warrior leaderBrennus led anarmy of Gauls toattack and capturethe city of Rome.

An army of Celtsinvaded Greeceand sacked thesacred shrineof Delphi.

390 BCE 279 BCE

Groups of Celtsinvaded the Po Valleyin northern Italy andsettled there.

400 BCE



MUCH MORE CIVILIZED

57

Wild warriorsBrennusThis chieftain led an army of Gaulsto attack Rome in 390 BCE. Guard geesesounded the alarm, but the Romans hadto give Brennus gold to make him leave.

CaractacusFrom his Welsh hideout, Caractacusresisted the Roman invasion of Britainfor six years, but eventually he wascaptured and taken to Rome.

BoudiccaQueen of theIceni, a tribe ineastern England,Boudicca (right)led a rebellionagainst theRomans in 61 CE.

Working in metalThe Celts were skilledcraftspeople, working in gold,bronze, and iron. They lovedto decorate their metalwork

with intricate patterns of circles,curves, whorls, and spirals, andwith animal and plant motifs.

A bronze mirrorwith a richlydecorated back

A bronzebrooch of twocoiled hoops

A horned helmet,probably forceremonial use

“Some shave their cheeks but leave amoustache that covers the whole mouthand, when they eat and drink, acts likea sieve, trapping particles of food.”Diodorus of Sicily describing the Celts, c. 35 BCE

After the RomansIn Gaul and Britain, Celticculture merged with thatof the occupying Romans.After the Romans left,Germanic invaderspushed the survivingCelts back into Brittanyin France, and into Wales,Cornwall, and southwestScotland in Britain.

Boudicca leda revolt of theCeltic tribes ofBritain againstthe invadingRomans.

61 CE

Julius Caesar foughta series of campaignsto conquer Gaul(France and Belgium).

The Romangeneral Mariusdefeated theinvading Cimbriat the Battleof Vercellae.

58–51 BCE101 BCE

Emperor Claudiussent an army tobegin the Romanconquest of Britain.

43 CE

A fortified Celtic villagein Anglesey, North Wales

Celtic shield



58

Coup in Thebes

Led by their general, Epaminondas,the Thebans drove a Spartan garrisonout of their city. Thebes now becamethe most powerful Greek city-state.It headed a Greek uprising againstAlexander the Great, whodestroyed the city in 335 BCE.

“The hour of departurehas arrived, and we go

our ways.

”Socrates, on learning ofhis death sentence

400▶300 BCE

400 BCE

390 BCE

350 BCE

399 BCE

378 BCE

400 380 360

Chavin culture

The Chavin people,who lived in the Andeanhighlands of Peru, wereflourishing at this time.They domesticated thellama and made potteryvessels of jaguars,monkeys, andother animals.

Goose alarmCackling geese soundedthe alarm when an armyof Gauls (Celts) tried to seizethe Capitoline Hill in Rome.The geese woke the guards,but the warning came toolate to save the rest of the

city, which was sacked.

Death by hemlockThe Greek philosopher Socrates was sentenced todeath by swallowing poisonous hemlock. He hadbeen found guilty of corrupting young Athenians withhis ideas—a charge brought by his political enemies.

CrossbowsHandheld crossbows

came into use in China. Theancient Greeks also had a

type of crossbow called agastraphetes. Crossbowswere used in warfare fo

hundreds of years

Classic gameKnucklebones was a very

popular game among bothGreek men and women (whoplayed it separately from the

men, as they were not allowedto mix). It was similar to

jacks but the pieces wereanimal bones.

Terracotta sculptureof knucklebone

players, c. 330–300

Socrates takes the cup of hemlock



59

MUCH MORE CIVILIZED

War elephants

Chandragupta Maurya, founder of theMauryan Dynasty of north India, gave500 war elephants to Seleucus, anotherof Alexander’s generals, in exchangefor most of Afghanistan. Seleucus usedthem in his wars against his rivals.

Pharaoh PtolemyPtolemy, one of Alexander the Great’sMacedonian generals, made himselfpharaoh, founding the last dynasty torule Egypt. He began work on buildingthe lighthouse at Alexandria, one of theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World.

The Greek philosopher Aristotlewas a tutor of the 13-year-oldAlexander the Great.

Battle of IssusThis Roman mosaicshows Alexander at theBattle of Issus (333 BCE),where he defeated hisrival Darius III for thefirst time. He is ridinghis favorite warhorse,Bucephalus, whosename meant “ox head.”

By 330 BCE, Alexanderhad conquered allof the Persian Empire.

Terracotta statueof a Mauryanwar elephant

The lighthouse atAlexandria305 BCE

305 BCE

300

One of the finest generals in history, Alexander becameking of Macedon, in northern Greece, at age 20 after hisfather Philip II was murdered in 336 BCE. Alexander fulfilledPhilip’s plan to invade Persia. In eight years, Alexander

created an empire that stretched from Greece to northernIndia. When he died, at age 32, his warring generalscarved up his empire among themselves.

Legendary heroAlexander’s military exploits made him alegend in his own lifetime. He founded andnamed many cities after himself, includingAlexandria in Egypt, and believed he wasa god. However, he died before producingan heir (his son was born after his death).

ALEXANDER THE GREAT356 –323 BCE

334 BCE Alexander invaded

Asia at the head of anarmy of 37,000 men.

332 BCE Alexander

conquered Egypt and

made himself pharaoh.

331 BCE He returned to

Persia, defeated King

Darius, and destroyed

Persepolis.

326 BCE After reaching

northwest India, his

men refused to go

any farther east.

323 BCE Alexander diedsuddenly in Babylon

after drinking with

his companions.

KEY DATES



60

Stone gateway

carved with scenes

from the Buddha’s life

The term “Pyrrhic victory”is named after a Greek king,Pyrrhus. He defeated theRoman army in 280 BCE, butwith such terrible lossesthat he soon retreated.

300 280 260

Buddhist rulerAppalled by the violence of war,the Mauryan emperor Ashoka (ruled268–232 BCE) became a convert toBuddhism. He built the Great Stupa aSanchi to house relics of the Buddha.

Colossal statueThe Colossus was a vast

statue erected in theharbor of the Greek

island of Rhodes. Thegiant bronze statue of

the sun god, Helios,stood for only 56 years

before being toppledby an earthquake.

Peruvian mummiesHundreds of mummies from around300 BCE have been found in the dryParacas Peninsula of Peru. Thebodies were seated and wrapped inlong layers of brightly colored cloth.It is believed that the cultures of theAndes treated the mummies of theirancestors as sacred objects.

Roman dominationThe city of Rome rulednearly all of Italy after

winning a 50-year war

against the Samnites. Onlythe north (occupied bythe Gauls) and a handful of

Greek cities in the southremained unconquered.

The Great Stupa at Sanch, India

Paracas mummy from Peru

An 18th-centuryartist’s impressionof the Colossusof Rhodes

300▶200 BCE

290 BCE

262 BCE

280 BCE

T h e Ro ma n

E m p i r e

See pages

68 –69

300 BCE



61

MUCH MORE CIVLIZED

200

Romanwar galley

The Punic Wars were fought betweenRome and the city of Carthage inNorth Africa for control of the westernMediterranean. The Third (149–146 BCE)

resulted in the final destruction ofCarthage. “Punic” derives from Poeni ,the Latin name for the Carthaginians.

Hannibal crosses the AlpsIn 218 BCE, the Carthaginian general Hannibal crossed the Alpswith a large army and 37 elephants to attack Rome from thenorth. He destroyed the Roman army at the Battle of Cannae,but Rome went on to win the Second Punic War in 201 BCE.

War at seaThe First Punic War (264–241 BCE) was foughtfor control of Sicily. The Carthaginians wereexpert sailors, but the Romans built a fleet

and defeated them at sea to win the war.

Death of ArchimedesThe Greek mathematician Archimedes

was killed by Roman soldiers at thesiege of Syracuse. A great scientist,he is supposed to have set fire to theRoman ships using a large mirror toreflect the Sun’s rays. Archimedes is alssaid to have figured out how to measurvolume while sitting in his bath.

First emperor of ChinaZheng, ruler of the kingdom of Qin,

conquered the other six warring states ofChina and proclaimed himself Qin Shi Huangdi(“First Emperor”). This portrait comes from an

18th-century album of Chinese emperors.

Archimedes inhis bath

221 BCE

212 BCE

264 –146 BCE THE THREE PUNIC WARS

240 220

To m b

a r m y

See pages

62 –63



62

Tomb armyIn 1974, men digging a well near the ancientQin capital in China broke into a large pit thatcontained thousands of life-size clay soldiers.The statues were guarding the tomb of QinShi Huangdi, the First Emperor. Records saythat it took more than 700,000 men to buildhis massive tomb. Qin Shi Huangdi unitedChina and made everyone obey the samelaws. He standardized weights and measuresand even established how wide the axles onwagons should be. He claimed that his Qin

Dynasty would rule for 10,000 generations.In fact, it only lasted from 221 to 206 BCE.

“Great is the virtueof our emperor, who

pacifies all four cornersof the Earth, who punishestraitors, roots out evil men,and… brings prosperity.”Inscription on a tower built on

Mount Langya, Anhui Province,to glorify Qin Shi Huangdi

210 BCE, CHINA

Ranks of warrior soldiers



63

MUCH MORE CIVILIZED



64

Polynesian settlers were venturing fromthe islands of Fiji and Tonga far across thePacific. Using their knowledge of the stars,currents, and the flight patterns of birds tonavigate the vast ocean expanses, theyreached Rapa Nui (Easter Island) by300 CE and Hawaii by 800 CE.

Polynesian canoeThe Polynesians’ sailingcanoes were made oftwo wooden hullslashed together with

rope. Floats calledoutriggershelped keepthem stable.

Stick chartThe Polynesians madesea charts using sticksto show the currentsand shells to representthe islands.

Mighty RomeOn the orders of the Senate, a

Roman army destroyed the city ofCarthage in North Africa, burningit to the ground. That same year,

Rome captured Corinth andcompleted its conquest of Greece.

Bactrian kingMenander, king of theIndo-Greek kingdom ofBactria (Afghanistan),converted to Buddhism.His reign was a timeof great prosperity, butthe Bactrian kingdomcollapsed soon after hisdeath in 131 BCE. Sakas(Scythians) invaded theregion from Central Asia

Jewish revolt Judah Maccabee, a Jewish freedom fighter,

captured Jerusalem and rededicated the temple toGod, an event commemorated each year by the Jewish festival of Hanukkah. Maccabee and his

followers were fighting to regain the independenceof Judea (Israel) from a tribe called the Seleucids.

Powerful ParthianMithridates I, king of

Parthia (northeastern Iran),seized Mesopotamia fromthe Seleucids, the dynasty

that ruled western Asia.His victory created anempire that stretched

from Iraq to Afghanistan.

200▶100 BCE

164 BCE

171 BCE

146 BCE

A 15th-century depiction of the fight for Jerusalem,where the men resemble medieval knights

Silver coin showing Mithridates

200 BCE–800 CE PACIFIC VOYAGERS150 BCE

200 150

Sail made ofwoven leaves

Steering oar

Outrigger



65

MUCH MORE CIVILIZED

Wudi sent an explorer to bring backhorses from Central Asia.

Han emperor

Emperor Wudi expelled the Hsiung-Nu,nomadic raiders from Mongolia who hadinvaded China. Wudi was the seventhemperor of the Han Dynasty, which hadcome to power in 202 BCE. He was a strongruler, who built up the authority of theemperor at the expense of the noblesand made Confucianism the state religion.

Silk Road from ChinaThe Silk Road, the land

trade route that ran acrossthe mountains and deserts

of Central Asia to theMediterranean, named for

the silk trade, was busy at thistime. Only the Chinese knew

the secret of making silk, whichwas highly prized in Rome.

Rome’s unending wars of conquest were causingdifficulties—only landowning citizens were allowedto fight in the army and they were reluctant to leavehome for long periods. Gaius Marius, an ambitious

general and politician, changed this by openingup the army to all citizens, turning it into adisciplined, professional force. With his new army,he won victories in North Africa and northern Italy.

105–101 BCE ROME’S NEW ARMY

Dishand pan

Packcontainingthree days’rations

Turf cutterfor buildingramparts

Leatherbottle for

water or wine

Woolen cloak

Roman soldier’s gearMarius expected his soldiersto carry their own gear andcook their own food. Asoldier’s pack could weighas much as 90 lb (40 kg).

Mattock fordiggingditches

The Hopewell people weregardeners. They grew plantssuch as sunflowers for theirtasty seeds.

110 BCE

A 17th-century silk painting showingEmperor Wudi greeting a Confucian scholar

121 BCE

Copper crow

This bird sculpture wasmade by the Hopewellpeople, who flourished

in eastern North Americafrom 200 BCE to 500 CE.They built ceremonialmounds and craftedobjects of copper.

100

“

[Gaius Marius] vied with

the common soldiers in frugalityand endurance, thereby winningmuch goodwill among them.”Greek scholar Plutarch (46–120 CE) in his book Lives





67

MUCH MORE CIVILIZED

The story of Silla

King Pak Hyokkose issaid to have founded

the Korean kingdom ofSilla in 56 BCE. Accordingto legend, Pak Hyokkosehad hatched from a largered egg brought to Earth

by a flying horse.

60 140 20

I n 5 3 B C E , 9 , 0 0 0 P a r t h i a n

a r c h

e r s f r o m P e r s i a

d e f e

a t e d a R o m a n a r m y

o f 4 0 , 0 0 0 a t t h e B a t t l e o f

C a r r h a e ( T u r k e y ) .

Last of the GaulsVercingetorix, war leaderof the Gauls, surrenderedto Julius Caesar after thesiege of Alesia, a hill fort

in eastern France. Caesarhad Vercingetorix sent to

Rome, paraded through thestreets, and then strangled.

Vercingetorix’s defeatended the wars in Gaul.

Birth of Jesus ChristNobody knows for certain, butmany historians believe that Jesus Christ was born in this year. The star of Bethlehem,described in the Gospel ofMatthew, may have been acomet visible in the night sky.

First Roman emperorOctavian was granted the title of Augustus, in effectmaking him emperor. Octavian, Caesar’s adoptednephew, had taken control of the Roman worldafter winning the war against Caesar’s assassinsand defeating his former ally, Mark Antony.

Cleopatra (ruled 51–30 BCE) was the lastof the Macedonian Dynasty that ruledEgypt for 300 years. At first, she sharedpower with her brother, Ptolemy XIII,but later she overthrew him.After Cleopatra’s death, Egyptbecame a Roman province.

69–30 BCE CLEOPATRA

Egyptian beautyCleopatra had affairs with Caesar, who

supported her against her brother, and withMark Antony, a Roman general. Antony and

Cleopatra’s political enemies feared thecouple would found a powerful new dynasty.

Death by poisonWhen she learnedof Mark Antony’sdeath, Cleopatrakilled herselfwith a bitefrom a snake.

“Vercingetorix rode

out… and made a turnabout Caesar.”Plutarch, the Greek historian,

describes the surrender inhis Lives , c. 100 CE

4 BCE

52 BCE

27 BCE

15th-century painting ofthe birth of Christ

Vercingetorix throws down hisarms in defeat to Caesar, seated.



68

Enemies of RomeSamnitesThe Samnites lived in the mountains

of southern Italy. They were always readyto make trouble for the Romans, who foughtthree major wars against them in the 4thand 3rd centuries BCE.

CarthaginiansThe Carthaginians were Rome’s

bitterest enemies in the 3rd century BCE.Their empire, which at times includedNorth Africa, Spain, Corsica, Sardinia,and most of Sicily, blocked Romanexpansion in the Mediterranean.

ParthiansThe Parthians, who ruled Persia from

the 3rd century BCE, were a threat on theeastern frontier. The Romans never forgottheir humiliating defeat by the Parthiansat Carrhae (Harran, Turkey) in 53 BCE.

Cimbri and TeutonesThe Cimbri and Teutones were two

tribes from northern Europe who threatenednorthern Italy in the 2nd century BCE. TheCimbri defeated two Roman armies atArausio (Orange, France) in 105 BCE.

MarcomanniThe Marcomanni, a Germanic tribe

from north of the Danube frontier, invadedRoman territory in the 2nd century CE.Emperor Marcus Aurelius expelled them buthad to fight a lengthy war against them.

The Roman worldShown in red on the map above is the

Roman Empire in 118 CE, during thereign of Emperor Hadrian. The empire

was divided into about 45 provinceseach headed by a governor

The Roman Empire

Key events

Brilliant engineersThe Romans built this impressive aqueduct tocarry fresh water across the Gard River to thecity of Nemausus (Nîmes) in southern France

The Romans were skilled engineers. Theinetwork of paved, all-weather roads linked

towns and cities across the empire

The Roman Empire grew slowly at first—it took 500 yearsfor the small city of Rome to conquer the whole of Italy—but by the 1st century CE, its frontiers stretched from Spainin the west to Syria in the east. This vast empire of more than

60 million people was held together by a strong and efficientsystem of provincial government, backed by the army.

Head of RomeStandard coins wereissued across the empire.They were stamped withthe head of the emperorto show who was in charge.

Rome hadovercome itsneighborsand become thedominant powerin Italy.

Octavian foundedthe Roman EmpireHe ruled as its firstemperor, under thname Augustus.

209 BCE 27 BCE

The people of Romeoverthrew their king,Tarquin the Proud, andformed a republic.

509 BCE

The city of Romewas said to havebeen founded bytwins Romulusand Remus.

753 BCE

Soldiers intortoise formation

RomeAthens

BRITANNIA

Mediterranean Sea

EGYPT

CarthageJUDEA

SYRIA

GALLIA(GAUL)

HISPANIA(SPAIN)

Black Sea

Alexandria

Syracuse

DACIA



MUCH MORE CIVILIZED

69

Famous generals

Scipio AfricanusLeading the fight againstthe Carthaginians inthe Second Punic War,Scipio took the war

to Africa, where hedefeated Hannibal at theBattle of Zama (202 BCE).

Roman godsThe Romans had hundreds ofgods and goddesses associatedwith every aspect of life. Theseare some of the major ones:

TrajanBorn in Spain, Trajanbecame emperor in98 CE. He conqueredDacia (Romania) andpart of Mesopotamia,and his victories aredisplayed on Trajan’sColumn in Rome.

Pompey the GreatA famous general of the1st century BCE, Pompeywon victories in the eastand in Spain. In 67 BCE, he defeated the pirateswho had been terrorizingtraders in the Mediterranean.

Dressed for successOnly citizens could weara toga—this toga’s purplestripe indicates that theman is a senator. Hiswife wears a stola (dress)and palla (cloak).

Roman societyDuring the reign of Augustus (ruled 27 BCE – 14 CE), only a tenth of theempire’s population were full citizens—women and slaves were among thoseexcluded. People’s place in society depended on their birth—whether theywere a patrician (noble) or pleb (ordinary citizen)—and their wealth.

Soldier and captivePrisoners taken in warwere sold into slavery.They might becomegladiators and fightin the arena, or be sentto row in war galleys.

Former slavesMany working people inRome were former slaveswho had been freed bytheir masters. Theirchildren automaticallybecame citizens.

Barbariansoverthrew theWestern RomanEmpire. The Eastern(Byzantine) Empirelasted until 1453.

476

Emperor Caracallagranted full Romancitizenship to all freeadult males living inthe empire.

The Roman Empirereached its fullestextent, thanks toTrajan’s conquestsin the east.

The population of thecity of Rome reachedapproximately onemillion, making it theworld’s largest city.

2121171 CE

Jupiter, king of the gods

Juno, queen of the gods

Mars, god of war Venus, goddess of love and beauty

Neptune, god of the sea

Apollo, god of the Sun and the arts

Diana, goddess of the Moonand hunting

Minerva, goddess of wisdom

Vulcan, blacksmith of the gods

Vesta, goddess of the hearth Neptune in his sea chariot

Roman war galley



High-rise house

This model of a multistorybuilding buried in the tombof a Chinese noble shows thearchitecture during the HanDynasty. Animals lived at

ground level, living quarterswere in the middle,

and there was awatchtower on top.

70

The four Roman emperors who followedAugustus—Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius,and Nero—all died violent deaths.

1▶100 CE

In 33 CE, Jesus Christ, a charismatic Jewishreligious leader, was put to death in Jerusalem.His followers believed that he was the son ofGod. They founded a new religion, Christianity,which spread to many parts of the Roman

Empire. Christianswere persecutedbecause they refusedto make sacrifices

to the Roman gods.

Jesus ChristFour of Christ’s earlyfollowers, Matthew,Mark, Luke, and John,recorded his life andteachings. Their accountswere written down in fourbooks, the Gospels, severaldecades after his death.

Into BritainEmperor Claudius sent

an army of 40,000 toinvade Britain. The

conquest of Britannia(the Roman name forBritain) took 40 years to

complete and mostof Scotland wasnever subdued.

China in turmoilA rebel army overthrew the

emperor Wang Mang, whohad seized the throne for

himself in 9 CE. China wasplunged into chaos until aHan prince, Liu Xiu, took

control. Ruling as EmperorGuang Wudi, he managedto reunite China by 36 CE,and founded the Eastern

Han Dynasty.

c. 33–300 CHRISTIANITY

Augustus, the name Octavian tookin 27 BCE, meant “revered one.”Augustus’s great achievementwas to end the civil wars andbring peace and stability to the

empire. He rebuilt Rome andreorganized the governmentand the army. When he diedat age 75, he was succeededby his stepson, Tiberius.

63 BCE – 14 CE EMPEROR AUGUSTUS

1 20 40

“I found Rome a

city of bricks and leftit a city of marble.”Emperor Augustus

A clean customThe Romans built heatedbaths all over the empire.

Instead of using soap,they cleaned their skin

with olive oil, whichthey scraped offwith metal strigils

(curved tools).

Flask ofolive oil

Metalstrigil

43

23





72

59 CE, POMPEII, ITALY



MUCH MORE CIVILIZED

73

“A serious fight… arose out of atrifling incident at a gladiatorial

show—abuse led to stone-throwingand then swords were drawn. Thepeople of Pompeii, where the show

was held, came off best.”The Roman historian Tacitus describingthe riot in Annals , c. 116 CE

Riot in PompeiiIn 59 CE, spectators from the nearby townof Nuceria poured into Pompeii to watch agladiatorial show in the town’s amphitheater.A scuffle broke out between rival fans, andmany people died in the fighting that followed.Emperor Nero ordered the Senate to carry outan investigation, and after hearing the report’sfindings he banished the riot ringleaders andclosed the amphitheater for ten years. It musthave seemed a harsh penalty to the Pompeiians,who—like people across the Empire—loved

going to see the gladiator fights.

Wall painting from a house in Pompeii, depicting fans rioting in 59 CE



100 120 140

74

100▶200

Cai Lun, a Chinese court official, is credited with inventingpaper in 105. In fact, paper was already being made inChina—Cai Lun reported on the process to EmperorHe and a note of it was made in the records.Paper was used both for writing and forwrapping. The Chinese even had toilet paper.

Making paperPaper was made from plantfibers. In this 19th-centuryengraving, two men beatand split bamboo stems,

then a third soaks thebundles in water.

Hadrian’s WallThe first emperor to visitevery part of the RomanEmpire, Hadrian ordered

the building of a stone wall

to defend Britain’s northernfrontier from the Celtic tribesof Scotland. It took two years

to construct the 76 mile(122 km) wall. Much of it

is still standing today.

105 THE INVENTION OF PAPER

Wealthy KushansUnder King Kanishka, theKushan Empire extendedfrom Afghanistan intonorthern India. The Kushans

prospered from their controlof the Silk Road, the ancienttrade route between Chinaand the Mediterranean.

Chinese writingThe Chinese wroteon paper and silk. Inkcame in a hard stickthat the writer groundagainst a stone andthen mixed with alittle water. He appliedthe ink with a brushlike this one.

Sculpture of aKushan prince’s head

130122

Moche maskThis copper-and-giltmask was made by a

Moche craftsman. TheMoche were a warlike

people who emerged innorthern Peru between 100

and 200. They were alsoskilled workers ingold and pottery.



Mayan city

The city of Tikádeep in the tropicarainforests o

Guatemala, grewpowerful around thi

time. It would becomone of the largest citie

of the ancient Mayacivilization, with

population of up t100,000 at its peak

160 180 200

161 Marcus Aurelius

became emperor, ruling

at first with his adopted

brother, Lucius Verus.

166 The Romans won the

Roman-Parthian War.

179 Marcus Aurelius

defeated the Marcomanni

near Vindobona (Vienna).

180 Marcus Aurelius died,

and his son Commodus

became emperor.

A ruined Hindutemple in the

Champa city ofMy Son

“I’d rather betrayothers than have

others betray me.”Saying attributedto Cao Cao

Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius was a peace-loving man who was constantly at war. First ofall, he had to fight the Parthians on the easternfrontier. Then he had to deal with an invasionby the Marcomanni, Germanic tribes who livednorth of the Danube River. He left the empire

in good shape after his death.

KEY DATES

MARCUS AURELIUS

MUCH MORE CIVILIZED

Yellow Turban revolt

Up to 400,000 rebels wearing yellowturbans went on the rampage in China.They were crushed, but the authority ofthe Han emperor was fatally weakened.

Cao Cao, a warlord, took over as thereal power behind the throne.

Philosopher emperorA lifelong lover of learning

and philosophy, Marcus

Aurelius wrote down histhoughts about life in a bookcalled the Meditations.

Flesh and bloodMarcus’s son Commodus hadno interest in government

and spent all his time atthe games. He took part instaged animal hunts in theColosseum, supposedlyslaying 100 lions in one day.

Champion Chams

The kingdom of Champa arose inVietnam. The Chams were seafaring

people who traded with India andadopted Hinduism. They came torule most of present-day Vietnam

and spent much of their timefighting the Chinese.

121–180

192 200184

T h e Ma ya

See pages

88 –89



76

The god Ahura Mazda holding outhe ring of kingship

Sculpture from a ThreeKingdoms period tomb

There were 25 Roman emperors between 235 and 284.

200▶300

200 220 240

224Persian coupArdashir I overthrew the Parthianemperor of Persia, Artabanus V,to found the Sasanian (or Sassanid)dynasty of rulers. A symbolic

scene carved on a cliff faceat Naqsh-e Rustam in Iranshows Ahura Mazda, highgod of the ancient Persians,making Ardashir a king.

Teotihuacán in Central Mexico was the largest city ofancient America. Built between 100 and 250, it coveredan area of more than 11 sq miles (30 sq km). Its peopletraded widely and its influence was felt as faras Guatemala. The city was at the peak of its poweraround 500, but fell into decline a century later.

100–600 TEOTIHUACÁN

City of the godsTeotihuacán was laid outas a sacred site, dedicatedto the gods. This view looksdown the Avenue of the Deadfrom the Pyramid of the Moon.On the left is the Pyramid ofthe Sun, one of the world’slargest pyramids.

Face to faceThis impressive stone

mask was probablymade for the statue ofa god to wear. Skilfully

worked, it is coveredwith turquoise, obsidian,

and coral, and thestaring eyes are of

mother-of-pearl.

Turquoise

mosaic pieces

220Last of the Han

The Han Dynasty finallycollapsed and China

broke up into separatestates during the Three

Kingdoms period.In 280, China was

reunited under thewestern Jin Dynasty.

Ardashir I

Artabanus V

being trampled

by Ardashir’s

horse

T h e Ma ya

See pages

88 –89



77

“Her eyes were blackand powerful... and her

beauty incredible.”Description of Zenobiain the Historia Augusta

Lord of SipánThis intricate ornamen

is one of hundreds ofprecious items buried

with a Moche warrior-kinHis coffin at Sipán in

northern Peru has beendated to about 290.

260 280 300

250JapanesekingdomIn Japan, a kingdomwas emerging in theYamato region ofHonshu Island.Its rulers extendedtheir control acrossmost of Japan over

the next two centuries.

285Empire of two halvesDiocletian, a wise and efficientemperor, decided the Empire was

too large for one man. He appointedMaximian to rule the west, while heruled the east. In 293, each emperortook a junior colleague, making a ruleof four (the tetrarchy).

269Warrior queen

Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, a wealthycity in Syria, took advantage of theRoman Empire’s weakness. Shecarved out an independent kingdom forherself in Syria and Egypt. Defeated byEmperor Aurelian in 272, she was takenas a captive to Rome, where she died.

MUCH MORE CIVILIZED

260Empire in crisisThe Roman Empire wasplunged into crisis after EmperorValerian was taken prisoner by theSasanian king Shapur I. Meanwhile,

barbarian invaders threatenedthe Empire’s northeastern frontiers,and a usurper set up a breakawayGallic Empire in the west.

Statue ofthe Empirefour tetrarc(co-empero

19th-century portrait of Queen Zenobia

Third-centuryceremonial bronze

bell from Japan

T he Ro man E mp ir e

See pag es 68– 69



78

“How she clung to herfather’s neck! How she loved

her nurses, her tutors, herteachers! How studiously and

intelligently she read…

”The author Pliny describing a friend’sdaughter, Minicia Minata, 106 CE



79

MUCH MORE CIVILIZED

CHILDREN IN HISTORY

A Roman girl’s lifeWhen a Roman girl was eight days old, she was placedon her father’s knee. If he did not accept her, she was

put outside to die. This happened to boys too, if theywere sickly, but more often to girls. Usually, however,the birth of a baby of either sex was a welcome event,and parents hung garlands on the front door of theirhouse in celebration.

A charmed childhood At eight days old, the baby had a naming ceremony. Her father placed

a charm called a bulla around her neck, which she wore until shemarried. The baby was dressed in restricting swaddling clothesup to the age of two and, if she came from an upper-classfamily, was looked after by slaves.

School days

Like their brothers, well-off girls went to school from the agesof 7 to 11 to learn reading, writing, and math. But not all girlswent to school. Most received just a basic education, afterwhich they were taught household skills by their mothers.The daughters of slaves had to work from an early age.

Time for fun and games Although Roman children were dressed like miniature adults,there was plenty of time for fun with balls, hoops, spinningtops, and wooden toys. Children also played games togetherwith marbles, dice, and nuts. Girls had dolls. Some luckychildren might have kept a pet, such as a small dog,rabbit, or even a goose.

Growing up and leaving home On the eve of her wedding, a girl marked the end of childhood

by dedicating her favorite doll to the household gods. Girlscould marry at 12, though 15 was the usual age. As a wife, her

duties would be to run the household, manage the slaves, andhave children. However, wives could own property and many

were successful businesswomen.

“My daughter is very close to

my heart… For what has naturewanted to be more delightful to

us, what has nature wantedto be more dear to us than

our daughters?”The Roman politician Cicero, c. 70 BCE

A precious dollThis wooden doll wasfound in the tomb ofa Roman girl namedCrepereia Tryphena.The fact that it wasburied with her revealsthat she died beforereaching adulthood.

“During the time that I lived, I enjoyed myself and I wasalways loved by everyone. In fact, believe me, I had the face of

a little boy, not of a girl… of pleasing and noble appearance,

with red hair, short on top and long behind…

”From an epitaph to a five-year-old Roman girlwho died in the 1st century CE

Golden locket

Wearing a bulla signified

that a child was born free,

not a slave. The charmwas also believed to

ward off evil spirits.

Girl with a stylus

This girl taps her stylus (pen)

to her mouth as she ponders

what to write on the wax tablet.

She appears on a wall painting

in Pompeii, Italy, that dates

from the first century.



Changes in TikálIn 379, Yax Nuun Ayiin, aninvader from Teotihuacán,

became the ruler of theMayan city of Tikál. This

sculpture of a god holdina severed human headwas found in his tomb.

306 Constantine was proclaimed emperor.

312 He won the Battle ofthe Milvian Bridge.

313 Constantine ended the persecution of Christians.

324 Constantine foundedConstantinople as a newcapital to rival Rome.

337 He was baptized ashe lay on his deathbed.

300▶400

Constantine I was proclaimed emperor in the west in 306but was immediately plunged into civil wars against hisco-emperors and rivals. He claimed that the Christian Godhelped him secure victory for the control of Rome againstthe usurper Maxentius in 312, and the next year he and his

co-emperor Licinius issued the Edictof Milan, allowing freedom of

worship throughout theempire. For Christians, thisput an end to the constantthreat of persecution.

Constantinople

Constantine’s greatest legacywas the city of Constantinople(Istanbul), the new capitalhe founded for the Eastern

Empire. This medieval mapshows some of its early

churches and monuments.

Sole emperorIn 324, Constantine became the

sole emperor after defeatingLicinius and ordering his execution.

Constantine continued to supportChristianity and ordered the

building of churches throughoutthe empire. However, he was not

formally baptized a Christian until just before his death.

KEY DATES

272 –377 CONSTANTINE THE GREAT

“By this sign [of the cross], conquer!”Words that Constantine is said to have seen writtenin the sky at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge

320

317

320300

Buddha head fromGupta, India

Indian rulerChandragupta I became

king of the small stateof Gupta in northern India.

Conquering far and wide, hefounded the Gupta Empire thatdominated India for 200 years.

China dividesNorthern China was

overrun by nomads andbroke up into 16 kingdoms.

The Eastern Jin Dynasty(317–420) established itselfin the south of the country,

ruling from Nanjing.



81

T h e l a s t O l y m p i c G a m e s o f t h e

a n c i e n t w o r l d w e r e h e l d a t

O l y

m p i a i n 3 9 3 .

361

391

When the Huns, nomads from Central Asia,migrated into eastern Europe, they causedpanic among the Germanic tribes on theedge of the Roman Empire. In 376, theGoths asked to settle within the empire.They were refused and Emperor Valens diedfighting them. They entered anyway andwere given land in the Balkans. In 395, Alaricled the Goths in an uprising against Rome.

376–395 BARBARIAN ATTACK

Visigothic warriorThe Goths later split

into two groups— Visigoths and

Ostrogoths. TheVisigoths went west,

invaded Gaul, andlater founded a

kingdom in Spain. TheOstrogoths (eastern

Goths) founded akingdom in Italy.

Combat weaponThe favorite weaponof the Franks was athrowing ax that theyhurled at the enemy.

Goths This tribe migratedsouth from Scandinaviato the Black Sea area.

Franks This groupof tribes settled onthe lower Rhine(northern Germany).

Vandals This peopleeventually set up akingdom in North Africa.

Jutes, Angles, andSaxons These peoplesinvaded Englandfrom Denmark andnorthern Germany.

An earlyChristian couple

Obelisk inAksum, Ethiopia

MUCH MORE CIVILIZED

340

380360340 400

Germanic tribesThe Romans gave the name“barbarian” to all peoplesfrom outside the Empire.The Germanic tribes originallylived to the north and east.

Heavy iron head to

cause maximum injury

Return of the gods

Civil wars followed the death ofConstantine I. His nephew Julian,who became emperor in 361, triedto restore paganism in the empire,but died fighting the Persianstwo years later.

Theodosius IHaving made

Christianity the

official religion ofthe Roman Empirein 380, Theodosius I

went on to outlawpagan sacrifices in

391. He ordered thedestruction of many

pagan temples.

African convert

King Ezana of Aksum (modernEthiopia) was converted to Christianityby a Syrian missionary, Frumentius.The burial places of the kings ofAksum were marked by tall graniteobelisks. This one is 78 ft (24 m) high.





83

“… the best horsemen of the whole Hunnicrace rode around in a circle... and recited his

deeds in a funeral chant.”A Roman historian, Priscus of Panium, describingAttila the Hun’s funeral

MUCH MORE CIVILIZED

460 480 500

Fierce warriorsThe Huns attacked theEastern Empire yearafter year, draining it ofthe men and resourcesneeded to defend itself.Superb riders, the Hunscontrolled their horsesat high speeds as theyrained arrows and javelins on theirenemies. In 451, Attilainvaded Gaul but leftafter being defeatedby an army of Romansand Goths at theBattle of Châlonsin central France.

493Ostrogoths take overTheodoric, ruler of the Ostrogoths,invaded Italy and replaced Odoaceas king after a three-year campaignHe made his capital at Ravenna onItaly’s Adriatic coast, and adoptedRoman customs.

Theodoric on a gold coin

The people who lived in the Nazca desert ofsouthern Peru made huge pictures of birds, animals,and geometric shapes on the ground. They created

the outlines by removing the reddish pebbles fromthe surface to uncover the whitish soil underneath.The designs can only be viewed from the nearbyfoothills and no one knows why they were made.

400–650 THE NAZCA LINES

Rome fallsItaly was virtually the only part of the Western

Empire still under imperial rule. Odoacer, abarbarian general in the Roman army, overthrew

the last emperor, a young boy called RomulusAugustulus, to make himself king of Italy. After 500

years, the Roman Empire in the west was at anend. The Eastern, or Byzantine, Empire with its

capital at Constantinople survived until 1453.

500Town in Africa

Jenné-Jene on the Niger River in

present-day Mali was the first town toemerge south of the Sahara in West

Africa. The inhabitants were farmerswho built mud-brick houses and

knew how to make iron.

476

Desert spiderThe dry, windless conditions have preserved themysterious lines in the desert. This photograph of agiant 150 ft (46 m) long spider was taken from a plane.

The RomanEmpire

See pages68–69





The end of the Roman Empire plunged Europe into the Dark Ages, but by 1000powerful kingdoms had formed, trade had revived, and medieval Christianitywas flourishing. The birth of Islam saw the creation of a dynamic Arab Empirethat stretched from Spain and North Africa as far as India. Mighty China wasway ahead of the West in technology, but the Mongol invasions and Black Deathbrought widespread destruction to both Asia and Europe. In the Americas,great civilizations such as the Aztecs and Incas were at their height.

500–1450The marvelous Middle Ages



86

500▶600

507Frankish victory

Clovis, king of the Franks,defeated the Visigoths atthe Battle of Vouillé and

began to drive them out of

southwest France intoSpain. This 15th-century

painting shows Alaric II, thedefeated Visigothic king,

kneeling before Clovis.

500

Eagle broochThis beautiful brooch

belonged to an Ostrogothnoblewoman—or perhaps aprincess. The Ostrogothickingdom of Italy held out

against Justinian’sarmies for 20 years,

but was finallyconquered in 553.

Plague!

An outbreak of bubonic plaguestruck the city of Constantinople.

It had broken out two yearsearlier in Egypt and spreadaround the Mediterranean,

probably carried on grain shipsby infected rats. The huge loss

of life weakened the empireand in particular the army,

overstretched by Justinian’scampaigns in Italyand North Africa.

529Monastic life

Benedict founded a monasteryat Monte Cassino in Italy. He laid

down rules for how the monksshould live, dividing the day

between prayer and work.Monasteries following

St. Benedict’s Rule spreadacross Europe and were

centers of learningduring the Dark Ages.

520 540

542

A 13th-century plaque of St. Benedict

532Riot in Constantinople Justinian, the Byzantine (Eastern)emperor, seemed in danger oflosing his throne after rioting inConstantinople. However, the rio

was crushed and the 30,000 rebekilled. Two years later, Justinian’sposition was made even strongerwhen his general Belisarius retooNorth Africa from the Vandals.

A mosaic portraitof Justinian

According to the historian

Procopius, at the height ofthe plague 10,000 peoplea day were dying inConstantinople.

Bo y mo n k

See pages 104 –105



A silk painting showing boats on the Grand Canal

553The secret of silkA silk-making industry developed inConstantinople with the arrival of thefirst silkworms. The insects were saidto have been smuggled from Persia by

two monks, who hid them inside theirhollow canes. Before this, silk had tobe imported at great cost because theChinese refused to reveal the secretof silk production.

THE MARVELOUS MIDDLE AGES

“Not Angles, but angels.”Pope Gregory I, on seeing fair-hairedAnglo-Saxons in a Roman slave marke

Buddhist princePrince Shotoku, one of Japan’sgreat cultural heroes, became

regent, ruling on behalf of his aunt,Empress Suiko. A devout Buddhist,

Shotoku encouraged the spreadof Buddhism, which became thestate religion. He also created a

document that set out the principlesthat should govern Japanese society.

593

581China reunitedEmperor Wendi, founder of the SuiDynasty, made himself sole ruler ofChina, reuniting the country after threecenturies of division and instability.Under his successor, Emperor Yangdi,work began on the 1,240-mile (2,000 km)Grand Canal network. Linking the southand north of the country, it is still thelongest canal system in the world.

Augustine’s missionAfter encountering a group of Anglo-Saxon

slaves in a market, Pope Gregory I sent

Augustine, a Roman churchman, to Britainto convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity.Augustine baptized King Ethelbert of Kent,

whose wife was already a Christian, andfounded a church at Canterbury.

597

560 580 600

87

Silk woven in Constantinoplein the 9th century

570Birth of MuhammadThe Prophet Muhammad wasborn in Mecca, in what is nowSaudi Arabia. A member of theminor Quraysh clan, he wasorphaned at the age of seven

and brought up in the householdof his uncle, Abu Talib. At thattime, the people of Arabiaworshipped many gods.

T h e wo r ld

o f I s la m

See pages

96 –9 7



88

The MayaThe Mayan people lived in the forestsof Central America, in cities of 5,000 to15,000 inhabitants. These cities, ruled by“god-kings,” were constantly at war with

each other. The Maya had the mostadvanced writing system inancient America, whichused symbols calledglyphs. Around 300, theMaya began to erect stonemonuments that recorded thedeeds of their god-kings. After800, many Mayan cities collapsed,probably due to famine.

Key events

Mayan noblemanEach Mayan city was ruled byits own noble family. Mayan

nobles spent a lot of time ontheir appearance—this pottery

figure shows a nobleman inall his finery, with a heavy

bead necklace, featherheaddress, and earplugs.

Mayan ruins

UxmalA dwarf is said

to have built theMagician’s Pyramidat Uxmal in a day.In reality, it wasbuilt over 400 years.

PalenqueThis city in northernMexico was coveredby jungle untilrestoration beganin the 1920s. ItsTemple of the Sunis well preserved.

Chichen ItzáThis site is home to an impressive78 ft (24 m) high stepped pyramid.Each side had a staircaseleading to the Templeof Kukulkan atthe top.

The Maya built complex stone buildingswithout metal tools or wheeled transportation.Ruins are known at more than 40 sites.

“There was neither man, nor animal, birds,fishes, crabs, trees, stones, caves, ravines,

grasses, nor forests; there was only the sky.”From the Maya account of creation

Temple ofKukulkan

The Classic Mayan civilizationemerged in the centrallowlands of Guatemala.They began to buildmagnificent temples andkeep records of their kings.

The warring betweenthe Mayan cities wasat its height at this time.

Tikál, in Guatemala, wasnow the largest and mostimportant of the Mayancities. Its closest rival wasCalakmul, with which itwas constantly at war.

The Classic Mayan citiesof the central lowlandsbegan to decline.

250 750450 800

Construction stoppat Tikál as the cityentered its final day

869



Daily lifeThe Maya wove beautifulfabrics and were skilledpotters and carvers. At thebottom of Mayan societywere slaves (often warcaptives) and farmers.Above them were warriors,and above them priestsand rulers.


89

Other cultures

Olmec (1500–400 BCE)The Olmec inhabited Mexico’s GulfCoast region, and are known forcarving colossal stone heads.

Teotihuacans (200 BCE–700 CE)These mysterious people fromnorthern Mexico built the largestcity in ancient America.

Zapotecs (1500 BCE–700 CE)The center of the Zapotec Empirewas at Monte Albán in the Oaxacavalley of southern Mexico.

Mixtecs (900–1400)The Mixtecs rose to powerafter the decline of theZapotecs and took overat Monte Albán.

Toltecs (900–1187)The warlike Toltecs fromnorthern Mexico capturedthe Mayan city of ChichenItzá in 987 and ruled itfor 200 years.

Aztecs (1325–1521)The Aztecs migratedinto Mexico in the12th century and ruledthe last great civilizationof ancient Mexico.

Aztecnobleman

Blood sacrificesThe Maya believed that theirrulers could communicate withthe gods and their dead ancestorsthrough bloodletting rituals.They also believed that the godswanted sacrifices of human blood.

Gods of the MayaThe Maya worshipped hundreds of gods,who had multiple personalities—some goodand some bad. Mayan gods could morphbetween human and animal shapes.

A Mayan bloodletting ritual

Ah Bolon Tzacab

This leaf-nosed god of farming wasassociated with royal power and theoffering of human blood. Kings oftenheld a scepter in the shape of this god.

Ah K’inAlso known as Kinich Ahau, Ah K’inwas the god of the Sun and controlleddrought and disease. He was oftenshown as a man with a hooked nose.

Buluc ChabtanThis was the god of war, violence,and sudden death (including humansacrifices). He was usually portrayedwith a black line down one cheek.

ChacThe rainmaker god, Chac was oftenshown covered in scales, with fangsand a hooked snout. He carried aserpent as a symbol of lightning.

Ah PuchThe god of death andthe underworld, Ah Puch wasoften depicted as a skeletonor rotting corpse.

Figure of awoman weaving

The Toltecs tookover in ChichenItzá, controllingthe city until 1224.

The Spanish led threecampaigns to conquerthe Mayan people of theYucatán Peninsula.

The last Mayanoutpost, Tayasal onLake Petén Itzá, fellto the Spanish.

987 1527–1546 1697

The Maya pierced their tongues,lips, or ears with stingray spines,pulled a thorny rope throughtheir tongues, or cut themselveswith an obsidian (stone) knife.

The victim in a human sacrifice

had his or her heart removed.Sometimes the skin was flayed(cut off) and worn by the priest.Parts of the body might be eaten.

Men, women, and children weredrowned in sacred wells or hurledfrom cliffs to appease the gods.

One reason for fighting warswas to collect prisoners who couldbe sacrificed to satisfy the gods.



90

Muhammad’s successors,the first four caliphs

600▶700

606

Muhammad was a merchant in Mecca, Saudia Arabia, beforehe grew discontented and took up a life of contemplation. In 610,around age 40, he received a series of divine revelations and beganpreaching the message that there is one God: Allah. His revelationsare contained in the Qur’an, which is for Muslims the direct wordof God. The new religion that Muhammad taught was called Islam,meaning “submission to God.”

Medina and MeccaThe people of Meccaturned against

Muhammad and in622 he fled to Medina.That journey marks thestart of the Islamic era.In 629, Muhammadreturned to Mecca.Today, both citiesare holy for Muslims.

Indian empireHarsha, king of a small

Indian state, united thewhole of northern India.

Literature and cultureflourished, but his empire

broke up soon afterhis death in 647.

600

610–629 THE BIRTH OF ISLAM

Heraclius on horseback

Greek replaces LatinHeraclius became the Byzantine

(Eastern) emperor, ruling until641. He fought off the Persians,

who were threatening to invade.Since most people in the EasternEmpire spoke Greek rather than

Latin, he made it the officiallanguage of government.

Tang takeoverLi Yuan, regent to the last Sui

emperor, a boy, had him murderedand seized power for himself. He

reigned as Gaozu, the first emperorof the Tang Dynasty. In 626, Gaozu’s

son Taizong forced his father tostep down. Taizong’s reign was

the start of a golden age in China.

Arab conquestsFollowing Muhammad’s death in 632, the

Arabs, united by Islam, embarked on a

campaign of conquest. By 637, they hadseized Jerusalem and Damascus from the

Byzantine Empire, and soon they hadconquered the Persian Empire. Syria,

Palestine, and Egypt fell next, and by 698they controlled the whole of North Africa.

620 640

618

637

610

C h i na ’ s

go ld e n ag e

See pages 92 –93

12th-century illuminationof Medina (left) andMecca (right)



91

Royal helmetThis is a replica of a

magnificent helmet thatmay once have belonged to

an Anglo-Saxon king. Hewas buried in a ship in around

625 with this and othertreasures at Sutton Hoo,

in eastern England.


Crown from Silla

“[Kallinikos] had deviseda sea fire which ignited the

Arab ships and burnedthem with all hands.”Byzantine historian Theophanes, c. 810

Funeral jade mask

of KingPakal

A ship sprays Greek fire

Empress WuWu Zetian became the only woman inChinese history to rule as emperor inher own name. She ruled from 690 to705 but had also been the real power

in Tang China during the reigns of herhusband, Gaozong (649–683), and son.

Secret weaponWhen Arab ships reached

Constantinople, theByzantines brought out a

new weapon—bronzetubes that fired a strangeliquid. Known as “Greek

fire,” the liquid caughtfire on the water and

produced raging flames.The weapon repelled theArabs and saved the city.

Golden successSilla conquered the

neighboring kingdoms ofPaekche and Koguryo to take

sole control of Korea. Silla hadgrown rich on gold. Its rulers,

several of whom were women,were buried in tomb mounds

with fabulous golden finery.

End of a cityTeotihuacán in Mexico, once thegreatest city in ancient America,collapsed, bringing 600 years ofhistory to a close. Drought, crop

failures, and famine probablyweakened the city and left

it vulnerable to attack.

Warrior kingPakal was a political ruler and living

god of the Mayan city of Palenque.Dying at the age of 80 after a 68-year

reign, he transformed Palenque into apowerful city with new palaces and

temples, including his own tomb, theTemple of Inscriptions.

660 680 700

673

690

683 700

668

T he M ay a See pag es

88– 89



92

Four Tang emperors

A palace concertElegant ladies of the Tang court drink tea whilethey play and listen to music. A small dog iscurled up under the table. This painting by anunknown Tang artist is done in inks on silk.

China’s golden ageTwo dynasties, the Tang (618–907) and the Song (960–1279),dominated medieval China, a time of great artistic and technologicaldevelopments. The Tang period is often called the golden age ofChina. The Tang emperors were successful at fighting wars, and

Chinese influence spread into Central Asia. After a period ofdisunity, the Song Dynasty brought a return to prosperitybefore it fell to the Mongols.

Key events

Curvy camelThe Bactrian camel was the

principal form of transport alongthe Silk Road. Camel caravans

carried glass, jade, crystal, andcotton into China, and silk, tea,paper, and fine ceramics out of

China. Ceramic figures of camelsand horses, standing only about

20 in (50 cm) tall, were often

placed in the tombs of Tangnobles and important officials.

GaozuThe first Tang emperor,Gaozu, was born Li Yuan.

He overthrew thelast emperor of thecrumbling Sui Dynasty

in 618, but his son

Li Shimin forcedhim to stepdown in 626.

TaizongLi Shimin took the imperial name ofTaizong. He was one of the greatestemperors in Chinese history, and hisreforms brought lasting prosperityand stability to China. He died in 649.

GaozongReigning from 649 to 683, Gaozong wasa weak emperor. After suffering a seriesof strokes, he left affairs of state to his

wife, Wu Zetian. She later took the titleof huangdi (“emperor”) for herself.

XuãnzongThe longest-serving Tang emperor wasXuãnzong, who reigned for 43 years,from 712 to 756. Art and culture flourishedduring his reign, which is considered thehighpoint of Tang success.

The Tang expandedinto Central Asia,making the SilkRoad safer fortravelers.

The Arabsdefeated a Chinesearmy at the TalasRiver (present-dayKyrgyzstan).

659 751

The fall of the Taplunged China inthe “Five Dynastperiod, when Chbroke up intodifferent kingdom

907

The Tang Dynastywas founded by LiYuan, who rebelledagainst the Sui.

618

A rebellionled by GeneralAn LushanweakenedTang rule.

755–763

Li Yuan on horseback




93

“Before my bed, the moon is shining bright,I think that it is frost upon the ground.

I raise my head and look at the bright moon,I lower my head and think of home.”“Thoughts on a Still Night” by Li Bai (701–762),

a major poet of the Tang Dynasty period

The Song Dynastymoved southafter Jurchennomads overrannorthern China.

1127

Song Taizu, founderof the Song Dynasty,reunited China,bringing a returnto stability.

960

Mongol armiesconquered northernChina and beganattacking theSouthern Song.

1234

Tang and Songinventions

Woodblock printingUsing this technique, developedaround 650, text was carvedonto a block, pressed in ink,

and then onto paper.

Paper moneyWhen it appeared around800, paper money was called“flying money” because thenotes could easily blow away.

Mechanical clockThe first record of a clockwith a mechanical device tokeep time accurately was inChina and dates to 725.

PorcelainThe Chinese had discoveredthe art of making porcelain— very hard, fine whitepottery—by 900.

Playing cardsLadies at the Tang courtenjoyed a game called the“leaf game,” played with cards.

Magnetic compassThe Chinese were usingmagnetized iron needlesto find north on land by the1040s and at sea by the 1120s.

Traditional Chineseplaying cards

Cards weremade of thin,

flexible cardboard.

There were30 cards in astandard pack.

Mongol warrior

The Mongolconquest of Chinawas completed afterthe last Song emperordrowned in battle.

1279

Chinese pagodaThe Iron Pagoda of Kaifeng was built in1049 under the Song. It owes its nameto the iron-red color of its glazed bricks.Pagodas were associated with Buddhism,which was widespread in China.

Tang capitalChang’an (Xi’an), a busy tradingcity that attracted merchantsfrom all over Asia, had apopulation of around twomillion people. Little survivesof the Tang city today.







96

The Dome of the RockCompleted in 691, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem is one of the earliest survivingIslamic buildings. Its design was clearlyinfluenced by Byzantine architecture butalready possessed distinct Islamic features.

The world of IslamIn the seventh century, Arab armies swept out of Arabia toconquer a vast empire that eventually stretched from Spaindeep into Central Asia. They carried with them the religionof Islam revealed to the prophet Muhammad. Influenced

by the Byzantine and Persian civilizations they conquered,the Arabs adopted new styles of art and architectureand ways of farming. Islamic scholars kept the study ofphilosophy, mathematics, medicine, and philosophy alive.

Key events

The Qur’anMuslims believe that the Qur’an isa flawless record of God’s word asrevealed to Muhammad by the angel Jibril (Gabriel). It consists of 114chapters, each known as a sura.

Who were they?

UmayyadsThe Ummayads were

the first dynasty of hereditarycaliphs, leaders of the ummah (Islamic community) from 661.

AbbasidsThis dynasty ruled the

Muslim world from 750 to1258, though after 900 manyareas broke away.

FatimidsThe Fatimids created

an independent kingdom inEgypt and North Africa from908 to 1171.

AlmoravidsThe Almoravids were

Berbers from North Africa.

In the 11th century, theyfounded an Islamic empirethat included Muslim Spain.

The standard versionof the Qur’an was madeon the orders of CaliphUthman. It was sent toevery Muslim province.

644

Muhammad fled from thetown of Mecca to Medinain what is now SaudiArabia, marking thestart of the Muslim era.

After Muhammad’s death,his father-in-law Abu Bakrbecame caliph (leader ofIslam), the first of the four“rightly guided” caliphs.

The Arabs conquered Jerusalem. In the next 60 years, their armies overranSyria, Palestine, Persia,Egypt, and North Africa.

Ali, the fourth caliphwas assassinated.Mu’awiya, first of thUmayyad Dynasty,became caliph.

622 638 661632

Tiles added in the

16th century

Gilded wooden

dome, 65 ft

(20 m) across



Five Pillars of IslamEvery Muslim is obliged to perform fivebasic deeds, the Five Pillars, in his orher lifetime. They are:

Shahadah To recite: “There is nogod but God (Allah) and Muhammadis the Messenger of God.”

Salat To perform prayers five times

a day, facing toward Mecca.

Zakat To support the poor and needyby setting aside some income.

Sawm To fast (go without food anddrink) from dawn to sunset during themonth of Ramadan.

Hajj To make the pilgrimage to Meccaat least once in his or her lifetime.


97

The Seljuk sultanTughril seized powerin Baghdad and tookcontrol of theArab Empire.

1055

A Muslim army fromNorth Africa, led by Tariqibn Ziyad, invaded Spainand overthrew theVisigothic kingdom.

Islam split into twobranches: Sunnis, whoaccepted the leadershipof Abu Bakr, and Shiites,who only followed theteachings of Muhammadand his descendants.

The Abbasids overthrewthe Umayyad caliphate.Their first caliph,Abu-al-Abbas, movedthe capital fromDamascus to Baghdad(in present-day Iraq).

The Seljuk Turksof Central Asiaconverted to Islamand began migratinginto Persia(present-day Iran).

711680 970750

Muslim scholars

Ibn Sina (980–1037)Known as Avicenna in the West, Ibn Sinawrote hundreds of works on all areas of

knowledge, including mathematics,astronomy, philosophy, and medicine.

Ibn Rushd (1126–1198)Ibn Rushd (Averroes) was a great thinker.His writings on Plato and Aristotle,translated into Latin, revived the West’sinterest in classical philosophy.

Al-Jazari (1136–1206)An inventor and engineer, Al–Jazaridescribed more than 100 extraordinarymachines in his great Book of Knowledgeof Ingenious Mechanical Devices.

Arab gifts to the world

NumeralsToday, Arabic numerals are used

all over the world. Based on the Indiannumber system, they were adopted byMuslim scholars since they were simplerfor calculations than Roman numerals.

AstrolabeArab astronomers developed the

astrolabe, a device for measuring theheight of the Sun and stars. It helpedthem calculate the direction of Mecca.

ChessThe game of chess was first played

in ancient India. The Arabs learned itfrom the Persians. Popular in MuslimSpain, it spread from there across Europe.

CoffeeSufis (mystics) in Arabia took up

drinking coffee to keep them awake atnight when they were praying. Coffeeeventually reached Europe throughIstanbul in the 1600s.

Muslims playing chess around 1238

An astrolabefrom FatimidEgypt

A mechanical boat invented by Al-Jazari

Abbasid mosqueat Samarra





A copy of a Buddhist textknown as the Diamond Sutra,

dating from 868, is thought tobe the oldest surviving printedbook in the world.


869The end of TikálThe last known buildingwas erected in Tikál.The city was abandonedabout 50 years later,bringing an end to theMaya civilization inlowland Guatemala.

882Swedish VikingsOleg, a Rus chieftain,became ruler of Kiev onthe Dnieper River. TheRus were Viking tradersfrom Sweden whotraveled down the riversof Russia to the BlackSea. Some continuedto Constantinople,where they servedas bodyguards to theByzantine emperor.

Vikings carrying their boat between Russian rivers

880 900

Alfred became king of Wessex, by then the largestof the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England, at a timewhen Danish Vikings looked set to take over. Hesucceeded in halting their advance by allowing the

Danes to settle in northern and eastern England,an area that came to be known as the Danelaw.

849–899 ALFRED THE GREAT

Legends of AlfredThere are many colorful tales of Alfred. Heis said to have spied on the Danes in theircamp disguised as a minstrel. Another tellsof how he was given shelter by a peasantwoman who asked him to watch her cakescooking and he let them burn.

“He was warlikebeyond measureand victorious in

all battles.”The Welsh monk Asserdescribing Alfred in 893

871 Alfred succeeded hisbrother as king of Wessex.

877 The Danes attacked,forcing Alfred into hiding.

878 Alfred defeated theDanes at Edington.

c. 888 Alfred and Guthrum,the Danish leader, dividedEngland between them.

Brother monksCyril and Methodius

converted the Slavs ofBulgaria to Christianity. Theyinvented a script to write the

Bible in Slavic. It becamethe Cyrillic script in which

all Slavic languages,including Russian, are

written today.

Wise rulerAlfred built fortified towns

to defend Wessex. Well-educated for the time,

he made laws andfounded schools.

KEY DATESGold jewelThe inscriptionon this tiny gemof crystal andgold, known asthe Alfred Jewel,says, “Alfredordered meto be made.”



100

Famous Vikings

GuthrumA Danish Viking, Guthrum wasthe ruler of the Danelaw (easternEngland). He fought many battlesagainst King Alfred the Great of

Wessex in the 870s.

LongshipsViking ships were made ofoverlapping planks of wood,

nailed together. They werepowered by oars or by thewind. The sails were probablywoven from wool.

The VikingsThe Vikings—pagan pirates from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden—burst upon Europe in the 790s, creating terror wherever they went.The Viking Age had dawned. Over the next two centuries, manyVikings settled in the lands they conquered in Britain, Ireland, and

France, while some crossed the Atlantic to colonize Iceland andGreenland. Other Viking adventurers traveled down the great riversof Russia to settle and trade with the Arab and Byzantine Empires.

Eric the RedAn outlaw and a smooth-talker,Eric managed to convince a groupof Icelanders to sail to Greenlandin 985 and establish a colony there.It thrived for more than 450 years.

Key events

The city of Novogorod inRussia was founded bySwedish Vikings tradingdown the rivers ofRussia to the Black Sea.

862

Vikings unexpectedlyattacked a monasteryon Lindisfarne, offthe northeast coastof England.

Vikings from Norwayfounded a tradingsettlement on a swampysite in Ireland. It wouldbecome the city of Dublin.

Vikings captured thetown of York in northEngland. They nameit Jorvik and made ittheir kingdom’s capit

793 866841

Harald HardradaHarald III of Norway, known asHarald Hardrada, traveled as a young man to Constantinople. Hewas killed in 1066, fighting KingHarold for the English throne.

“I have never seen more perfect

physical specimens, tall as datepalms, blond and ruddy… Each manhas an ax, a sword, and a knife, andkeeps them by him at all times.”Ibn Fadlan, a tenth-century Arab traveler, describes

Viking traders he met on the River Volga

Men’s dressViking men worebaggy, woolenpants and a cloakfixed at theshoulder. Theyhad helmetsfor battle, butthese neverhad horns.

Women’s dressViking women

wore a linen capand a long, linen

tunic. Over thetunic was a

wool pinafore,fastened on

each side witha brooch.

Viking longship

Farmers and raidersThe Vikings were farmers as well as raiders. Thewomen wove woolen cloth and took care of thecrops and animals when the men were away.

Guthrum greeting Harald I of Norway

Sails were squand made fromwool cloth.

Steering oarat the back




101

Viking gamesThe Vikings were fondof playing board gamessuch as Hnefatafl (king’stable), played with pegsor counters. Chessbecame popular later.

The Viking settlements inGreenland were abandonedaround this time, since theclimate became harsherand colder.

1450

King Harald Bluetoothof Denmark was the firstof the ScandinavianVikings to convertto Christianity.

A large Viking armybesieged Paris, France,for several months.Viking attacks weakenedthe kingdom of theWest Franks.

960885

Sweyn Forkbeard, kingof Denmark, conqueredEngland. His son Cnutwould rule both Englandand Denmark.

1014

Remote settlements

Orkney and Shetland IslandsThese island groups off the north coast ofScotland were settled by Viking farmersfrom Norway in the ninth century.

Faroe IslandsViking settlers reached these NorthAtlantic islands around 825. They calledthem Faereyjar (Sheep Islands).

IcelandSettlers arrived in Iceland from Norwayaround 870. Within 60 years the populationhad grown to more than 20,000.

GreenlandIcelanders led by Eric the Red settled herein 985. At that time, the climate was warmenough to grow crops and raise livestock.

Vinland

Leif Ericson found a land he called Vinlandto the west of Greenland. It is thought tohave been Newfoundland, Canada.

Fine jewelryA high-ranking Viking womanwould have worn this gold-and-silverbrooch, which comes from Gotland,Sweden. Viking craftspeople createdbeautifully intricate jewelry.

Norse godsThe Vikings were Germanic peoples, andtheir gods and goddesses had their rootsin the mythology of northern Europe.

Odin The god of war, Odinrode an eight-legged horse,and gathered up the bodies

of fallen warriors to carrythem to his hall, Valhalla.

Thor The god of the skyand thunder, Thor wasarmed with a great hammer, Mjolnir , to fight off dragonsand demons.

Baldr The son of Odin andFrigg, Baldr was known as“the beautiful.” His blindbrother, Hodr, killed himwith a mistletoe arrow.

Loki A mischief-maker,Loki caused problems forthe other gods and appearedin many forms. He fooledHodr into killing Baldr.

Heimdall Possessor ofthe Gjallarhorn , a very loudhorn, Heimdall will blowinto it to mark the arrivalof Ragnarok , the final day.

A walrus-ivorychess piece

Viking warriors

Reconstructed Viking housesin Newfoundland

Almost the entirelength of the shipwas fitted with oars.

Symmetrical bow and sternallowed the ship to reversewithout turning around



900▶1000

911

929

Caliph of CordobaAbd al-Rahman III, emir of Cordoba inSpain and descendant of the Umayyads,

took the title of caliph. He united all ofAl-Andalus (Muslim Spain) under hisrule, halted the advance of the Christiankingdoms in the north, and rebuilt muchof the Great Mosque at Cordoba.

Normandy on the map

Charles III, king of the West Franks,gave Rollo, a Viking leader, land

at the mouth of the Seine Riveron the condition he give up raiding

and become a Christian. The areacame to be known as Normandy

(land of the Norsemen).

900

Coyote headThis magnificentmother-of-pearl

headdress is in theform of a Toltec

coyote god. The warlikeToltecs had their capitalat Tula in central

Mexico, a city theyfounded around 900.

The Great Mosque at Cordob

920 940

930

First parliament

Viking settlers in Iceland heldtheir first Althing —an outdoorassembly that was open to all freemen. The Althing is claimed to bethe world’s oldest parliament.

T he V ik ing s See pag es

100– 101

Stoneancestors

A row of statues with largeheads, thought to be ancestorfigures, stand guard on Easter

Island. Called moai , theywere erected by Polynesiansettlers, who had reached

the island by thetenth century.



960

China reunitedThe 60 years of chaos that hadfollowed the fall of the Tang Dynastyfinally ended when an army general,Zhao Kuangyin, seized power. He ruledas Taizu, the first emperor of the SongDynasty. The Song capital was atKaifeng in the north of China.

103

A f t e r 9 9 1 ,

t h e E n g l i s h p a i d t h e D a n i s h

V i k i n g s t o s t a y a w a y .

T h i s a n n u a l

t r

i b u t e w a s k n o w n a s t h e

D a n e g e l d .


988

Baptism of Vladimir

Prince Vladimir of Kiev agreed adopt the Greek Orthodox faithreturn for marrying the sister othe Byzantine emperor, Basil IIHis baptism sealed Russian tieswith the Byzantine Empire anddetermined Russia’s future

Vladimir’s baptis

Otto being crowned by the Virgin Mary (in reality, Pope John XII crowned hi

960

Danish convertFollowing the conversion of KingHarald Bluetooth, Denmark becamethe first Viking kingdom to adoptChristianity. Harald built roads,bridges, and forts across Denmark.

960 980 1000

962

German emperorOtto I, king of Germany,was crowned emperor inRome, reviving the idea of

a Western Empire that haddied with Charlemagne.Otto’s empire came tobe known as the HolyRoman Empire.

986

Going to Greenland

Viking explorer Eric the Redpersuaded settlers from

Iceland to sail west with himto Greenland. The Viking

colony on Greenlandsurvived until around 1450.

T he g o lde n ag e o f C hina See pag es 92– 93



104

CHILDREN IN HISTORY

Boy monkWith Christian faith serving as the focal point of life duringthe Middle Ages, many parents were eager for their children

follow a religious calling. Boys were sent to monasteries andgirls to convents from a young age. In addition to being taughto sing the religious services, they learned to read and write iLatin, the language of the church and government. Later on,monastic schools developed to train boys for public life.

Entering a monastery

Boys entered monasteries from about ten years old. Parents broughttheir sons, sometimes taking monastic vows on their behalf if the boyswere too young to take their own vows. The first vow was obedience tothe abbot (head monk). Boys adopted the same clothing as the seniormonks—a plain woolen tunic and sandals.

Daily worship

Monasteries followed a strict routine of study, work, and prayer.In between schooling, there was worship. With eight prayer time— beginning at midnight with matins and finishing at 9pm with compline—monastic life was regimented and must have been tiring for children.

Copying manuscripts

Since there were no printed works, all books had to be copied by hand.Senior monks helped the young boys in the art of replicating religioustexts. Boys spent hours copying the Gospel books, psalms, works oftheology, and lives of the saints. It was undertaken as a labordevoted to the service and glory of God.

Apprenticeship to adulthood

After years of study, it was time to decide on the future. Most young me

became monks and remained in the monastery. Some went on to careeas officials in the church or clerks in the king’s writing office.

“If the boys commit any

fault in the singing, either

by sleeping or suchlike

transgression, let them be

stripped and beaten in

their shirt only.”Rules of the French medieval monastery,

St. Benigne of Dijon

“Let the boys be present with praises

of the heavenly king and not be digging

foxes out of holes or following the fleetin

courses of hares. He who does not learn

when he is young does not teach

when he is old.”Alcuin of York (735–804), writing

to the monks of Jarrow, England

Trainee tonsure Here, a young monk is being tonsured—having

the top of his head shaved. This ritual showed

he had been accepted into the monastic order.

Scriptorium scriThis young monk is carefu

copying in the scriptoriu

(“writing room”). Monks us

reed pens and fine brushes

produce their manuscrip

Illuminated manuscripts Texts were copied onto fine

parchment made of calf-, goat-,

or sheepskin. In among the

writing were decorative

pictures (illuminations).

Colored pigment

to mix with water

to produce ink

Oyster shells used

as mixing palettes



105


“From the age of seven I

have spent the whole of my

life within that monastery

devoting all my pains to the

study of the scriptures.”The English monk and historian

Bede (673–735)



106

High-rise livingThe Anasazi people of New Mexico were livingin pueblos (villages), which consisted of apartmentlikecomplexes of multiroomed dwellings that weresometimes several stories high. The Anasazi builttheir houses from adobe (sun-baked mud).

The Anasazi complex ofPueblo Bonito contained

more than 650 rooms.

1000▶1100

1000

MurasakiShikabu

1020 1040

1044

Burmese kingdom

Prince Anawrata became theking of Pagan, a Buddhistkingdom on the IrrawaddyRiver in Burma that becamevery powerful during hisreign. He built the GoldenShwezigon Pagoda, said tohouse Buddha’s tooth.

1002

Vinland

Leif Ericson, son ofEric the Red, may havebeen the first Europeanin America. Sailingwest from Greenland,he reached a placethought to beNewfoundland thathe called Vinland.The name may havemeant “grapevine land”or “pasture land.”

1021

Courtly tale

Princess MurasakiShikabu wrote The Taleof Genji , a story of loveand intrigue set inthe Heian imperialcourt. Consideredby many to bethe world’sfirst full-lengthnovel, it hasabout 400characters,including thehero, Prince Genji.

“Real things in the darknessseem no realer than dreams.”From The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikabu

Statue ofLeif Ericson

1016

Danish rule

Cnut, a Dane, wascrowned king ofEngland after defeatingKing Edmund Ironside.He then secured thethrone of Denmark,ruling both countriesfor the next 20 years.

1000

T he V ik ing s See pag es 100– 101

Gold-leaf temples and shrinesurround the central stupa ofthe Golden Schwezigon Pago





Inlaid

turquoise

Angkor Wat

1100▶1200

1113

Saladin (Salah ad-Din in Arabic) was a great Muslimwarrior. He began his career fighting for Nur ad-Din,the ruler of Syria. Having overthrown the FatimidDynasty, Saladin used Egypt as his power base

to attack the crusaderkingdom of

Jerusalem.

Temple mountainThe temple of Angkor Wat in

Cambodia was built by the Khmerking Suryavarman II. The largest

religious structure in the world, itwas designed to resemble the

Hindu sacred mountain of Meru.

1100

1137 –1193 SALADIN

Sicán knifeThis 9th- to 11th-

century ceremonial goldknife, known as a tumi ,

was found in the tomb ofa Sicán ruler from Peru.

Tumi s may have beenused to cut the throats

of sacrificial victims.

1120 1140

1127

Southern SongWhen nomads overran

northern China and seizedthe Song capital of Kaifeng, a

Song prince, Gaozong,escaped. He founded theSouthern Song dynasty.

“His power wasmanifest, his authority

supreme.”Saladin’s secretary,Imad al-Din, c. 1200

Chivalrous leaderSaladin won fame for beinggenerous to his enemies.

When the crusader Richard Iof England lost his horse,Saladin sent him another.

Fall of JerusalemIn July 1187, Saladin’s armydefeated the crusaders atthe Battle of Hattin, foughtin blazing heat. Saladin wenton to capture Jerusalem,prompting the Pope tolaunch the Third Crusade.

1152 Saladin joined theservice of Nur ad-Din.

1171 Saladin overthrewthe Fatimids and madehimself sultan of Egypt.

1187 Saladin recapturedJerusalem, ending 88years of crusader rule.

1192 Saladin and Richardsigned a treaty, reducingthe crusader kingdom.

KEY DATES

T he g o lde n ag e o f C hina See pag es 92– 93



109

“The swordstruck… and the

crown of the headwas separated from

the rest.”Life of St. Thomas byEdward Grim, 1172


1160 1180

1150

Cahokia cityA city at Cahokia in the

Mississippi Valley of NorthAmerica may have held up to30,000 people. At its heart wasa massive earth mound toppedby a wooden building, either atemple or a palace. It is one ofmore than 100 mounds builtat Cahokia.

1158

Seat of learning

The university of Bologna,Italy, was formally established,though its origins date back to1088. Paris had a university by1150 and Oxford by 1167. Theydeveloped out of cathedralschools where students wouldgather at the feet of a teacher.

1170

Unholy murder

Four knights, who claimedto be acting on behalf ofKing Henry II of England,murdered Thomas Becket,the archbishop of Canterbury.Henry was angry with Thomas,his former friend and advisor,for putting the rights of thechurch above those of thecrown. Thomas was madea saint in 1173.

1175

Muslims in IndiaMuhammad of Ghur, an emir(prince) from Afghanistan,established a great Muslimempire in northern India.It broke up after his deathin 1206, but his generalQutb-al-Din Aibak foundedthe first sultanate of Delhi.

1192

First shogunMinamoto Yoritomotook the title of shogun(“supreme commander”He was now theundisputed militaryruler of Japan, and the

emperor wasreduced to afigurehead.

The murder in Canterbury Cathedral

Aibak enters Delhi.

1200



110

Fighting monks Clash of culturesThe crusaders calledall Muslims “Saracens.”

The Arabs, whoregarded the crusadersas barbarians, calledthem all Franj (“Franks”)because so many camefrom France.

The CrusadesIn 1095, after a plea for help from theByzantine emperor, Pope Urban II calledupon the Christian knights of Europe totravel to Jerusalem and recapture it from

the Muslims. He believed the Muslims weredenying access to Christian pilgrims. Themission was the first of the Crusades—aseries of wars fought over the next twocenturies between Christians and Muslimsfor Jerusalem, a sacred place to both religions.

Key events

Crusader castlesCrusaders built huge fortresses to house garrisonsand also to guard the pilgrim routes. The Krak desChevaliers (“fortress of the knights”) in Syria wasa base for up to 2,000 knights, who controlled thesurrounding lands and raided Muslim territories.

The Fourth Crusade(1202–1204) reachedthe Byzantine capital ofConstantinople. Believingthe emperor had betrayedthem, the crusadersattacked the city.

1204

Pope Urban II proclaimed theFirst Crusade (1095–1099).Crusaders took Jerusalem andestablished four states in theMiddle East: Edessa, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Tripoli.

The crusader state of Edessa inSyria fell to Zengi. The SecondCrusade (1145–1149), launchedby the French churchmanSt. Bernard of Clairvaux,failed to win back Edessa.

Saladin defeated acrusader army at theBattle of Hattin. In theresulting Third Crusade(1189–1192), the Muslimswere victorious.

The Fifth Crusade(1217–1221) triedbut failed to seize Jerusalem by firstconquering theMuslim state of Eg

1095 1187 12171144

A 14th-century paintingof a crusader joustingwith a Muslim

Saladin

Knights HospitallerAlso known as the Order ofSt. John of Jerusalem, theyformed to care for sick pilgrimsbut later provided armed escorts.

Knights TemplarThe Templars wore a whitemantle (cloak) with a red crossin battle. The order grewwealthy as people gave theknights land and money.

Teutonic KnightsAfter the fall of the crusadingkingdoms, this German order

of knights began to convertthe pagans of the Baltic area.

Some crusaders were knightswho had taken religious vows.




111

Who’s who

Peter the HermitFrench monk Peter the Hermit led an armyof peasants to Constantinople before theFirst Crusade. However, they were killedby the Seljuk Turks after arriving in Asia.

Godfrey of BouillonA knight of the First Crusade, Godfrey wasmade the first king of the crusader kingdomof Jerusalem and the surrounding lands.

ZengiThe Turkish governor of northern Syria,Zengi started the Muslim offensiveagainst the crusader states.

King Richard IThis king of England wasknown as Richard theLionheart because of hisfierce fighting

in the ThirdCrusade.

SaladinThe greatestMuslim militaryleader of all, Saladinreclaimed Jerusalem in1187, but ordered hissoldiers not to kill,rob, or harm.

“There was such aslaughter that our menwere up to their anklesin the enemy’s blood.”A French eyewitness describes

the fall of Jerusalem, 1099

West meets EastThe crusaders learned a lot from Arabculture. They discovered foods such asdates, figs, ginger, and sugar. Venetianand Genoan ships carried pilgrims andsoldiers to and from the Middle East,returning laden with cottons, silks,spices, and other exotic goods.

Welcome homeCrusaders’ wives had to lookafter their husbands’ estateswhile they were away—andthey often proved astutebusinesswomen. Thousandsof men did not return.

Peterthe Hermit

Muslims seized the port ofAcre, the last major crusaderstronghold in the MiddleEast. Europeans lost interestand the Crusades ended.

1291

Led by Louis IX of France,the Seventh Crusade(1248–1254) targetedMuslim Egypt again,but was another defeat.

Emperor Frederick IIregained Jerusalem bymaking a treaty with thesultan of Egypt duringthe Sixth Crusade(1228–1229).

Louis IX of France (St. Louis)and his son John Tristandied of fever in Tunis, NorthAfrica, during the short-livedEighth Crusade (1270).

12481229 1270

Venice in the 1270s

Statue of a returningcrusader and his wife



112

1185, JAPAN



Samurai battleOn March 24, 1185, two samurai (warrior) clans,the Taira and the Minamoto, fought a navalbattle at Dan-no-Oura, on Japan’s Inland Sea.The fighting lasted half a day, with fierce hand-to-hand combat. Rather than surrender, TairaTomomori and other Taira leaders committedsuicide by jumping into the sea—to this day,the crabs in the bay are said to hold thespirits of the drowned warriors. The Battle ofDan-no-Oura ended the five-year Genpei War.The victorious clan leader Minamoto Yoritomo

took the title of shogun (ruler of Japan) in 1192.


113

A 19th-century woodblock print showing Taira Tomomoriand a drowned retainer (servant) at the bottom of the sea

“Then Hoichi [made his lute sound]like the straining of oars and therushing of ships, the whirr andhissing of arrows, the shouting

and trampling of men, the crashingof steel upon helmets.”A minstrel, Hoichi, tells the story of the

Battle of Dan-no-Oura in The Tale of Heike



Rose windowThis beautiful rose window

of colored glass, one ofthree, is from Chartres

Cathedral in France. Thecathedral, constructed from1194 to 1250, was built inthe Gothic style that swept

through Europe in the13th century.

The crusadersattacking Constantinople

1200▶1300

1200 1220 1240

1206

Mongol warlordTemujin, a chieftain fromthe steppes of Mongolia,succeeded in uniting allthe Mongol tribes under

his command. He tookthe name of Genghis

Khan (“Universal Ruler”)before setting out on thefirst of his campaigns

to conquer Asia.

1204

Crusader rampage

The Fourth Crusade neverreached Jerusalem. Short ofmoney, the crusaders diverted

to Constantinople, wherea claimant to the throne

promised to pay them if theyhelped him take power. They

sacked the city and set up a“Latin Empire.” The ByzantineEmpire never fully recovered.

1209

War on hereticsPope Innocent III launched a crusade againstthe Albigensians—the name given to the Catharsof southern France who held religious viewsunacceptable to the Church. King Philip II ofFrance used the Albigensian Crusade as a wayto impose royal authority in the south. Thousandsdied in the savage persecution that followed.

1215Magna CartaIn England, a barons’ revolt forced King John to sign the Great Charter, or Magna

Carta. An important document in thehistory of human rights, Magna Cartastated that the king was not above thelaw. In 1265, resistance to royal poweralso led to the first English parliamentthat included commoners as well as nobles.

1212

Spanish reconquest

An army led by the kings ofAragon and Castile defeateda Muslim force at Las Navasde Tolosa. This marked aturning point in the strugglebetween Muslims andChristians in Spain.By 1248, most of Spainwas in Christian hands.

Pope Innocent III

1242

Battle of the Ice

Alexander Nevski,prince of Novgorod inRussia, defeated an

army of TeutonicKnights (a Germanmilitary order). The

battle was fought on afrozen lake in what is

now Estonia.

King John’s seal

Mo ngo l

wa r r io r s

See pages

118 –119

T he C r us

ade s See pag es 110– 111



115

The outer wall of the Great Enclosure at GreatZimbabwe contains about 900,000 stone blocks.

Great Zimbabwe was the capital of a large empire in southern Africa,which had grown rich through its control of the trade in gold and ivory.The ruler and his entourage lived inside a walled palace called the GreatEnclosure with walls up to 36 ft (11 m) high in places. The modernAfrican country of Zimbabwe takes its name from this impressive site.

1270–1450 GREAT ZIMBABWE


1260 1280 1300

1271

Traveler’s talesMarco Polo, a Venetian merchant,set out on a journey into Asia.He was away for 25 years. After hisreturn, he wrote a memoir describinghis adventures. His book openedup the unknown world ofAsia to Europeans.

1270

Heirs of SolomonYekuno Amlak became

emperor of Ethiopia, restoringthe Solomonid Dynasty of Aksum.The Solomonid kings claimed they

were descended from the son ofthe biblical King Solomon and

the Queen of Sheba.

The Solomonids ruled Ethiopiafor more than 700 years.

“I have not told halfof what I saw.”Attributed to Marco Polo

A fresco in St. Mary’s Church, Lalibela,built during Yekuno Amlak’s reign

Marco Polo at the court of theMongol emperor, Kublai Khan





117


CHILDREN IN HISTORY

Young apprenticesAs towns in medieval Europe grew, trades developed toprovide goods and services. This resulted in opportunities

for children. Many became apprentices, gaining valuabletraining and experience in a profitable trade from a skilledmaster for a fixed period of time, usually five to ten years.

Placing a child

Parents were anxious to place children with a good master craftsman.Popular trades included goldsmiths, stonemasons, carpenters, vintners(wine merchants), and apothecaries (pharmacists). Most children wereboys from age 10 to 15, and their parents paid a fee toward their care. Thechild was bound by law to work for his master during the apprenticeship.

Guild oaths

Every trade had a guild or association. Guilds controlled standards, setprices, protected their members, and also set the rules of apprenticeship.

Apprentices had to take a ceremonial oath. This was a grand occasion,with guild officers dressed in liveries (robes) of velvet and fur. It was adaunting but very special moment for young apprentices.

Apprentice life

Most apprentices formed close bonds with their master and his family.They lived in the master’s home, ate with the family, and wore clothessupplied by the master. But they were primarily there to learn. Most ofthe day was spent in the workshop. Hard work was expected; otherwise,the master could release the apprentice and charge his family a fee.

Journeyman

At the end of the training, the apprentice became a journeyman(“dayworker”). He no longer lived in the master’s household, and

was free to travel around, making contacts and gaining experience.If he saved enough money, he could become

a master himself, running his own business.

Stonemason’schisel (top)and shoemaker’sknife

Workshops On-the-job training took place in the master’s

workshop. Here, workers are busy in

a goldsmith’s workshop in Paris.

“And well and truly you

shall serve your master

for the terms of yourapprenticeship. And ye

shall be obedient under

the wardens and to all the

clothing [livery] of

the fellowship.”Guild oath of apprenticeship

Dick WhittingtonThe famous story of Dick Whittington is

based on a real man. With no prospects

of inheriting land, Richard Whittington

(1354–1423) went to London and served

an apprenticeship with a mercer (cloth

trader). He was so successful that he

became the Lord Mayor of London.

Tools of the trade Apprentices had to come to grips

with the tools suited to theirtrade. Some were difficult and

dangerous to use, but firsthand

experience was the best way

to gain confidence.

“[He] shall instruct and inform… and shall let

him out reasonably and shall keep him in food

and clothing, in shoes, and all other necessary

things as other merchants do…”Contract between a fletcher (someone who fits

feathers to arrows) and his apprentice



118

Siege warfareHere, Genghis Khan lays siege to a Chinesetown. The Mongols learned siege warfarefrom the Chinese. They attacked fortifiedcities with siege machines and used giantcatapults to hurl firebombs, flammableliquids, or dead animals over battlements.

Mongol warriors

Key events

Genghis Khan invadedPersia and overthrewthe Kharezmid Empirein a campaign notablefor its great savagery.

1219

Courageous leaderTemujin was proclaimedGenghis Khan (“UniversalRuler”) after uniting theMongol tribes.

Genghis Khan led anarmy to besiege andcapture the Jin capitalof Yanjing (Beijing) innorthern China.

The Mongolsdestroyed a Hungarianarmy at the Battle ofLiegnitz (Legnica inmodern-day Poland).

1206 12411215

Warrior weaponryMongol warriors carried a bowand arrows, battle-ax, curved

sword, and lance. These finelycrafted daggers (above)belonged to an elite warrior.

In the 13th century, mounted Mongol warriorsswept out of the steppes of northeastern Asiato terrorize the surrounding lands. Leading themwas Genghis Khan, a soldier of genius who united

the warring Mongol tribes and turned them intoone of the most formidable fighting machines theworld has ever known. It took the Mongols barely50 years to conquer a vast land empire stretchingfrom the Pacific Ocean to Eastern Europe.

Twindaggers

Ivory handle

Mace used bya warrior ofhigh status




119

The Great Khans

Ögedai KhanThe third son of Genghis Khan was thesecond Great Khan of the Mongol Empire,succeeding his famous father. He reignedfrom 1229 to 1241, and continued the

expansion of the empire in the east.

The khanatesAfter Genghis Khan’s death,the empire was divided intokhanates (territories) amonghis sons. The khan (ruler)of each was subject to theGreat Khan, but the western

khanates soon broke away.

Güyük KhanEldest son of Ögedai, Güyük ruled onlybriefly, from 1246 to 1248. His enthronementat Karakorum in Mongolia angered hiscousin Batu, who had conquered Russiaand wanted to be elected as Great Khan.

Khanate of Kipchak (GoldenHorde)—Russia

Khanate of Chagatai—Central Asia

Khanate of Ilkhan—Persia

Khanate of the Great Khan—Eastern steppes and China

A Mamluk Muslim armydefeated the Mongolsat the Battle of Ain Jalutin the Jezreel Valley ofmodern-day Israel.

The Mongols killed morethan 200,000 prisonersduring their siege andcapture of the Abbasidcapital, Baghdad.

Kublai Khan proclaimedhimself emperor of allof China when he adoptedthe Chinese dynastictitle of Yuan.

Kublai Khan wasprevented from invading Japan by a kamikaze (“divine wind”) thatdestroyed his fleet.

12601258 12811271

Möngke KhanGrandson of Genghis, Möngke was thelast Great Khan to base his capital atKarakorum. During his reign (1251–1259),he conquered Iraq and Syria.

Kublai Khan

Another grandson ofGenghis Khan, Kublaitook over in 1260. Heexpanded the empire inChina and founded theYuan Dynasty there,

moving his capitalto Dadu (Beijing)

in 1271.

“It is easy to conquerthe world from theback of a horse.”Saying attributed to

Genghis Khan

Life on the move

The Mongols were nomadicherdsmen and traders, moving fromplace to place with their herds ofhorses, camels, sheep, and goats.They lived in ger s or yurts, circularfelt tents that could be erected anddismantled quickly. Genghis Khanruled from a ger that was 30 ft (9 m)wide and richly hung with silks.

Fearless fighterMongol cavalrymenadopted hit-and-run

combat tactics, swoopingin to fire multiple arrows atthe enemy from the safety

of the saddle. Another

favorite trick was topretend to retreat and thenambush an opponent in

hot pursuit.

A map showing thecapital of the Great Khanat Dadu (Beijing)

KublaiKhan

Mongolbow



120

The Black Death, which

originated in China, killed73 million people in Asia.

1300▶1400

1300 1320 1340

1314

Victorious ScotsRobert the Bruce, king of Scotland,

defeated the army of King Edward II ofEngland at the Battle of Bannockburn.

His victory put an end to English

attempts to rule Scotland. One story tellshow Robert, at an all-time low, took

inspiration from a spider. Watching itspin its web, he realized that with

perseverance he could succeed, too.

1346

Longbow victory

The Hundred Years’ War betweenEngland and France had brokenout in 1337. King Edward III

invaded France to pursue his claimto the French throne. He won a

great victory at the Battle of Crécythanks to the deadly accuracy of

the Welsh and English longbows

1324

Gunfire!

Knowledge of gunpowder had reachedEurope from China via the Mongols andArabs, and cannons were used for the first

time in Europe at the Siege of Metz (now ineastern France). The coming of gunpowder

would change the face of warfare.

1325

1347

The Black DeathAn epidemic of bubonic plague raged

throughout Europe, killing 45 percent ofthe population in four years. Victims

suffered terrible swellings and internal

bleeding. People thought God had sentthe plague as a punishment and did all

they could to seek his forgiveness

Fabled TimbuktuMansa Musa I, rulerof the gold-richMali Empire ofWest Africa,made thepilgrimage toMecca. UnderMansa Musa,the Malian city ofTimbuktu became arenowned center ofIslamic scholarshipand culture.

A procession of penitentsasking for God’s forgiveness

Mansa Musaon his throne

Using cannons to attack the city ofAfrique, Tunisia, in 1390



Literature flourished in 14th-century Europe, especiallyin Italy. The greatest writer of the age was the poetDante Alighieri, author of The Divine Comedy . Fellow

poets Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio were alsocelebrated for their verse. Boccaccio’s collection of

tales, The Decameron, greatly influenced the Englishpoet Geoffrey Chaucer, who wrote The Canterbury Tales.

Pilgrim stories

In The Canterbury Tales, Chaucer relatedthe stories told by a group of pilgrims ashe traveled with them to the shrine ofThomas Becket at Canterbury.

1300–1400 AN AGE OF LITERATURE


1360 1380 1400

1368

The brilliant Ming

Peasant-born general ZhuYuanzhang overthrew the unpopular

Mongol Yuan Dynasty to proclaimhimself emperor. He founded theMing Dynasty (1368–1644). Ming

means “brilliant” in Chinese.

Palace of the PopesIn 1309, Pope Clement V,a Frenchman, moved thepapal court from Rome to

Avignon, southern France.Seven popes lived in thePalace of the Popes in

Avignon until 1378.

Sultan Murad, who diedat the Battle of Kosovo

“Abandon all hope,

you who enter here.”Words written above the gate ofhell in Dante’s Divine Comedy

Dante’s epic poemDante holds a copy of The Divine Comedy ,which he wrote between 1307 and 1321.The poem describes a visionary journeythrough hell, purgatory (the “in-between”place where dead sinners try to makeamends), and heaven.

Battle of Kosovo

The Ottoman Turks defeated thSerbs at the Battle of Kosovo,although Sultan Murad I died ithe fighting, as did the Serbiancommander Prince Lazar. In lethan a century, the Ottomanshad expanded out of Anatoliato control most of the Balkanssouth of the Danube River.

1389

O t to ma n

E m p i r e

See pages

144 –145



122

1415, FRANCE




123

“The English… throwing downtheir bows, fought lustily with

swords, hatchets, mallets,and billhooks, slaying

all before them.”French historian Enguerrand de Monstrelet’sChronicle , c. 1450

Battle of AgincourtOn October 25, 1415, during the Hundred Years’ War,an English army led by King Henry V met a muchlarger French army outside the village of Agincourtin northern France. As the French knights charged,English and Welsh archers rained arrows down onthem. The French knights fell on top of each other onthe muddy ground and were slaughtered by the English.Following his great victory, Henry went on to conquerNormandy. In 1420, he married Catherine of Valois, thedaughter of Charles VI of France, who named Henry ashis heir. Henry died in 1422, leaving a baby son. The

Hundred Years’ War continued for another 20 years.

Trapped in their heavy armor, the French knightsfloundered in the mud.



Zheng He’s fleet contained250 ships and 28,000 men.1400▶1450

By 1415, the war that England andFrance had been fighting on and ofsince 1337 had all but ceased. ThenEngland’s King Henry V decided tostart it again. He invaded Franceand won a spectacular victory at

the Battle ofAgincourt.

Timur (Tamerlane) was a war leader fromSamarkand in Central Asia. He spread terror

far and wide in a 20-year career thatincluded the conquest of Persia, thenear-destruction of the Ottoman Empire,and the massacre of thousands of peoplein Delhi and Baghdad. He was headingfor China when he died in 1405.

1400

1415–1453

1370–1405 TIMUR THE LAME

1410 1420

1406

The Forbidden City

The Yongle Ming emperor beganbuilding the Forbidden City in Beijing, ahuge complex of nearly 1,000 buildings

to house the imperial court. Enclosedby a moat and a high defensive wall,

it was called the “Forbidden City”because only the emperor, his court,

and servants were allowed to enter itwithout permission.

Towers of skullsTimur is said to have made huge pyramidsof the skulls of his victims, but despite his

reputation for cruelty, he was a devoutMuslim. He built many beautiful

mosques and other buildingsin his capital, Samarkand.

1422

Chinese explorerZheng He, a Chinese admiral, broughtback giraffes from East Africa as a gift

for the Ming emperor. Between 1405and 1433, he made seven expeditions

with his huge fleet of treasure ships andmay have visited up to 30 countries.

One of Zheng He’s ships

War makerKing Henry Vreasserted theEnglish claim tothe French crown.

1410

Pitched battle

The Battle of Tannenbergwas one of the largestcavalry battles of theMiddle Ages. A hugearmy led by KingLadislaus Jagiello II ofPoland and Lithuaniadefeated the TeutonicKnights, a religious orderof knights that controlledthe Baltic region.

One of the Arrow Towersbuilt at each corner ofthe Forbidden City



125

The end of the warHere, the French army besieges English-held Cherbourg.After Henry V’s death in 1422, an English army occupiednorthern France. Joan of Arc rallied French resistance,and the English were expelled in 1453.

THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR


1430 1440 1450

1431

French heroine Joan of Arc, a young

peasant girl, persuadedthe dauphin (son ofthe French king) to

fight back againstthe English. She was

captured and tried forheresy for claiming the

saints spoke to her.Found guilty, she was

burned at the stake.

Aztec knifeThe warlike Aztecs hadrisen to power in centralMexico. They cut out thehearts of their sacrificial

victims with knives like thisone, made from obsidian,

a very hard stone.

“I have been sent by God andhis angels, and I shall drive

you from our land of France.”Joan of Arc’s challenge to the English

1438

Inca ruler

High in the Andes of Peru,Pachacutec became the rulerof the Incas. He set aboutcreating a great militaryempire that stretched for2,500 miles (4,000 km)from Ecuador tocentral Chile.

1446

Korean alphabet Hangul , an alphabet with14 basic consonants and10 basic vowels, wasintroduced to Korea onthe orders of King Sejon

1434African voyagesSponsored by Prince Henry theNavigator, who set up a schoolof navigation, Portuguese sailorGil Eanes rounded Cape Bojador,a dangerous reef off West Africathat had challenged sailorsbefore that time. The Portuguesedeveloped a sturdy type of

vessel, the caravel, for longocean voyages.

Joanin herbattle armor

A z t ec s

a nd I nca s

See pages

126 –12 7

Ag e o f

E x p lo ra t io n

See pages

136 –13 7



126

Eagle warriorFor the Aztecs, the eaglesymbolized bravery. Thislife-size sculpture depictsan elite eagle warrior. Aztecsociety depended on bravewarriors serving the gods.

Aztecs and IncasThe Aztecs and Incas were the last great civilizations of ancient America.Settling in the Valley of Mexico, the Aztecs developed a vast empire bywaging war on neighboring lands. High in the Andes Mountains, theIncas forged their own empire, stretching from Ecuador to Chile.

Both peoples were skilled and inventive, and both empires wereoverthrown by Spanish conquerors in the 1500s.

Key events

Under Pachacutec,the ninth Inca leaderof the kingdom ofCusco, the Inca Empirebegan to expand.

1438

According to legend, theAztecs founded Tenochtitlánat the spot where an eagleon a cactus was wrestlinga snake in its beak.

The Aztec Empireexpanded during the12-year reign of the fourthemperor, Itzcóatl. Hisnephew Moctzetuma Itook power after his death.

The Inca ruler TupaInca Yupanquiconquered the greacity-state of Chimú(now Trujillo, Peru).

1325 14701428

“We beheld... citiesand towns on the water...

it was like the thingsof enchantment.”Conquistador Bernal Diaz

de Castillo describes enteringthe Aztec capital in 1519

TenochtitlánThe Aztec capital Tenochtitlánwas built on an island in LakeTexcoco. At its center was theGreat Temple, surroundedby palaces, warriorschools, and shrines.Beyond the city werechinampas —littlefloating farms.

Sacred sacrificesHuman and animal

sacrifice was a religiousritual for both the Aztecsand the Incas. Priestsperformed sacrificialceremonies in templesor on mountaintops,during festivals orin times of trouble.

A 16th-century mapof Tenochtitlán, which

now lies beneathMexico City

The bloodstained Aztectemple at Tenochtitlán

Aztec symbol for theAlligator day of the month




127

The Inca Empire

The Inca Empire was linked bymore than 12,500 miles (20,000 km)

of roads, many of them paved.

To cross steep mountain gorges,

the Incas built suspension bridgesof woven reeds.

Foot runners carried messages fromplace to place using quipu —bundles

of dyed and knotted wool and cottonthreads. The lengths of thread and thepositions of the knots were used torecord and pass on information.

The Incas did not have wheeledtransportation. They moved heavy

goods on the backs of llamas and alpacas.

The Incas built rest houses at regularintervals, where travelers could

spend the night and cook a meal.

Spanish conquistadorFrancisco Pizarro invadedPeru with an army of180 men. He capturedand killed the Incaemperor, Atahualpa.

1532

Led by Hernán Cortés, theSpanish army landed onthe east coast of Mexico.It defeated the Aztecstwo years later.

Moctezuma II, the lastruler of the Aztecs, beganhis reign. At this time, theAztec Empire was at itsmost powerful.

Civil war broke out for five years as brothers Huáscarand Atahualpa fought forthe Inca Empire, whichwas left weakened.

15191502 1525

Ball gamesReligion influenced every areaof Aztec life, even sports. The Aztecsplayed a ball game in which the courtsymbolized the world and the ball wasthe Sun and Moon. Players hit the ballwith their hips. Bets were placed onthe game and some losing teamsmight have been sacrificed.

Inca goldAndean peoples wereskilled metalworkers.They prized gold most,believing it to be the

sweat of the gods. Thisgolden mummy maskwas made by a Chimúcraftsman. After the fallof the Chimú Empire,the Incas took Chimúmetalworkers back totheir capital, Cusco.

Inca ruins at Machu Picchu, Peru

Corn

Potatoes

Tomatoes

Quinoa (a grain)

Cocoa / chocolate

Squashes

Chili peppers

Farming and foodMany foods enjoyed all overthe world today were firstcultivated by the ancestors

of the Aztecs and the Incas inCentral and South America:

Aztec symbol for theRain day of the month





From 1450 to 1750, the world became a smaller place as explorers opened upsea routes and mapped new lands. Wealth from the New World, coupled withthe profitable trade in spices, made Europeans rich, but religious upheavaldivided the continent. As empires grew, so did the conflicts between them.Powerful Muslim states emerged in Asia, but China remained the world’slargest empire. The dawning of the Renaissance period in Europe broughteducation and art to the forefront as established ideas were challenged.

1450–1750Exploring and reforming



130

1450▶1475

German inventor Johannes Gutenbergprinted the first book in Europe in 1455on a press using movable type (metalletters that could be used again and again).His invention opened up the world oflearning as more people than ever beforehad access to books, many of them in locallanguages, as well as Latin and Greek.

Demonstrating the pressAlthough Gutenberg (above) was the

first European to use movable typethe Chinese had invented a similar

process in the 11th century

Gutenberg’s BibleThe first book produced byGutenberg was a Latin translationof the Bible. About 185 copieswere printed. Before printing,books were copied by hand, whichwas costly and time-consuming.

1455 THE PRINTING PRESSCity of VictoryVijayanagara (“city of victory”)

was the capital of a Hindukingdom that ruled all ofsouthern India. Its populationof around 500,000 was doublethat of any European city at thetime. A Persian visitor wrote,“It had no equal in the world.”

1455 1460

Prince DraculaVlad III, known to history as

“the Impaler,” became the princeof Wallachia (part of modern-day

Romania). He owed his nickname tohis habit of impaling his enemieson sharpened stakes—the origin

of the legend of Dracula.

1456

Virupaksha Temple, in the cityof Vijayanagara, was dedicatedto the Hindu god Shiva.

Constantinoplefalls to Mehmed II.

Fall of ConstantinopleThe 1,000-year-old Byzantine

Empire, the Christian empirefirst established by the Romans,ended when the cannons of

Sultan Mehmed II, the Ottomanruler, blasted through the wallsof the capital, Constantinople.

1453

1450

1450

O t to ma n

E m p i r e See pages

1 4 2 –1 4 3



131

Azte c s and I nc as S ee pag es 126 – 127

EXPLORING AND REFORMING

1465 1470

1469 UNITED SPAIN

In 1469, Isabella, heir to thekingdom of Castile, marriedFerdinand, heir to the kingdomof Aragon. They would ruletheir Spanish kingdoms as joint

monarchs, bringing stabilityto both after years of civilwar. Isabella died in 1504and Ferdinand in 1516. Theirmarriage led to a unitedSpain from 1516 onward.

Spanish kingdomsCastile was the larger of the two realms,but Aragon had an extensive overseasempire. Their joint armies would takeGranada, the last Muslim state, in 1492,and fully conquer Navarre in 1515.

Catholic monarchsBoth Isabella and Ferdinand werevery devout Christians. The Pope

gave Isabella and Ferdinand the titleof the “Catholic Monarchs” in 1496.

1471

Conquering IncaTupac Yupanqui became

the tenth ruler of the IncaEmpire. He conquered thePeruvian kingdom ofChimor, the largestremaining rival to Incapower, and deportedits goldworkers to theInca capital of Cuzco.

African empireSunni Ali, ruler of

Songhai in west Africa,set about creating thelargest empire thatAfrica had ever seen.He raided deep into Maliand captured the city ofTimbuktu to take controlof the trans-Saharantrade in gold and salt.

1465 1469Wealthy patron

Lorenzo de’ Medici, known

as the Magnificent, tookcharge of the Italian city ofFlorence. He used his vast

wealth, gained through theMedici family’s control of

banking, to make Florencethe undisputed capital of

the Renaissance world.

1475

The tomb of Sunni Ali’ssuccessor, AsklaMohammad I,in Gao, Mali

The long grip allowed

the sword to be held

by both hands.

The scabbard w

worn outside th

samurai’s armo

Samuraisword

This Japanese katana sword dates from the

15th century. It is typical ofthose used in the 11-year

Onin War, a dispute thatbegan in 1467 over whowould succeed Ashikaga

Yoshimasa as shogun(military leader)

of Japan.

GRANADA

CASTILE

P O R T

U G A L

NAVARRE FRANCE

ARAGON

T h e

R e na i s sa nc e

See pages

1 3 2 –1 3 3

The blade

was usually

about 27 in

(70 cm) long.



132

Key events

The RenaissanceIn the early 1400s, artists and architects in Italy beganworking in styles that were inspired by those of theancient Greeks and Romans. They were part of a

cultural movement called the Renaissance, meaning“rebirth,” that was influenced by the rediscovery ofclassical culture, and that sparked a new interestin politics, philosophy, and science.

Architect Filippo Brunelleschidiscovered that drawing linescoming together at a single point(converging) creates linearperspective, making things lookas if they are far away.

Leonardo da Vincipainted the mural ofThe Last Supper fora convent in Milan.

After becomingPope, Julius IIattracted artists likeMichelangelo andRaphael to Rome.

Florentine artistSandro Botticelli paintedThe Birth of Venus asa commission for theMedici family.

1415 14981486 1503

“The artist seeswhat others only catch

a glimpse of.”Leonardo da Vinci

Art out of stoneThis masterpiece of sculpture, the Pietà, shows the body of Jesus beingcradled by Mary, his mother. Thesculptor, Michelangelo Buonarroti,once said that every block of stone hasa statue in it, and it is the sculptor’s

task to discover it. Michelangelodesigned much of St. Peter’s Basilica inRome, where this statue stands today.

Renaissance manLeonardo da Vinci, the mostfamous artist of the Renaissance,drew this self-portrait when he

was about 60. He was also aninventor, scientist, and engineer.His notebooks—more than13,000 pages in total—are fullof studies of the human body andideas for inventions. He wrotehis most personal notes in mirrorwriting—reversed writing thatappears the right way aroundwhen reflected in a mirror.

Michelangelo’s Pietà

A page from one ofda Vinci’s notebooks

Pope Julius II




133

Leonardo da Vincicompleted his mostfamous painting,the Mona Lisa.

The scholar Erasmuspublished In Praiseof Folly , a work ofsatire that was hisbest-known book.

Michelangelo’sstatue David wasput on displayoutside the PalazzoVecchio in Florence.

Doctor Andreas Vesaliuspublished the first textbookof the human body, a majorwork of human anatomyand scientific investigation.

1506 15091504 1543

Northern RenaissanceThe Renaissance also flourished innorthern Europe, particularly inthe wealthy, wool-trading regionsof Flanders and the Low Countries.The Arnolfini Wedding (above) byBelgian artist Jan van Eyck is a classicpainting of the Northern Renaissance.

Archictectural revolutionThe dome of the Florence Cathedral, designedby Filippo Brunelleschi and completed in 1436,dominates the city. Brunelleschi made use ofvarious techniques, including a special patternof bricks that spread the weight, to make thefirst self-supported dome built in westernEurope since Roman times. It is a triumphof Renaissance engineering and remains thelargest brick dome in the world.

Cosimo de’ MediciFounder of thepowerful MediciDynasty in Florence,Cosimo was a keyfigure in the earlyRenaissance throughhis support of artistssuch as Fra Angelicoand Donatello.

Renaissance gallery

Michelangelo’s David

Niccolò MachiavelliThe name of thisFlorentine diplomathas become a word, machiavellian, thatdescribes ruthlesspolitical cunningbecause of his bookThe Prince, a guide forRenaissance rulers.

Desiderius Erasmus A Dutchman, Erasmuswas an influentialscholar and writer.His critical studiesof Greek and Romanwriters inspired therevival of learningin northern Europe.



134

1475▶1500

1475 1480 1485

The InquisitionThe Inquisition was a royal court tasked withdiscovering heretics, particularly Jews and Muslimswho falsely claimed to be Christian conversos (converts). It relied on informers and used torture(as pictured above) to extract confessions.

Burning of booksTomás de Torquemada (right)was the infamous head of the

Inquisition. He ordered theburning of books considered to

be heretical, including the JewishTalmud (sacred writings) and

thousands of Arabic manuscripts.

1478–1492 CATHOLIC SPAIN

“A horse,a horse, mykingdom for

a horse.”Richard III’s dyingwords, accordingto Shakespeare

1480

Rise of RussiaIvan III, Grand Duke of Muscovy, refused

to pay the annual tribute demanded by theKhan of the Golden Horde—the descendants

of the Mongols. His actions laid thefoundations of the Russian state.

The furious Khan is dragged away as Ivan III tears up his demand1477

Land grabThe French crown seized

hold of the Duchy ofBurgundy after the death

of its last duke, Charles

the Bold. Burgundy’s richpossessions—modern-day Belgium and the

Netherlands—passed bymarriage to the Hapsburg

rulers of Austria.

1485

Tudors on topHenry Tudor defeated and

killed King Richard III ofEngland to become King

Henry VII, the first monarch ofthe Tudor Dynasty. His victorymarked the end of the War of

the Roses, fought betweenrival groups of English nobles.

Ferdinand and Isabella set about unifying Spain bystrengthening the power and position of the CatholicChurch. In 1478, they introduced the Inquisition toroot out heresy (ideas contrary to the Catholic faith).In 1492, their armies conquered Granada, the lastMuslim kingdom in Spain. That same

year, they ordered all Jews whorefused to convert toCatholicism to leaveSpain forever.




1490 1495 1500

Holy teachersSikhs believe Guru

Nanak (right) was thefirst of eleven gurus, orteachers. The eleventh

is the Sikh scriptures,

known as Guru GranthSahib, which werecompleted in 1604.

Golden TempleThe holy scripturesare housed in theHarmandir Sahib,more popularlyknown as the GoldenTemple (left). It is theSikhs’ holy templeat Amritsar in theIndian state of Punjab.

Guru Nanak (1469–1539),born in modern-day Pakistan,founded the Sikh religionafter meeting and debating

with religious leaders inIndia, Tibet, and Arabia.Sikhs believe in one God,and their religion blendselements of Hinduismand Islam.

THE BIRTH OF THE SIKH RELIGION

Columbus made fourvoyages to the Americasbetween 1492 and 1503.

Nutmeg wastraded inIndonesia.

Black pepperwas abundantin south India

Cloves camefrom Indonesia.

The Great Wall of China,begun in 221BCE, took on itspresent form under the Mingemperors, who ruled Chinafrom 1368 to 1644. Theyrepaired and extended thefortifications to protecttheir northern border.

1368–1644 THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA

1492

Atlantic crossingChristopher Columbus sailed west fromSpain across the Atlantic, looking for aroute to Asia. Instead, he landed in theBahamas, a place he named San Salvador.

Treaty of TordesillasPope Alexander VI signed theTreaty of Tordesillas, whichdrew an imaginary line downthe middle of the AtlanticOcean and over modern-dayBrazil. Land already or yetto be discovered to the westof the line belonged to Spain,and land to the east of itbelonged to Portugal.

1498

Spice routePortuguese navigatorVasco da Gama used thewinds of the south AtlantOcean to aid his journeyfrom Europe to theIndian Ocean, and onto the riches and spicesof Asia—the goal ofEuropean explorers.

1497Religious tyrantItalian monk GirolamoSavonarola thought thecitizens of Florence hadgrown greedy and sinful.To seek God’s forgiveneshe persuaded them tomake a great pile of alltheir valuables in the citymain square and set fire tthem—the event came tobe known as the “Bonfireof the Vanities.”

1496



136

Key events

Age of ExplorationThe European Age of Exploration began when Portuguesesailors started venturing out into the Atlantic and downthe coast of Africa in the early 1400s, searching for a directsea route to Asia—the source of spices and precious stones.Christopher Columbus was also looking for Asia whenhe sailed west across the Atlantic in 1492 and accidentallydiscovered the Americas, opening up new prospects forconquest, trade, and colonization.

“I and mycompanionssuffer from adisease of the

heart which canbe cured onlyby gold.”Hernán Cortés, 1519

This map shows the sea routestaken by some of the earlypioneers of exploration.

Seeing the world

Great explorers

Henry the NavigatorThis royal prince spurredthe discoveries bysending Portugueseships to explore

Africa’s west coast.

Ferdinand MagellanThis Portuguese captainsailed from the Atlanticto the Pacific but diedbefore completing the

voyage around the world.

Jacques CartierThis French navigatorexplored the St. LawrenceRiver in Canada andclaimed the countryfor France.

Christopher ColumbusAlhough born in Italy,Columbus explored forSpain. He made fourvoyages to the Americasfrom 1492 to 1504.

The conquistadorsIn the 50 years afterColumbus’s discoveryof America, Spanish

conquistadors (soldiersand adventurers) destroyedthe civilizations of ancientAmerica in their quest tofind gold and make Christianconverts. Seen here is Spanconquistador Hernán Cortésgreeting Moctezuma II, theAztec ruler of Mexicowhose lands he wouldseize and conquer.

Portuguese navigatorBartolomeu Dias roundedthe Cape of Good Hope insouthern Africa to reachthe Indian Ocean.

1488

ChristopherColumbus sailedwest from Spainand discoveredthe Americas.

Vasco da Gamacrossed the IndianOcean to Calicuton the Malibarcoast of India.

1492 1498

Pedro AlvaresCabral discovereBrazil whilesailing to India.

1500

Christopher Columbus

Reached the Bahamas onthe first of four expeditions.

Vasco da GamaDa Gama was the first toround Africa en route to India.

John CabotCrossed the North Atlanticfrom Bristol, England,to Newfoundland.

Pedro Alvares CabralDiscovered Brazil on his way toIndia and claimed it for Portugal.

Ferdinand Magellan andJuan del CanoMagellan’s circumnavigation wascompleted by Juan del Cano.

Jacques CartierDiscovered the Gulf of St.Lawrence on his first expedition.

One ofColumbus's ships




137

Amerigo’s landThe Italian navigatorAmerigo Vespucci was theChief Royal Pilot of Spain.This meant that all seacaptains in Spanish servicehad to report to him with

details of their journeys.Vespucci used theinformation to create mapsof the New World and sosailors referred to theterritory as “Amerigo’sland,” or America.

The meeting between theOld World of Europe andthe New World of the

Americas changed both,with good and bad effects.

Taken to the New World

Diseases Smallpox, influenza, measles,chickenpox, typhus.

African slaves Up to 12 million slaves

transported between 1500 and 1880.

Technology Wheeled transportation,weapons and tools of iron and steel, guns.

Languages and religion Spanish, Portuguese,French, and English; Christianity.

Animals Horses, cattle, sheep, pigs,chickens, brown rats.

Food Sugarcane, yams, bananas,rice, wheat, oats, barley, onions.

Taken from the New World

Gold and silver Shipped back invast quantities.

Food Corn, potatoes, sweet potatoes, squash,

tomatoes, bell and chili peppers, pineapples,peanuts, chocolate.

Animals Turkeys, guinea pigs,Muscovy ducks.

Give and take

Jacques Cartiersailed down theSt. LawrenceRiver as far aspresent-day Montreal.

Francis Drakecompleted histhree-yearcircumnavigationof the world.

1535 1580

The Portuguesereached the SpiceIslands (present-dayMaluku Islands)of Indonesia.

The name America appeared for the first timeon a world map madeby German mapmakerMartin Waldseemüller.

15121507

Magellanrounded CapeHorn to enter thePacific Oceanfrom the Atlantic.

1522

NORTHAMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

AFRICA

EUROPE

ASIA

AUSTRALIA

AtlanticOcean

IndianOcean

PacificOcean

PacificOcean

ArcticOcean

Cabral(1500)

Cartier(1534–1536)

Cabot (1497)

Columbus(1492)

Magellan(1519–1521)

del Cano(after deathof Magellan1521–1522)

da Gama(1497–1498)



138

1500▶1525

1500 1505 1510

Brazil on the mapPedro Alvarez Cabral, a Portuguese navigator,discovered the coast of Brazil by accident onhis way to India. Sailing down the coast ofAfrica, he ventured out into the Atlantic totake advantage of favorable winds.Striking land, he claimed it for Portugal.

1500

1508

Sistine ChapelItalian artist Michelangelobegan work on painting theceiling of the Sistine Chapel

in Rome (above) for Pope Julius II. It took him four years to complete themasterpiece of Renaissanceart, which included morethan 400 life-size figures.

1501Rise of the Safavids

In Iran, Ismail I proclaimed himself Shah(king) and went on to conquer Iraq untilhalted by the Ottomans at the battle ofChaldiran in 1514. The Safavid Dynastyhe founded ruled Iran until 1722.

1517–1529 THE REFORMATION

The Reformation was a religious revolt against theCatholic Church. It began in Germany when MartinLuther, a monk and university professor, demanded anend to corruption in the Church. As his ideas for reformspread, they were met with growing hostility from thePope and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, a staunchCatholic. It led to a violent and lasting split in EuropeanChristianity between Protestants and Roman Catholics.

Public protestIn 1517, Luther nailed95 Theses (statements)

protesting against theChurch to the door of achurch in Wittenberg.In 1521, he appearedbefore Charles V at animperial court (the Dietof Worms) and wasfound guilty of heresy,and excommunicatedfrom the church.

The ceiling of the Sistine Chapel

Ottoman and Safavid forces clash at Chaldiran.

Cabral landing at Brazil’s Bay of Porto Jeguro

T he R e nai s s anc e S e e

p ag e s 13 2 – 13 3





140

1525▶1550

Inca strongholdAround 1450, the Incasbuilt the city of Machu

Picchu, high on a ridge in theAndes. The site was so remote

that it escaped discovery bythe Spanish during their

conquest of Peru.

1525 1530 1535

1526

Babur the Tiger

Babur, who claimed descent fromthe Mongol warlord Genghis Khan,conquered most of northern India.He was the founder of the Mughaldynasty of Indian emperors. Hisname means “tiger” in Arabic.

1527

The sack of RomeThe troops of the Holy RomanEmperor, Charles V, had notbeen paid for months. They

went on a rampage in Rome,plundering its palaces andchurches. The Pope wasforced to flee the Vaticanthrough a secret passage.

Henry VIII and his six wives

Ottoman forces defeat the Hungarianarmy at the battle of Mohacs

A Spanish army of 188 men led by Francisco Pizarrolanded in Peru in 1532. It took them less than a yearto conquer the Inca Empire of 5 million people. Thestone weapons and padded cotton armor used by the

Inca were no match for European

guns and steel swords.Francisco PizarroSpanish conquistador (soldier)Francisco Pizarro first set outto find the Inca civilization in1524. Afterwards, he returnedto Spain to win the king’sagreement to back a militaryexpedition to Peru.

1532–1533 SPANISH CONQUER PERU

Victorious Suleiman

Suleiman the Magnificent, thegreatest of the sultans, extendedOttoman power deep into Europewhen he defeated the king ofHungary at the Battle of Mohacs(below) and overran most ofthe country.

Royal divorce

The marriage of English kingHenry VIII to Catherine of Aragonhad produced no male heir.

The king asked the Pope to granthim a divorce so he could marry

Anne Boleyn, but the Pope refused.Henry broke with the Catholic

Church and made himself head of theChurch of England. He married Anne

but later had her beheaded. He wouldgo on to have four more wives.

1526 1534

Spanish treacheryIn 1533, Pizarro imprisoned Atahualpa,

the last Inca king. Pizarro agreed to spareAtahualpa’s life in return for a roomful of

fabulous gold items, but he had the king put todeath before most of it had been paid.

Incan gold figurine

O t to ma n

E m p i r e See pages

142 –143



141


1540 1545 1550

Counter-ReformationPope Paul III summoned the Council of Trentto discuss ways of challenging the ProtestantReformation. It met 25 times between 1545 and1563, and launched the Counter-Reformation, amovement to bring people back to the Catholic faith

1545

Silver mountainThe Spanish discovered the world’sbiggest single source of silver at Potosí inpresent-day Bolivia. The huge quantitiesof silver shipped back from the NewWorld paid for Spain’s wars in Europe.

In 1547, Ivan IV, then a boyof 16, was crowned “Tsar of allthe Russias.” He was the firstRussian ruler to use this title.The early part of his reign sawexpansion and legal reform inRussia. But after the death ofhis wife in 1560, his characterchanged and he becamesuspicious and violent.He is known to historyas Ivan the Terrible.

1530–1584 IVAN IV

Reign of terrorThe later years of Ivan IV’s reignwere marked by war, terror, and

famine. He became convinced thatthe nobility were plotting againsthim, and created a private army,

who became known as Ivan’sdogs, to terrorize them.

St. Basil’s CathedralMoscow’s most famous landmark,

St. Basil’s Cathedral (above), was begunby Ivan IV in 1552 to commemoratehis victory over the state of Kazan.

Copernicus’s view of the Earth’s orbit, with the Sun at the center

1543

Sun and Earth

Polish astronomer Nicholas Copernicuspublished a book that showed that theEarth and other planets orbit the Sun.

This was against the Church’s teachingthat the Earth lay at the center of the

Universe. Copernicus’s ideas begana revolution in the sciences.

1545



142

Received at courtThis painting by Italian artist

Gentile Bellini shows Venetianambassadors being receivedat the gates of the Ottoman

court in Damascus, Syria.

Bellini spent two years inConstantinople (modern-

day Istanbul) as a culturalambassador and visitingpainter at the invitation

of Sultan Mehmed II, whoallowed Jews and Christians

to settle in the city.

World conquerorsThe Ottoman Empire was atits height in the 16th century,when it stretched from Hungaryto the Arabian Gulf, and fromCrimea to Algiers. Its navydominated the Black Sea, theeastern Mediterranean, and the

Red Sea. Its continual drive forconquest threatened not onlyEastern Europe but also theSafavid Empire, the rulersof Iran and its rivals forpower in the Middle East.

Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman dynasty took its name from Osman,a Turkish ghazi (Islamic warrior), who founded asmall state in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) around1300. In the 14th century, the Ottomans started to

invade Europe. With the capture of Constantinoplein 1453, the Ottoman state became an empire.Although the empire was at its peak in the16th century, almost reaching Vienna, Austria,in 1529, the Ottomans ruled until 1922.

The Ottoman capitalwas established atEdirne in Europe, which

was the formerByzantine cityof Adrianople.

The Ottoman defeat of the Serbsat the Battle of Kosovo removeda major barrier to Ottomanexpansion in the Balkans,and helped them reduce theByzantine Empire to an areaaround Constantinople.

Mehmed II conqueredConstantinople (modern-day Istanbul) after athree-month siege,spelling the end of theByzantine Empire.

1389 14531366

Key events

Osman I, founder of theOttoman Dynasty, establisheda small independent statein Anatolia (Turkey) on thefrontier of the ByzantineEmpire—the eastern remnantof the Roman Empire.

1300

EGYPT

ANATOLIA

MediterraneanSea

Black Sea

Constantinople(Istanbul)

H U N

G A R Y

R e d S e a

Algiers

Selimiye Mosquein Edirne




143

Ottoman potteryThe arts flourished under theOttomans. Iznik pottery, namedafter the town in western Anatoliawhere it was made, was decoratedwith arabesques (intertwined

flowing lines) and stylized flowersin blues, greens, and reds. Huge

quantities of tiles were producedto adorn the walls of the sultans’

palaces and mosques.

Domes and minarets

The Blue Mosque in Istanbul,completed in 1616, is named forthe blue Iznik tiles that decorate

its interior. The dome imitatesthe great Byzantine church ofHagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom),

built in 537 and turned intoa mosque by Mehmed II, but

its six minarets (slendertowers) are Ottoman in style.

In a show of might,Suleiman I led a huge armyto besiege the Austriancapital of Vienna, butwithdrew after a month.

Selim I defeated a Safavid armyat the Battle of Chaldiran innorthern Iran and went on totake control of the Middle East.

Under the commandof Admiral Barbarossa,

a former pirate of Greekorigin, the Ottomannavy controlled theMediterranean.

Suleiman I died in his tentat the age of 76 while leadinga military campaign in Hungary.The Ottomans would progressno further into Europe.

15291514 15661538

“I who am the sultan of sultans,the sovereign of sovereigns, the shadow

of God on Earth, sultan and emperorof the White Sea [Mediterranean]

and the Black Sea…

”Sultan Suleiman I addresses

King Francis I of France, 1526

Powerful sultans

Selim I “the Grim”(1512–1520)Selim murdered all his malerelatives to make sure he got thethrone. He extended the empireinto the Middle East and was madecaliph (ruler of Islam) in 1517.

Suleiman I “the Magnificent”(1520–1566)The empire reached its fullest

extent during Suleiman’s reign.He spoke five languages, wrotepoetry, and presided over thegolden age of Ottoman culture.

Mehmed II “the Conqueror”(1444–1446 and 1451–1481)A great military leader, Mehmedled more than 25 campaigns toconquer Constantinople, Greece,

Albania, and the lands aroundthe Black Sea.

AdmiralBarbarossa



144

1550▶1575

1550

The grandson of Babur, Akbar was the thirdMughal emperor of India. He succeeded hisfather, Humayun—who had failed to preserveBabur’s conquests—in 1556 at the age of 13.During his 50-year reign, Akbar created a mightyempire that stretched across northern India.

1542–1605 AKBAR THE GREAT

Tiger huntThis miniature painting shows Akbar ona tiger hunt—one of the favorite pastimesof the Mughal emperors. Akbar was agreat patron of the arts, especially miniaturepainting, which flourished at the Mughal court.

Tolerant rulerAkbar was a Muslim, but he allowed

his Hindu subjects to worshipfreely and encouraged debates

with members of other religions,

including Hindus, Zoroastrians (thereligion of Persia), and Christians.

1555Peace of Augsburg

An agreement was reached between the Catholicand Protestant princes of Germany that the rulerof each state could decide the religion of his

subjects. Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor,refused to attend the negotiations and handedcontrol of the empire to his brother Ferdinand.

1555 1560

1558Queen of EnglandElizabeth I became queen

after the death of herhalf-sister, Mary I, whowas a devout Catholic.Elizabeth restored the

Protestant faith to

England. To preserve herindependence, sherefused to marry and

deliberately created apowerful image

of monarchy.

More than 850,000people were killedin an earthquakethat struckShaanxi Provincein northwest Chinaon January 23, 1555.

Fossil study

In 1565, Swissnaturalist Conrad Gesnerpublished a book called

On Things Dug Up from the Earth. The book included the

first descriptions of fossils,such as ammonites (left),

although he was not sureexactly what they were.




1575

1572

Massacre in ParisOn August 24, St. Bartholomew’sDay, 3,000 Huguenots (FrenchProtestants) were massacred inthe streets of Paris on the ordersof King Charles IX and his mother,Catherine de’ Medici. Thousandsmore were killed elsewhere in France

Philip II of Spain was also the rulerof the Netherlands. When DutchCalvinists (followers of French Protestant

John Calvin) began sacking Catholic

churches, he sent Spanish troopsto restore order. Their brutalitysparked a major Dutch revolt.

1566 DUTCH REVOLT

Dutch independenceBy 1572, the rebellion had turned to openwarfare, with William the Silent leadingthe Dutch resistance. Spain eventuallyrecognized Dutch independence in 1648.

Catholic monarchPhilip II saw it as his divine mission toroot out heresy, but his harsh policies

and high taxes alienated his Dutchsubjects. Wars had sapped Spain’s

economy, while the Dutch had becomerich as a result of their Asian trade.

1565 1570 1575

“Without destruction,there is no creation…there is no change.”Oda Nobunaga

1568

Japanese overlord

Oda Nobunaga, leader of the Oda clan,seized the imperial capital of Kyoto andset about uniting Japan under his rule.His army was equipped with muskets,

introduced into Japan by the Portuguese.

1570

Maps galore

Abraham Ortelius, a mapmakerfrom Antwerp in modern-dayBelgium, published the firstmodern atlas, called the Theaterof the World . It contained 70 mapsand was an instant success.

1571

Battle of Lepanto

A Christian fleet under thecommand of Don John ofAustria defeated an Ottoman fleetat Lepanto off the west coast ofGreece in the last major naval battlefought between galleys. The victoryprevented the Ottomans from takingcontrol of the Mediterranean Sea.

The Battle of Lepanto

OdaNobunaga

St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, Paris



146

1569, GERMANY

Mercator’s mapIn 1569, Gerard Mercator, a Flemish mapmakerliving in Germany, produced a new world map.The Earth is round, so attempts to show it flatdistort its appearence. Mercator’s solution was touse a grid of interlocking lines of constant course,meaning a compass’s needle would not change if

you were to travel along one of the lines. His mapallowed sailors to plot an accurate course, butwas not commonly used for many years.



147


“We have progressively increasedthe degrees of latitude toward each pole.”Gerard Mercator

Mercator’s map included an imaginary landmass in the sou



148

Pope Paul III summonedthe Council of Trent to bringabout reforms within theCatholic Church.

Emperor Charles Vdeclared Martin Luther aheretic at the imperial Dietof Worms (assemblyof the Holy RomanEmpire), precipitatingreligious conflict.

Ignatius Loyola, a Spanishnobleman and former soldier,founded the Jesuit Order,a Catholic teaching order.

The Peace of Augsburg allowedGerman princes to decide thereligion of their subjects, thoughthe followers of French Protestaleader John Calvin were exclude

15451521 1534 1555

Key events

Europe’s Warsof ReligionThe Reformation split the countries of Europe along a deep

religious divide. The followers of Martin Luther and John Calvinbecame the main Protestant opposition to the Catholic Church. Apeople across Europe sought the freedom to practice their religiothe continent was shaken by a series of conflicts that spannedmore than 150 years and are known as the Wars of Religion.

Catholic responseThe Counter-Reformation, which sought toreorganize the Catholic Church, was launched byPope Paul III. Meanwhile, Charles V, who ruled Spainand the Holy Roman Empire (which included landin Austria, Germany, and the Netherlands), pushedfor a military victory against the Protestants.

Changing warfareAt the Battle of White Mountain of 1620 (below), the firstmajor conflict of the Thirty Years’ War, German Catholic forcesdefeated Protestant Bohemia (in the modern-day Czech Republic).The nature of warfare changed dramatically during this period.Armies grew in size, and were more professional and disciplined.

Religious wars• German Peasants’ War (1524–1525) This was a social uprising sparkedby the Reformation in Germany.

• Schmalkaldic War (1546–1547)A war fought between an allianceof German Protestant princes andthe imperial forces of Charles V.

• French Wars of Religion (1562–1598)This bitter civil war between Protestantsand Catholics in France ended whenHenry IV, a Protestant, became a Catholic.

• Dutch Revolt (1568–1648)The Protestant Dutch Republic foughtan 80-year war to win its independencefrom Catholic Spain.

• Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648)This war between the Catholics andProtestants was fought mostly in Germanybut involved most of the states of Europe.

Charles V




149

Spanish troops slaughtered7,000 people in Antwerpin one of the worst atrocitiesof the Dutch Revolt.

Two Catholic officials werethrown out of a windowby Protestants inPrague. This act ledto the start of theThirty Years’ War.

Gustavus II Adolphus ofSweden was killed at the battleof Lützen after interveningin the Thirty Years’ War.

Spain recognized Dutchindependence as part of thePeace of Westphalia, endingthe Thirty Years’ War.

1576 1618 1632 1648

Peace of WestphaliaThe treaty that brought the

Thirty Years’ War to an end,known as the Peace of

Westphalia, was signed by

109 delegates, representingthe Holy Roman Emperor,the kings of France, Spain,

and Sweden, the leaders ofthe Dutch Republic, and

numerous German princes. Ittook four years to negotiate.

Thirty Years’ WarThis war between Protestants andCatholics in Germany escalated whenother countries—Denmark, England,and Sweden—intervened to supportthe Protestant cause. Later, CatholicFrance led the fight against the Catholicsin Germany. Religion had ceased tomatter, and factors such as political andeconomic power became more important. “War is one of the

scourges with which

it has pleased Godto afflict men.”Cardinal Richelieu,chief minister of France,

1624–1642

Gustavus IIAdolphusKnown as “the Lionof the North,” theintervention of theSwedish king on the

Protestant side inthe Thirty Years’ Warwidened the conflict.

Catherinede’ MediciThe mother of threeFrench kings, shehad great influenceand some considerher responsible forstarting the FrenchWars of Religion.

Albrecht von

WallensteinA Czech Protestantby birth, he was themilitary commanderfor the Holy RomanEmpire and its allies inthe Thirty Years’ War.

Leading figures

This bronze cannon wasused by the Swedish armywhen they entered theThirty Years’ War in 1630.

Seal of one of the

109 delegates

Two men wrestle with oneof the Catholic officials






1590 1595 1600

Shah Abbas I, the greatest ruler of the Safavid Dynasty of Iran,moved the capital to Isfahan. He transformed it into one of themost beautiful cities in the world, adorning it with mosques,colleges, baths, gardens, palaces, and a 3-mile (5-km) longbazaar. It became a center for the arts, especially painting.

1598 NEW SAFAVID CAPITAL

1588

Spanish Armada defeatedPhilip II of Spain sent a large fleet (armada) of 130 ships fromSpain with the twin aim of invading England and crushing theDutch Revolt. His plan was a complete failure. The English fleetrouted the Armada, inflicting heavy losses. Gales blew thesurviving ships off course. Only 67 made it back to Spain.

Shah Abbas IAbbas, who becameshah at the age of 16in 1587, rescued theSafavid Empire fromnear extinction byrecovering territorieslost to the Ottomansand Uzbeks.

Imam mosqueOne of three

mosques built by theShah Abbas aroundthe maidan (centralsquare) of Isfahan,the Imam mosque

is said to contain18 million bricksand 475,000 tiles.

1598Edict of NantesKing Henry IV of Francesigned the Edict of Nanteswhich gave FrenchProtestants the freedomto practise their religion.

Henry, formerly a Protestahimself, had become aCatholic in 1593 to securehis throne and bring anend to the French Warsof Religion.

1590

Japan unitedGeneral Toyotomi Hideyoshi brought an endto the wars that had divided Japan since theOnin Wars. He defeated the Hojo clan andunited all of Japan under his rule, although hedid not take the title of shogun (military leader).

English ships set off to attack the Spanish fleet.

E ur o p e ’ s W ar s o f Re lig io nSee pag es 148– 149



152

Don Quixote

The first Europeannovel, Don Quixote,

was published in 1605.Written by Spaniard

Miguel de Cervantes, thebook follows the comicaladventures of the knight

Don Quixote and hissquire, Sancho Panza.

1600▶1625

1600 1605 1610

1600

Trading rivalsThe English East IndiaCompany was set up totrade with Asia. Two yearslater, the Dutch establishedthe Dutch East IndiaCompany. Future rivalrybetween the two wouldspur bitter trade wars.

1603

A united kingdomKing James VI of Scotland became

James I of England. In 1605, a groupof 13 Catholics conspired to blow

up the English Houses of Parliamentand murder the Protestant king.

The plot was foiled in the nick oftime. The most famous member of

the group, Guy Fawkes, was incharge of the explosives.

Shogun ruleTokugawa Ieyasu becameshogun (military leader)of Japan and moved thecapital to Edo (Tokyo).The Tokugawa shogunatewould rule Japan forthe next 250 years.

1612

1612

Slave trade growsThe number of slaves taken by

Europeans from Africa to Brazil hadrisen to 10,000 a year. Slave trader

in Brazil sold the majority to theSpanish colonies to work in mines

and on plantations, the proceeds owhich went back to Europe

Up in smokeTobacco was first grown

as a plantation crop inVirginia, USA. Not everyone

welcomed it. King James wrote a book denouncing

the evils of smoking

Tycho Brahe lost part of his nose in a duel over a mathematicalformula in 1566. He wore a metal replacement for the rest of his life

1603

Italian scientist Galileo Galilei’sobservations struck a blow to thebelief that the Earth was the centerof the Solar System, around whichthe Sun and the planets orbited.Other scientists at this time alsodemonstrated that Copernicus’s viewof a Sun-centered Universe was right.

New starIn 1572, Danish astronomer Tycho Braheidentified a very bright star in the constellationof Cassiopeia as a “new star” (marked I on themap). It is now classified as a “supernova”.

Galileo’s telescopeGalileo built his own telescope(below), and used it to observe the effectof the Sun’s light on the planets. In thetelescope, he saw three moons of Jupiterthat changed position over time, whichproved that they did not orbit the Earth.

Planetary motion

German astronomer JohannesKepler proved the Copernicansystem mathematically,demonstrating that the planetsmove around the Sun inelliptical paths, or orbits.

1572–1610 GAZING AT THE UNIVERSE

Guy Fawkes

Edo Ja pa n

See pages

156 –15 7




1615

First ThanksgivinDuring the first spring, America

Indians showed the colonis(above) how to sow cor

Tradition says the pilgrimcelebrated the first Thanksgivin

after harvesting their crop

Atlantic crossingThe Mayflower sailed fromthe port of Plymouth in Devon.It was packed with passengersand supplies for the newsettlement, includingfarm animals. Thestormy crossingtook 66 days.

1620 PILGRIMS ARRIVE IN AMERICA

1618

Religious revolt

Ferdinand, king of Bohemia (in the modern-day CzechRepublic) and future Holy Roman Emperor, tried toimpose Catholicism on his Protestant citizens. Theyreacted with fury by throwing two of his officialsout the window of Prague Castle. The rebellionerupted into the Thirty Years’ War, one of themost destructive episodes in European history.

1625

The Mayflower , carrying about 102 Puritan Pilgrims from England,made landfall at Cape Cod, Massachusetts. They planned to founda colony in America where they would find religious freedom.They arrived in late November, and set about building a

settlement. More than half of them died that winter.

1613

First RomanovMikhail Romanov, a 16-year-old boyar (nobleman), waselected to the throne ofRussia, ending a periodof civil war known as“The Time of Troubles.”Mikhail was so afraid ofthe task ahead of him thathe burst into tears, butRussia prospered underhis rule. He was the firstof the RomanovDynasty that

ruled Russiauntil 1917.

1614

Native wifePocahontas (above),an American Indian,married John Rolfe,a settler at Jamestown,Virginia. Pocahontas issaid to have saved thelife of John Smith,the colony’s founder.She accompaniedRolfe to England anddied there in 1617.

This jewel-encrustedorb was usedat Mikhail’scoronation.

1620

E ur o p e ’ s

W ar s o f Re lig io n See pag es 148– 149

The officials are thrown out the window of Prague Castle.



154

1633, ROME, ITALY




155

“I do not feel obliged tobelieve that the same God whoendowed us with sense, reason,and intellect had intended for us

to forgo their use.”Galileo, in a letter written in 1615

The trialof GalileoIn 1633, the Italian astronomer GalileoGalilei was tried before the court of theInquisition in Rome. The charge againsthim was heresy—an offense againstthe teachings of the Church. Galileosupported the view that the Earthwas not the center of the Universe but,together with the other planets, orbitedthe Sun. Fearing torture and death,Galileo retracted his beliefs in court.But as he denied the Earth moved, itis said he muttered under his breath,

“And yet it does move.” He spent therest of his life under house arrest.

Galileo faces the court of the Roman Inquistion



156

Bushido codeThe samurai should:

Floating worldThe wealthy people livingin the cities of the Edo periodhad a taste for refined cultureand entertainment, and theyreferred to these urban pleasuresas ukiyo (“floating world”). Theywere entertained by musicians,sumo wrestlers, actors, andgeishas (professional femaleentertainers), such as theone portrayed here (right).

SamuraiThe samurai, or warrior class,wore helmets like this andwere the only people allowedto carry swords known as

daisho. They owed totalloyalty to their daimyo and lived by the codeof honor called

bushido, or “the wayof the warrior.” Duringthe Edo period, however,there were no wars, somost of the samurai

became scholarsand high-class

administratorsfor their daimyo.

Edo societyThe feudal hierarchy of Edo societywas very rigid, and it was impossibleto move from one class to another.The emperor, supported by courtnobles, was the head of state,but the real power lay with theshogun, who controlled the200 daimyo and the rest ofthe population. Craftsmenand merchants lived in thecities, and peasants livedin the countryside.Entertainers,beggars, andundertakerswere among thesocial outcasts.

Edo JapanIn 1603, the first Tokugawa shogun, Ieyasu, moved the capital of Japan to Edo,the city that was to become Tokyo. This marked the beginning of more than250 years of political and social stability, during which the shoguns kept the daimyo (feudal lords) under close control. The Edo period was a time of great cultural

and artistic activity, but over time Japan cut itself off from the outside world.

Live simply

Behave honestly

Show respect and

kindness to his parents

Be skilled with the

sword and the bow

Keep physically fit

Give unquestioning

loyalty to his daimyo

Be ready to commit

seppuku (ritual suicide)

rather than face the

dishonor of fleeing

the battlefield or

being captured

Key events

Tokugawa Ieyasu won theBattle of Sekigahara to takecontrol of Japan. The battleended 50 years of fighting,known as the Sengoku,or Warring States, period.

The emperor grantedTokugawa Ieyasu the titleof shogun. Ieyasuestablished his capital atEdo, then a small fishingvillage, which would laterbecome Tokyo.

The Dutch established atrading post at Hirado,Nagasaki, but they werenot permitted to tradebeyond the harbor.

Ieyasu issued a ban onChristianity—JapaneseChristians had to fleeor faced death. The banwas relaxed in 1657.

The Tokugawa armydestroyed the Osakastronghold of theToyotomi clan—thelast powerful opponof the new regime.

1600 1609 1614 16151603

Emperorand court

nobles

Shogun

Daimyo

Social outcasts

Samurai Craftsmen Merchants

Edo society wasbased on a strictclass system.

Peasants



157

Imari

Exquisite porcelain,known as Imari , wasmade in Japan fromthe mid-1600s. It wasvividly colored andoften adorned withgleaming gold.

Netsuke Men carried personalitems in small boxesattached to their sashesby netsuke —beautifullycarved miniaturesculptures suchas these figures.

Inro The containers slungfrom netsuke werecalled inro. Each is afinely carved stack ofinterlocking boxesheld together bya pair of cords.

Tokugawa IeyasuBorn in 1543, Tokugawa Ieyasurose to power as a daimyo during

the clan wars of the 16th century.Over 43 years, he fought up to90 battles, culminating in the Battleof Sekigahara in 1600, which gavehim control over Japan. He becameshogun three years later.

Edo artThe coming of peace to war-

torn Japan inspired a floweringof culture. Throughout the Edo

period, poets, painters, andcraftsmen created work of great

beauty and delicacy that isnow highly valued worldwide.

TheaterTraditional Noh theater, in which theactors wore elaborate masks, had been

part of Japanese life since the 1300s.In the early 1600s, a new style of comicdance-drama—Kabuki—became popularin the “floating world” of Edo. Womenoriginally played all the roles, but—like Noh—Kabuki soon became an all-male profession.

“To come to knowyour enemy, firstyou must become

his friend.

”Tokugawa Ieyasu


Mask representing afemale Noh character

The shogun put daimyo under tight control byordering them to spendseveral months each year living in Edo.

More than 40,000Christian peasants werekilled by the shogun’sforces during thesuppression of theShimabara uprising.

All westerners exceptthe Dutch were bannedfrom entering Japan—and the Dutch wererestricted to a singlesmall island off Nagasaki.

Beginning of the Genroku years—the “goldenage” of Edo-period Japan, when urbanentertainmentsand finearts flourished.

Following the opening upof Japan to foreigners, thelast Tokugawa shogunresigned. Power passedback to the emperor,ending the Edo period.

1635 1637 1639 1688 1868

Geisha



158

1625▶1650Tulip mania

Tulips, introduced fromAsia, became the object of

a buying frenzy in theNetherlands. The price of bulbsskyrocketed before collapsing

overnight. Buyers who hadmortgaged their houses to

obtain a prize specimenlost everything.

1625 1630 1635

“I think,therefore I am.

René Descartes inDiscourse on Metho

1628

Heart of the matter

After years of research, Englishphysician and anatomist WilliamHarvey published a work that showed

that the heart pumps blood aroundthe body. It was a key breakthrough

in the history of medicine.

1626

New Amsterdam

Dutch colonizer Peter Minuit purchased the islandof Manhattan from local American Indians for 60 Dutchguilders ($24), and named it New Amsterdam. In 1664,the English took over and changed the name to New York.

1631

Sweden goes to warSweden’s Lutheran kingGustavus II Adolphus intervened

on the Protestant side in theThirty Years’ War. In 1631,he won a crushing victory overthe imperial army at the Battleof Breitenfeld but was killed thenext year at the Battle of Lützen.

Minuit trades goods in exchange for Manhattan Island.

The highest price paid for a single tulipbulb in 1637 was 5,500 Dutch guilders.A craftsman’s annual earnings at thattime amounted to about 250 guilders.

1637Great thinker

French philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650) published Discourse on Method , one of the most influential works inthe history of philosophy. Descartes’s starting point was todoubt everything, even his own existence, but because he

was able to doubt, he reasoned that he must exist

René Descartes

E ur o p e ’ s W ar s o f

Re lig io n See pag es 148– 149





160

Emperor Jahangir allowedthe British East India Companyto establish a factory, orwarehouse, at Surat onthe west coast of India.

Babur’s son Humayun wasforced into exile for 17 yearsas power passed to a rivaldynasty. He regained thethrone in 1555, and passedit to his son Akbar.

Babur marched into northernIndia and defeated the sultanof Delhi at the Battle of Panipatto found the Mughal Empire.

Akbar began building his newcapital of Fatehpur Sikri near

Agra in Uttar Pradesh.The empire wasgreatly expandedduring his

successful reign.

161315401526 1571

Key events

Mughal IndiaFounded by Babur, a Muslim descendant of the Mongolemperor Genghis Khan, the Mughal Empire saw the creationof some of India’s greatest monuments. It lasted for more thanthree centuries, but peaked during the reigns of the emperors

Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb, from 1556to 1707. After the death of Aurangzeb, the empire wentinto steady decline, but it has left a glorious legacyof magnificent architecture and Islamic art.

Mughal expansionWhen Babur founded theempire, it covered a small area

of northern India. He conqueredmore land, but it was lost duringthe reign of his son, Humayun.Humayun’s son Akbar inheriteda small domain, but expandedit to cover a much largerarea. The empire reached itsgreatest extent under Akbar’sgreat-grandson Aurangzeb.

Taj MahalThe Mughals borrowed ideas fromOttoman, Persian, Islamic, and Indianarchitectural styles to create their own.Perhaps the best example of the Mughalstyle is the magnificent Taj Mahal atAgra—built for Shah Jahan as a marble

tomb for his wife Mumtaz Mahal, whodied giving birth to their fourteenth child.

Taj Mahal facts• Started in 1632, the buildingtook more than 20 years to complete.

• More than 20,000 workmenwere employed to build it.

• 1,000 elephants were used tohaul building stone to the site.

• Its design is perfectly symmetrical.

• The marble is inlaid with preciousand semiprecious stones, including jade, turquoise, and sapphire.

IndianOcean

Akbar’s land

Akbar’sconquests

Aurangzeb’sconquests

Babur’sland

Babur’sconquests

Delhi

Agra

A building inFatehpur Sikri





162

1650▶1675

1650 1655 1660

King Charles IICoffeebeans

1654The Swedish Empire

Queen Christina of Sweden abdicated tobecome a Roman Catholic. The SwedishEmpire reached its greatest extent under

her cousin and successor Charles X,after successful wars against Denmark

and Poland-Lithuania.

The Swedish Empire under Charles X

1658

Mughal bloodbathAurangzeb, the last of the great

Mughal rulers, proclaimed himselfemperor after imprisoning his fatherShah Jahan. He ruthlessly eliminated

his three brothers, executing twoand arranging the death of the third.

CoffeehousesIntroduced to Europe

through trade with theOttoman Empire, coffee

became all the rage in Parisand London. Coffeehouses

acted as private clubs wheremen stayed all day discussing

business and politics.

Monarchy restoredWhen Oliver Cromwell died in

1658, he left England in disarray.In 1660, the exiled son of Charles I

was welcomed back as KingCharles II. One of his first acts

was to execute the men who hadsigned his father’s death warrant.

1660

1652

Cape Town founded

A party of Dutch settlersarrived at the southern tipof Africa to establish asupply station for shipstraveling to and from theDutch East Indies. It wouldbecome the modern cityof Cape Town. At that time,the area was inhabitedby the indigenous Khoikhoipeople, who were sheepand cattle farmers. The Sun King

Louis XIV gained the nameof le Roi Soleil (the Sun King)

after appearing as Apollo,

the Greek god of the Sun,in a ballet as a teenager.Louis’s numerous wars

made France the leadingnation in Europe.

The Palace of VersaillesLouis built a vast palace at Versailles, outsideParis. It was lavishly decorated throughout,and a Hall of Mirrors (above) served as a centralgallery. Louis expected all his nobles to live atVersailles so he could keep an eye on them.

Louis XIV became king of France in 1643, at theage of four. In 1661, after the death of his chiefminister, Cardinal Mazarin, he took sole charge ofthe government. Louis increased French influence inEurope and the New World, reformed the French legalsystem, and was a great patron of the arts. His 72-

year reign was one of the longest in European history.

1638–1715 LOUIS XIV

NorthSea

NORWAY

DENMARK

RUSSIA

BalticSea

POLAND-LITHUANIA



163


1665 1670 1675

From the safety of boats on the Thames River, crowds watch the Great Fire of London.

1666 1669

London burns

For three days, a fire that had begun ina baker’s shop swept through London,destroying most of the buildings withinthe old city walls. The devastation camea year after the city had been the centerof an outbreak of bubonic plague thathad left 100,000 people dead.

Fall of Crete

The Ottomans captured the city ofCandia (modern Heraklion) on theisland of Crete in the easternMediterranean from the Venetians.Their victory came after a 21-year-longsiege, one of the longest in history.

More than88 churches,

including St. Paul’Cathedral, weredestroyed in thefire of London.

Scientists were experimenting withlenses at this time. In 1665, Englishscientist Robert Hooke publishedthe amazing observations he madewith his microscope in a bookcalled Micrographia. DutchmanAntonie van Leeuwenhoek madepowerful microscope lenses witha magnification of 250 times. Hewas the first person to see bacteria(which he called “animalcules”)in saliva from his own mouth.

Larger than lifeIn Micrographia, Hookeincluded huge, detailed

illustrations of the tinyobjects he had seenunder the microscope,including insects,such as the flea.

Compound microscopeCompound microscopes havemore than one lens. Hookeimproved their design bypassing light from an oil lampthrough a glass flask of water

to illuminate the specimen.

1665–1676 MICROSCOPIC LIFE

Replica ofHooke’s microscope

Hindu kingIn 1674, Shivaji, a warrior leadfrom Maharashtra in western was crowned with all the fullceremony and tradition of a Hking. He was the founder of thMaratha state that would go o

to challenge the Mughals.

1674

Flask of water

Oil

lamp






1690 1695 1700

1690 1692

1694

1694

1698

Treaty of Nerchinsk

By the 1650s, Russianexpansion into East Asia hadreached as far as the AmurRiver on China’s northernborder. In 1690, China signedits first treaty with a foreignpower when it agreed upon itsfrontier with Russia. The treatyput an end to further Russianadvances, though it gainedthe right to send tradecaravans to Beijing.

Salem witch trials

Mass hysteria spurred a witch hunt in thesmall town of Salem, Massachusetts, after agroup of young girls claimed to be possessed bythe devil. Three women were accused of practicingwitchcraft and hanged after a trial. By the time thewitch trials ended in May 1693, 18 other women,and one man, had been put to death.

Bank of England foundedThe Bank of England was founded asa private venture and immediately loanedthe government £1.2 million in returnfor the right to print banknotes. It meantthat Britain was able to finance its partin the Nine Years’ War.

Number crunchingGerman mathematicianGottfried Wilhelm Leibnizbuilt a digital mechanicalcalculator known asa Stepped Reckoner.It was the firstcalculator thatcould add, subtract,multiply, and divide.Only three examples

are known to havebeen constructed.

Steaming aheadThomas Savery, a military engineer,patented a design for a steam engine.It was intended to pump water out ofmines, but the risk of explosions madeit too dangerous to use undergroundand it proved more useful in supplyingwater to towns.

1688

1688

The Nine Years’ WarLouis XIV’s army crossed the Rhine River to invadethe Rhineland-Palatinate region in western Germany,an act of aggression that led to the Nine Years’ War.All the European powers, including Britain, unitedagainst France, forcing Louis to give up gains hehad made earlier in eastern and northern France.

Revolution in EnglandThe pro-Catholic policiesof King James II of Englandalienated his Protestantsubjects, some of whominvited William III(right), Prince ofOrange, married to James’s daughterMary, to invadeEngland. James fled

abroad and Parliamentoffered the throneto William III andMary II, who ruledas joint monarchs.

The first commerciallysuccessful steam engine

Modern replica of the Stepped Reckoner

165

The electorFrederickWilliam of Prussiaencouraged20,000 Huguenotsto settle in Prussiaby offering themspecial privileges.



166

Key events

Qing ChinaIn 1644, the Chinese Ming Dynasty wastoppled by a revolution that led to aninvasion from Manchuria in the far north.The invaders brought their own language

and culture to China, but worked with thenative Han Chinese to create a stable empire.Under their rule, China tripled in size, andby the late 18th century it was the richeststate in the world.

Nurhaci, a clan leader,united the Manchu peopleof what is now Manchuriain northeast China, andfounded the Qing Dynasty.

All Han Chinese menwere ordered to weartheir hair in a plait asa sign of submissionto the Manchus.

The Qing capturedBeijing and replacedthe Ming Dynasty,which had ruledChina since 1368.

A rebellion led bythree Ming generalsbroke out in southernChina. The revoltlasted eight years.

1616 1644 1645 1674

The emperorThe Qing emperors took a very activeinterest in the economy and government oftheir empire. Unlike the Ming emperors theyreplaced, they made long tours through theChinese provinces, spending a lot of time farfrom the palace of the Forbidden City in theheart of Beijing. Despite this, they kept closecontrol over state affairs via the officials whotraveled with them.

Three great emperors

Kangxi (1661–1722)Kangxi became emperor at theage of seven and went on torule for 61 years. His reign wasa time of territorial expansionand increasing prosperity.

Yongzheng (1722–1735)On the death of Kangxi, hisfourth son seized the throne.Yongzheng was a strong rulerwho stamped out corruptionand reformed government.

Qianlong (1735–1796)An art lover, painter, and poet,Qianlong was also a militaryleader. He ruled for 63 years,giving up the throne three years before his death at 88.

The Qing Dynasty survived until the early20th century, but its golden era spanned thereign of three emperors, from 1661 to 1796.

Carved jadeThe prosperity of the empire

encouraged arts and crafts. Newtechniques, including glassmaking

and portrait painting, thrivedalongside traditional arts such asthe fine carving on this jade cup.

Queue hairstyle



167


The Qing empireannexed part of Tibet,and Tibetan Buddhistculture was adoptedat the Qing court.

Qing forces conqueredthe island of Taiwan,giving the emperorKangxi control overall of China.

Foreign traderswere restricted to13 trading posts,or “factories,” inthe port of Canton.

“Keep your hair andlose your head,

or keep your headand cut your hair.”Qing slogan about

the shaving of hair

Yongzheng tookover after a powerstruggle with hisbrothers followingKangxi’s death.

Emperor Qianlongabdicated, and diedsoon after. After this,the empire fell intoa long decline.

1683 1722 1724 1757 1796

• Work on the books beganin 1773 and ended in 1782,and involved 361 scholarsand 3,825 copyists.

• Each Chinese characterhad to be copied by hand.

The imperial procession of Kangxiin the city of Kiang-Han in 1699.

Canton harbor in imperial times

Pair of shoes forbound feet from thelate Qing Dynasty

• The result was knownas the Siku Quanshu (“TheEmperor’s Four Treasuries”).

• 3,641 works were selectedfor inclusion. The bookswere bound in 36,381volumes containing morethan 79,000 chapters and2.3 million pages.

Qianlong ordered the creationof the largest library of booksin Chinese history.

China and the silver tradeIn the 18th-century, China was so

big that it could produce everythingit needed, except for the silver that itused to make coins. At that time, theSpanish colonies of Mexico and Peru

were the biggest silver producers.Foreign merchants shipped it to theport of Canton (now Guangzhou) in

southern China, where it was tradedfor silk, fine porcelain, and tea—all in

high demand in Europe.

Biggest book collection

Hair and feet

• The Qing rulers made every HanChinese man shave the front ofhis head and wear the hair at theback in a long plait, called a queue.Thousands of men were killedfor resisting this order.

• For centuries before the Qingdynasty, Chinese girls had theirfeet bound at an early age tostop them from growing properly.The binding was painful and madewalking difficult, but tiny feet wereconsidered beautiful. The Qingemperors thought foot-bindingwas barbaric, but despite thisthey did not ban it.

The Qing forced some of their ownideas on the Han Chinese population,but allowed other traditions to survive.

A statueof Buddha



168

1700▶1725

1700 1705 1710 1715

The Battle of Blenheim (1704)was a major French defeat.

Jethro Tull’sseed drill

1709

Swedish defeatTsar Peter the Great’s

crushing defeat ofa Swedish army at

the Battle of Poltava

ended Charles XII’soverambitious planto invade Russia.

The victory confirmedRussia as a Baltic power.

1701

1701

War of the Spanish SuccessionPhilip of Bourbon, son of Louis XIV of France, was namedas heir to the Spanish throne in 1700. The following year,the rest of Europe, headed by Austria and Britain, went towar against France to prevent this. The war lasted until 1714.

Sowing seedsEnglish farmer Jethro Tull

invented a wooden seed drill,a machine that sowed seeds instraight rows. It wasted muchless seed than the traditionalmethod of scattering it by hand.

1710

Pretty porcelainThe Meissen factory near Dresden inSaxony began making fine porcelainwares (left). European pottery makerhad long sought to discover theChinese secret of making porcelainfor themselves, and Meissen’s finelymodeled and painted products werean instant success.

1713Britain’s slave trade

As part of the treaty endingthe War of the Spanish

Succession, Britain won theright to supply African slavesto the Spanish colonies. The

Triangle of Trade betweenBritish ports, Africa, and the

Caribbean began.

1716

Spanish in TexasThe Spanish intensified

their efforts to establish apresence in east TexasUSA. Spain wanted to

block French expansionwest from LouisianaAt that time, the land

was actively colonizedby French settlers apart of New France

which extended fromHudson Bay to the

mouth of the MississippRiver. The Spanish

established a presidio

(fortress garrisonat San Antonio

1707

Death of AurangzebMughal emperor Aurangzeb died at the age of88 after a reign of 49 years. A pious Muslim anda harsh ruler, he expanded the Mughal Empirefar into southern India, but, after his death, thedynasty began a long period of decline.

T h e s la v e

t rad e

See pages

200 –201



169


MercurythermometerGerman physicist

Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheitinvented the mercurythermometer with astandardized scale in

1714. This early mercurythermometer shows the

scale from -13 to 217degrees Fahrenheit.

1720 1725

The presence of Spanish treasure ships in theCaribbean had long been a target for pirates.In the early 1700s, Spanish ports were poorlydefended and pirate activity intensified. Theremay have been as many as 2,400 pirates atthis time, causing terror on the high seasas they plundered ships and seizedthe bounty.

1716–1726 AGE OF PIRACY

Female piratesNot all pirates were

men. Irish-born AnneBonny (right) joined

the crew of piratecaptain “Calico Jack”

Rackham in 1718.She proved to be anexcellent pirate, whowas said to dress like

a man, fight like aman, and swear

like a man.

BlackbeardEnglish pirate Blackbeard (left)was said to have tied smoking fusesunder his hat to frighten his enemies.He terrorized the Caribbean for two years before being killed in hand-to-hand fighting on the deck of hisship in 1718. His real name was

Edward Teach.

Blackbeard captured 40 shipsduring his time as a pirate.

Makingmusic

Between 1700 and1725, Italian Antonio

Stradivari created violins

of amazing quality, famedfor the beauty of theirsound, which has neverbeen matched. About

600 “Strads” still existand are highly

sought after.

1722

Easter IslandDutch explorer JacobRoggeveen chanced

upon an island in theeastern Pacific Ocean. It

was Easter Day, andso he called it Easter

Island (modern-day RapaNui). He found the island

completely strippedof trees and with only

2,000 inhabitants. Landerosion, warfare, and

food shortages hadalmost wiped out the

Polynesian population.

Gold doubloonsThe Spanish used gold and

silver from the New World tomint gold doubloons and silver

“pieces of eight”—the favoritebooty of pirates.One doubloon wasworth about seven

weeks pay for asailor. Pieces of eightwere smaller change.

Golddoubloons



170

St. PetersburgAlthough he was born in Moscow, the capital of Russia,Peter had always disliked the city and longed to buildhis own capital from scratch. Victories against theSwedes provided him with land to the north of Moscowon the Baltic Sea, and in 1703 he founded the city of St.Petersburg. An intense period of building began, and in1712 he was finally able to move the capital fromMoscow to St. Petersburg.

The rise of RussiaIn the 17th century, Russian settlement began to spreadeastward from the Ural Mountains along the great rivers ofSiberia. By 1639, Russians had reached the Pacific, and thetrade in furs had become Russia’s most valuable asset. Even so,

Russia was weak and backward compared to the rest of Europe.The man who changed this and turned Russia into a modernstate was Peter the Great, who became tsar in 1682.

Russian fur traders foundeda fort at Yakutsk in Siberia,3,000 miles (4,870 km)east of Moscow.

Peter the Great becamethe sole tsar after thedeath of his sicklyhalf-brother, Ivan V.

Peter the Greatfounded St.Petersburg onthe Gulf of Finland,an outlet to theBaltic Sea.

Stenka Razin leda Cossack andpeasant rebellionin southern Russia.

Peter the Greatcaptured the fortressof Azov from theOttomans, but lostit again in 1711.

The great modernizerAt first, Peter ruled jointly with his brotherIvan V. After becoming the sole sovereignin 1696, he set out to modernize Russia.He toured Europe, visiting Prussia,the Netherlands, and Britain to learnabout the latest technologies, especiallyshipbuilding. Back home, he created astrong navy and reorganized the army.

1632

“I built St. Petersburgas a window to let inthe light of Europe.”Peter the Great

1670 1696 17031696

Children play on astreet in St. Petersburgin the late 1700s.

Key events

Stenka Razin

The Peter andPaul Cathedral in

St. Petersburg



171


Alexei, the sonof Peter the Great,was charged withtreason andmurdered on hisfather’s orders.

The Treaty of Nystad,which ended theGreat Northern Warwith Sweden, gaveRussia land onthe Baltic.

Catherine the Greatannexed the Crimeanregion to the southwestand built a port on theBlack Sea.

• Warrior bands of Cossacksoriginally formed in Ukraine andsouthern Russia to fight the Tatars.

• Cossacks were fiercely independent.Each group had its own electedataman, or headman.

• In 1670–1671, Cossack leader StenkaRazin led a band of 20,000 rebelsagainst the Russians. He wascaptured and executed. His exploitsmade him a popular folk hero.

• The Cossacks were later recruitedas soldiers to guard the borders ofthe Russian Empire.

Peter the Greatdefeated the armyof Charles XII ofSweden at theBattle of Poltava.

Peter the Greatabolished the rankof boyar and basedpromotion in thearmy and civilservice on merit.

1709 1718 1721 1722 1783

Catherine I(1725–1727)The second wifeand widow of Peterthe Great, Catherine Irose from the peasantryin Lithuania to becomethe leader of Russia.

Anna (1730–1740)The niece of Peterthe Great, Annaspent most ofher time fightingthe Ottomans.

Elizabeth (1741–1762)The daughter of Peterthe Great, Elizabethis remembered forbuilding the beautifulWinter Palace inSt. Petersburg.

Catherine II (the Great)(1762–1796)Catherine II was aGerman princess whobecame one of Russia’sgreatest rulers. Russiatruly became a greatEuropean power duringher long reign.

Off with their beards!The boyars, Russia’s hereditarynobles, were extremely proudof their long beards. Peter theGreat made them wearEuropean clothes and shave offtheir beards (or pay a beard tax)

in an effort to modernize them.

Unusually for the times, Russiahad four women rulers in the periodfollowing Peter’s death in 1725.

Russian iconThis Russian icon (holy picture) shows theVirgin and Child, and dates from the reignof Catherine the Great. The subjects

depicted on icons remained much thesame over the centuries, and the iconswere highly revered. Under the reformsof Peter the Great, the Russian OrthodoxChurch became a department of state.

The Cossacks werewarriors and adventurerswho played an importantrole in Russian history.

Cossacks

Peter cuttinga boyar ’s beard

Russian empresses



172

1725▶1750

1725 17351730 1740

1736Discovery of rubber

French explorer Charles de la Condamintraveled to the Amazon and sent backsamples of rubber obtained from thelatex (milky fluid) of a rainforest tree, Hevea brasiliensis. The substance proveuseful for rubbing out pencil marks,giving it the English name of rubber.

1728Alaskan explorer

Sailing under the Russianflag, Danish-born explorer

Vitus Bering enteredthe narrow strait that

separates Siberia from

Alaska. It is now namedthe Bering Strait afterhim. In 1741, he made a

landing on several ofthe islands off Alaska.He claimed the whole

area for Russia.

1735

1735

Emperor QianlongQianlong became the sixth emperor

of China. Although he appreciatedthe West’s technical abilities, he

thought it had nothing to offer China.His reign lasted for 60 years—the longest in Chinese history.

Classifying natureSwedish botanist Carl Linnaeus

published Systema Naturae(System of Nature), the first of three

influential works, in which he deviseda method of describing plants and

animals by genus and species.

1733

Flying shuttle

British inventor John Kay patented the flying shuttle,an improvement to wool looms that enabled weaversto work faster. Kay’s inventions led to protests from

textile workers, who feared that he was deprivingthem of their livelihood.

Bering’s shipwas wreckedon his second

expedition

to Alaskain 1741.

1739

Looting of DelNader Shah, amilitary leader whohad overthrown thelast Safavid shahof Persia in 1736,invaded the MughalEmpire and lootedDelhi in India.He carried off thePeacock Throneof the Mughals andmany other treasureincluding the Koh-i-Noor diamond, whicis now part of the

Queen of the UnitedKingdom’s crown.

Classification of fishin Systema Naturae





174

CHILDREN IN HISTORY

Life at seaFrom the early days of sailing ships up until the 19th century,a boy as young as eight could seek his fortune at sea as a

cabin boy. Cabin boys usually came from poor families, andwere tempted by possible treasure or the excitement ofexploring. Two boys were with Christopher Columbus onhis first voyage to the New World. Generally, though, they didthe most lowly jobs on board, but if a boy worked hard, hecould learn the trade of a sailor, and even become an officer.

Powder monkey On a warship, the nimblest and shortest boys might become “powdermonkeys.” In battle, their job was to rush gunpowder and cartridges tothe gun crews from the ammunition store, which lay deep inside the shaway from dangerous sparks. A short boy would be hidden by the sidesof the ship and stood less chance of being picked out by enemy guns.

Midshipmen Only the sons of wealthy or aristocratic families between the ages of 12and 14 could join the navy as midshipmen to train as officers. The ship’schoolmaster taught them how to read and perform the mathematicalcalculations necessary for navigation. They also learned about knots anthe points of a ship, and carried out simple duties.

Harsh discipline For all ranks, discipline was strict. It had to be, both for safety at sea anto keep the rough, restless crew under control in the cramped conditionon board. As punishment for a minor offense, a young sailor might be“masted”—sent up to sit near the top of the mast for a few hours, usualmissing a meal. For a major crime, offenders were beaten or flogged.

Rising through the ranks Despite the danger and harsh conditions of a career at sea, it offeredmany boys opportunities they would never have had on land, andseveral rose through the ranks. John Paul Jones, naval hero of theAmerican Revolution, started as a ship’s boy at the age of 13. The

cabin boy on Captain Cook’s first voyage to Australia,Isaac Manley, ended his career an admiral.

“One morning after breakfast, all the

midshipmen were sent for… and four of

us were tied up one after the other to th

breech of one of the guns, and floggedupon our bare bottoms with a cat-o’-

nine-tails… Some received six lashes,

some seven, and myself three.”Jeffrey Baron de Raigersfeld,

Life of a Sea Officer , c. 1830

All hands on deck As a French man-of-war prepares for battle,

every man attends to his duties. A barefoot boy

is shown running with a cannonball—in reality

a heavy load for a grown man.

Cat-o’-nine-tails Victims of flogging

often had to make

their own whip, called

a cat-o’-nine-tails,

by unraveling a

short length of ropeto make nine threads

and a handle.

Ship’s biscuits Instead of bread, the crew ate hard

biscuits made of flour and water. Rats,

maggots, and weevils also enjoyed the

biscuits, which were called “hardtack.”

Sunk by a whale

In 1820, the whale ship Essex was sunk by asperm whale. Thomas Nickerson, the 14-year-

old cabin boy, was one of eight who survived

90 days adrift in a boat.



175


“I had made a confidant of

a boy… who, like myself,

considered his daily life on

board the Condor , to be only

a species of slavery.”Daniel Weston Hull,

Arctic Rovings: Adventuresof a New Bedford Boy , 1861

Cabin boy The duties of a cabin boy included

waiting on the captain and crew,

mopping the decks, and cleaning out

the ship’s pigsties and hen coops.

This cabin boy is better dressed than

most—bare feet and a plain shirt and

pants would have been more usual.





1750–1850Time for change

From 1750 to 1850, the world was radically transformed. Populations movedfrom the fields into the factories, where new technology was powering theIndustrial Revolution. People dared to think differently and increasinglyexplained the world using science and reason rather than superstitionand religion. These new ideas influenced political revolutions that toppledoppressive governments, threw off foreign powers, and hailed a new erain which people began to choose who would govern them.





TIME FOR CHANGE

179

Frederick the Great of PrussiaKing Frederick II was a strong but ruthless militarycommander who wanted Prussia to become awealthy European superpower. Despite battleswon and lost, and the death of almost one-thirdof his army, Prussia held on to its territories.

Battle of QuebecIn North America, most of the fighting took

place in New France, now Canada. Duringthe first years of the war, the French had theupper hand. That all changed in 1759 whenBritish general James Wolfe sailed his army upthe St. Lawrence River (below), taking the Frenchby surprise and capturing the French fortressof Quebec from General Montcalm. Both Wolfeand Montcalm died from battle wounds.

British EmpireThe war finally ended with theTreaty of Paris (1763), whenFrance was forced to hand overits lands in North America andforts in parts of the Caribbean,while Spain agreed to cedeits Florida territory. Britainwas now the world’s leading

colonial empire and much ofAmerica remained British.

War in IndiaWar broke out in India in 1756 when

a French ally, the Nawab of Bengal,captured a British trading base atCalcutta (now Kolkata). He is said

to have held 145 prisoners overnightin a small cell where almost all of

them died of heat and suffocation.

The famous incident became knownas “the Black Hole of Calcutta.”

1756 –1763 THE SEVEN YEARS WAR

The first large-scale global conflict, the Seven Years War (also called the French andIndian War) began in Europe, where the Prussians were fighting the Austrians andRussians over territory. Britain agreed to support Prussia, while France backedAustria. But since both Britain and France had colonies overseas and wanted to

seize each other’s territories, the fighting spilled over into North America and India.

Signatures on theTreaty of Paris

British prisoners in “the Black Hole of Calcutta”

King Frederick II on his horse Conde



In 1762, JohnMontagu,the fourth Earlof Sandwich,created thenow popularsnack of twoslices of breadwith a filling inbetween them.

Qing DynastyWith the invasion of theManchus, tribes fromnortheast Asia, the Qing

Dynasty began. Qingemperors used militaryforces to extend the empire,conquering Mongolia, Tibet,Taiwan, and much of theland in western Asia thatwas inhabited by nomads.

Mozart the child star

From an early age, it was clear that theAustrian Wolfgang Amadeus Mozartwas a musical genius. In 1764, at the

age of eight, he composed his firstsymphony. When he died at age 35, he

left a legacy of more than 600 works.

Modern circusEnglishman Philip Astley was a gifted

horse rider who had fought in the SevenYears War. After his return, he opened a

riding school in London called Halfpenny

Hatch, where he performed tricks onhorseback in a ring. It was so successfuthat he added extra acts, including jugglers, acrobats, and muscians

creating the first true circus

Soda waterEnglish chemist Joseph

Priestley, codiscovererof oxygen, invented thefirst carbonated (soda)water after watching thereaction of gas from thebrewery next to his home.

Sugar ActEager to increase revenue from

its American colonies, Britainintroduced the Sugar Act, whichtaxed imported sugar. In 1765,it was followed by the equallyunpopular Stamp Acts, which

charged taxes on most printedpapers, from newspapers to

playing cards. This increasedhostility to British rule.

Catherine the GreatIn Russia, Emperor Peter III

was assassinated and hiswife, Catherine, seized power.As Catherine II, ruler of Russia,

she expanded its borders andalso introduced reforms inagriculture and education.

1760▶1770

Warrior onhorseback

17641762

1768

1767

1760

Mozart as a boyplaying the piano

Portrait ofCatherine the Great

Sugar wasformed into

cones for export.

Philip Astley’s amphitheater in London

1760

1764

A m e r ica n

R e vo l u t io n




TIME FOR CHANGE

181

Natural worldWhile repairs were made to the ship,botanists searched for new speciesof plant and animal life. In Australia, Joseph Banks recorded tropicalbirds, flying fish, and stunningbutterflies and plants.

Three voyagesCook undertook three major expeditionsto the Pacific Ocean. He made his firstvoyage in 1768 (red), the second in 1772(blue), and the third in 1776 (green).

Endeavour

The first ship, Endeavour , was chosen by CaptainCook because of its strong construction. Theship set sail with 96 men on board, includingrenowned botanist Joseph Banks. Endeavour narrowly avoided disaster after runningaground near the Great Barrier Reef andhad to undergo substantial repairs.

Industrialinventions

James Watt’s improvedsteam engine andcondenser were patentedand manufactured. Thiswas a key development inthe Industrial Revolutionthat was starting in Britain.New machines and theuse of steam powerdramatically increasedproduction levels.

1769

1770

1728–1779 CAPTAIN COOK

Navigator James Cook was a farmer’sson, born in Yorkshire, England, whodeveloped his sailing skills in theranks of the Royal Navy. In 1768, Cookwas secretly ordered by the Britishgovernment to find the fabled southerncontinent, Terra Australis Incognita, sohe led a scientific voyage to the Pacificaboard his ship Endeavour . He was thefirst European to map out Hawaii, theeastern coastline of Australia, andthe coastline of New Zealand.

1763 Cook sails to

Newfoundland and makes

surveys of the coast.

1768 First voyage: Cook

takes Australia in the

name of Great Britain.

1772 Second voyage: Cook

becomes the first person to

cross the Antarctic Circle.

1776 Third voyage: Cook

sets sail in search of the

Northwest Passage.

KEY DATES

Replica model ofCaptain Cook’s

ship Endeavour

Specimens discovered andrecorded on the Endeavour

voyage: hibiscus leavesand flowers, and one of themany butterflies collected

PacificOcean

AUSTRALIA

SOUTH

AMERICA

SouthernOcean

NORTHAMERICA

ASIA

NEWZEALAND

T h e

I nd u s t r ia l

R e vo l u t io n See pages

182 –183

HAWAII



182

Key events

Changing landscapeAs more and more factories were built in Europe, thelandscape changed dramatically. Big towns sprang uparound the factories to house the workers, and the airwas filled with smoke from the factory chimneys. Manypeople lived—and died—in dirty, overcrowded conditions.

The IndustrialRevolutionUntil the mid-18th century, most people worked on the land, justas their ancestors had done for centuries. But this was about tochange with new technologies that would create a different typeof economy, based on manufacturing rather than farming. ThisIndustrial Revolution started in Britain around 1750, changingsociety as people moved to towns to work in the new factories,and soon spread to continental Europe and the United States.

Home of industryThe Industrial Revolution depended on asupply of raw materials such as water, iron,and coal—all readily available in Britain.The country also had a huge market formanufactured goods, as well as ships totransport them worldwide. There were plentyof wealthy people eager to invest money inenterprises that might make big profits.

“I sell here, Sir, whatthe world desires to

have—power.”Matthew Boulton,

British engineer, 1776

Britain’s products:Mass production in the factoriesof industrialized Britain floodedworld markets with a widevariety of machine-made goods.These included:

• Textiles

• Ceramics• Metal tools• Machinery

• Soap• Cement

Coke is used for thefirst time to produceiron at Coalbrookdalein northern England.

1709

Thomas Newcomenbuilds the first steamengine capable ofpumping water.

1712

James Hargreavesinvents the spinning jenny, the first multi-spindle yarn spinner.

1764

The first Factory Ais passed in Britaito regulate factorworking condition

1802

Arkwright’scotton mill usesmass-productionmanufacturing forthe first time.

1771

Britain’s Coalbrookdaleironworks

New factories aLe Creusot, France

in the mid-19th century

Wedgwood plate



183

TIME FOR CHANGE

Full steam aheadThe first practical steam engine was inventedin 1712, but it was slow and jerky, and onlygood for pumping water out of mines. In1776, Scottish engineer James Watt perfectedan engine with a fast, smooth action thatcould drive machinery. This became thebasis of the engines used in the firststeamships and railroad locomotives.

Down in the mineBy 1800, industry relied on coal to power steamengines and to produce iron. The coal had to bemined from deep underground, which was hard

and dangerous work. Men, women, and childrenworked long hours down in the mines. Ponies lived

underground, transporting the coal through the shaft.

Timely travelThe first public railroad opened in England in1825, and the network soon covered most ofBritain. This radically speeded up long-distancetravel, taking hours instead of days. In 1819,

the American ship Savannah made a partlysteam-powered crossing of the Atlantic,showing how steam could transforminternational travel as well. This markedthe beginning of a brand new era of travel.

Who’s whoIsambard Kingdom BrunelEnglish engineer Brunel built the first high-speed railroad, reaching speeds of morethan 60 mph (96 km/h) in the 1840s.He also built bridges and steamships.

Abraham DarbyIn 1709, Darby perfected a way of usingcoke (processed coal) instead ofcharcoal for producing iron. This madeiron much cheaper and more plentiful.

James Brindley

One of the most important engineers ofthe 18th century, Brindley created theBridgewater Canal, which became theprototype for future canals.

Steam pressure in

cylinder drives piston rod

Coal furnace

heats boiler to

produce steam

Rocking beam transfers

power to rotating wheel

American engineerRobert Fulton buildsthe world’s firstcommercial steamboat.

1807

The Stockton andDarlington Railwayruns the world’s firstpassenger train (above).

1825

Watt’s improvedsteam enginedesign wasmore efficient atpumping water

from mines.

Isambard Kingdom Brunel(1806–1859)

American steam-powered shipSavannah English mine engineer

Richard Trevithickexhibits the first steamrailroad engine.

1804



184

“Well, there was some little

bitty children to grown old

people worked in the mill,

doing different things... fromthe cards onto the spinning

and then to the weave room.”Letha Ann Sloan Osteen, former child

mill worker, South Carolina



185

TIME FOR CHANGE

CHILDREN IN HISTORY

Working atthe cotton millChildren’s lives during the Industrial Revolution, in Europe andthe United States, were very different from today. Educationwas not compulsory and cost money, and many families couldnot afford to send children to school. Instead, they workedalongside their parents. Cotton mills, in particular, employedmany children, who were perfect for wriggling under themachines. Their small hands were also nimble with thethreads, and they were cheaper to hire than adults.

Spinner girls

The cotton mill had a large spinning room with long rows of machines.This was where cotton was pulled into thread and wound onto spools.Girls often started out as spinners because they were considered to be

more patient than boys.Doffer boys Young boys worked in the cotton mills as doffers. Their job was toreplace full spools of thread with empty ones. While the spools werefilling up, they could run off and play for short bursts. Boys could start offas doffers at age seven, and the shortest boys often had to climb up ontothe working machines to reach the spools.

Dangerous equipment The mill was a tough environment for child workers. Accidents werecommon because the children were inexperienced and easily distracted.Equipment was heavy and fast-moving, so in a split-second a worker’sclothing, hair, or finger could get caught.

Hot work The oppressive heat generated by all the machinery in use proved achallenge for children. Some managers at the mills let employees openthe windows a little, but children would all end the day exhausted andleave in sweat-drenched clothes.

Break time

This girl is taking a break from her work

in the spinning room of the Globe Cotton Mill

in Georgia. Children could take breaks and

less strict supervisors gave them permission

to go outside to play.

“If a child becomes

sleepy, the overlooker touches

the child on the shoulder

and says, ‘Come here.’

In the corner of the roomthere is an iron cistern

filled with water.

He takes the boy by

the legs and dips him in

the cistern, and then sends

him back to work.”Jonathan Downe, English cotton

mill worker, 1832

Sweeper These boys are

working at the

Elk Cotton Mills

in Tennessee.

When they were

not on doffer duty,

they worked

as sweepers,

clearing the floors

of stray cotton

and lint.

Family business

Mrs. Young’s husband died, leaving her

with 11 children. Two left to get married.

Except for the youngest children, all the others

worked at the Tifton Cotton Mill in Georgia.

“We’d ride the elevator rope up to the pulley

and slide back down. I was riding one day and

was looking round over the spinning room and

my hand got caught under the wheel...

that thing was mashed into jelly.

”James Pharis, who began working in the Spray

Cotton Mill in North Carolina at age eight

Flying shuttle

This invention allowed wide

measures of cloth to be

woven on machine looms.



186

1770▶1780

Boston Tea PartyIn protest at new laws imposedon tea imports by the Britishgovernment, a group of Americancolonists boarded cargo shipsin Boston Harbor and dumpedtheir entire load of tea into thewater. The event became knownas the Boston Tea Party.

Steaming aheadScottish engineer James Watt, a pioneer o

steam power, improved steam engine designwith a separate condensing chamber thaprevented the loss of steam and increased

efficiency. The new engine would beused to power factories and mines

Revolution in AmericFollowing years of tension, theAmerican Revolutionary Warbegan in 1775, when colonistsunited against British rule.The first shots were heardat the battles of Concordand Lexington, where thecolonists were victorious.

Arkwright’s millWhen English inventor Richard Arkwrightdiscovered he could harness the power of

free-flowing water, he set up the first water-powered textile mill. Production increased sorapidly that he was able to open many moremills in England and Scotland.

French connectionAt age 15, the French king’s eldest son, Louis-Auguste,entered an arranged marriage with 14-year-oldAustrian archduchess Marie Antoinette. In 1775,he was crowned King Louis XVI and inheriteda country in grave financial trouble.

When Marie Antoinette first became queen,she was admired for her beauty and charm.

1770

Arkwright’s first water mill atCromford in Derbyshire, England

A huge crowd watches as 342 chests of tea are thrown into Boston Harbor.

18th-centuryreplica of James

Watt’s steam engine

Separate cisterncontaining condenser

and air pump

1775

1775

1776

1773

1770

1771





188

Key events

Declaration of Independence

After the first big battle of the warat Bunker Hill in June 1775, the Englishking, George III, denounced the colonists

as rebels against British rule. TheAmericans responded with a Declaration

of Independence, which was signed on July 4, 1776. The first draft was written by

lawyer Thomas Jefferson, who would goon to become the third president of the

newly created United States of America.

American RevolutionDuring the 1760s, the provinces on the East Coast of North Amerwere British colonies. But the colonists had no representation inthe British parliament, so when it was decided to make them paytaxes, they refused. Fighting broke out and the Americans declartheir independence. The war ended with British defeat in 1781,and the birth of a new nation—the United States of America.

Delaware

Pennsylvania

New Jersey

GeorgiaConnecticut

Massachusetts Bay

Maryland

South Carolina

New Hampshire

Virginia

New York

North Carolina

Rhode Island

Thirteen coloniesThe Americans who rebelledagainst British rule lived in13 colonies founded on the EastCoast between 1607 and 1732.The 13 stars of this Americanflag represent the colonies,and it dates from around 1860.

“We hold these truths tobe self-evident, that all men

are created equal…”US Declaration of Independence, 1776

The Sugar Act, and laterthe Stamp Act, are taxesimposed by the British onthe American coloniesagainst their will.

1764Five colonists are killedby British soldiers duringan anti-British rally inBoston—an event knownas the Boston Massacre.

1770

At the Boston TeaParty, colonists dumpvaluable chests oftea into BostonHarbor as a protestagainst taxation.

1773

The war beginswhen the colonistdefeat the Britishat the Battle ofConcord, and thenlose at Bunker Hil

1775



189

TIME FOR CHANGE

Who’s whoThe early battles of the war werefought between the British soldiers,known as redcoats, and part-timecolonial militias, known as riflemenor minutemen (because they wereready to fight at a few minutes’notice). Some colonists sided withthe British, and were known as

loyalists. In June 1775, the newContinental Congress appointedGeorge Washington commanderof a properly trained ContinentalArmy, but it took time to set up.

Battles with the BritishThe first shots were fired at Lexington onApril 19, 1775, leading to a British defeat at nearbyConcord. A few weeks later, the British won a costly battleat Bunker Hill, but as the war continued, the Americansbecame better organized under the command of GeorgeWashington. After a British defeat at Saratoga in 1777, theFrench entered the war on the American side. The alliancewas too much for the British, who finally surrendered afteran 18-day siege at Yorktown, Virginia, in 1781.

Redcoats

Musket

Loyalists Continental ArmyMinutemenRiflemen

Benedict ArnoldAs an American commander,Benedict Arnold (1741–1801)was highly effective, but hechanged sides after losingfaith in the war. His secretnegotiations with the Britishmade him a traitor.

Paul RevereAmerican revolutionary heroPaul Revere (1734–1818) wasbest known for his “midnightride” from Charlestown toLexington in April 1775 toalert Patriots to an impendingBritish attack.

John Paul JonesScotsman John Paul Jones(1747–1792) was a navalcaptain who settled inAmerica and fought for theRevolution. He is famous forengaging the British navy in

his ship Bonhomme Richard .

The Declarationof Independenceis signed on July 4.

1776American forcesunder GeneralGates capture ademoralized Britisharmy at Saratoga inNew York State.

1777France enters the waron the American side,and is soon followedby Spain. Both beginfighting the British onland and sea.

1778The British underGeneral Cornwallissurrender toAmerican andFrench forces at theBattle of Yorktown.

1781Britainacknowledges theUnited States to bea free, sovereign,and independentnation under theTreaty of Paris.

1783

Heroes and villains

This painting shows General Cornwallissurrendering his sword to Washington—in reality, Cornwallis refused to meet him.



190

1780▶1790

Balloon brothersIn June, French brothers Joseph

and Étienne Montgolfier gave thefirst public demonstration of a hot-air balloon. On this occasion, theballoon was tethered to the ground,but in November, an improved designmade the first manned free flight.

East India CompanyIn 1600, British merchantsestablished the East IndiaCompany to trade withIndia. Over the years, itformed its own militaryand administrativedepartments and madeincreasing demands onthe British Governmentfor money. In 1784, PrimeMinister William Pitt passedthe India Act, which set upa new Board of Controlto better oversee thecompany’s affairs.

A new planetBritish astronomer

William Herscheldiscovered Uranus, the

first new planet sinceancient times. Herschel

built his own telescopesand constructed more

than 400 in his lifetime,including one that was

40 ft (12 m) long.

Scaling Mont BlancThe highest mountain in

Europe, Mont Blanc in theAlps, was conquered fo

the first time by twoFrenchmen, Dr. Jacque

Balmat and Michel-GabriePaccard. They climbed

without ropes or ice axes

A new Thai dynastySiam, now Thailand, hadbeen ruled by King Taksinfor 15 years. After a powerstruggle following his deathin 1782, a new dynasty wasestablished by the Chakri.This dynasty still rules today.

Laki volcanoClouds of poisonous gasesfrom the dramatic eruption

of Laki volcano destroyedcrops and livestock and

caused terrible famine inIceland. There was also a

global drop in temperature,and crop failure in Europe.

US ConstitutionAfter the AmericanRevolution, leader

from the 13 US statemet to make rules

about how the countryshould be run. Theserules became known

as the ConstitutionPart of it decreed tha

there should be anelected president

Power loomEnglish clergyman

Edmund Cartwrightpatented his steam-powered, mechanicallyoperated loom forweaving cloth. It wenton to revolutionizethe textile industry.

1780

William Herschel’s giant telescope

Straw and woolwere burned tofill the Montgolfierballoons with hot air.

Laki volcano in Iceland today

Early adventurersclimbing inthe Alps

1787

1786178417831782

1781

1783 1785



191

TIME FOR CHANGE

New Holland

The large landmass of Australialies in the Indian Ocean. WhenDutch explorer Abel Tasman firstsailed around the land in 1642,he named it New Holland.

First AustraliansThe original inhabitants

of Australia arrived morethan 40,000 years beforeEuropeans. They lived by

hunting and gathering, andbelieved that their land went

back to the Dreamtime —the ancient era of creation.When European settlement

began, at least 300,000Aboriginals lived in

Australia. Relations betweenthe two races deterioratedquickly as settlers spread

across their land.

Sydney CoveThe colonists chose Sydney Cove in Port Jackson as their new site. This had everythingthe new settlers needed. It had deep waterclose to the shore, shelter, and fresh water.Captain Phillip named the site Sydney Cove,after the British Home Secretary, and todayit is the city of Sydney. Within 60 years,there were 60,000 settlers in Australia.

First US PresidentGeneral George Washington,commander-in-chief of the armyand the navy, was elected as the first

US President. He took the oath ofoffice in New York City, the capitalat the time. He led a new government,shaping its institutions, offices,and political practices.

Storming of the BastilleIn Paris, an angry mob of Frenchcitizens stormed the Bastille prison,a symbol of the monarchy, to releaseprisoners and seize ammunition.

In 1788, 11 ships of the British First Fleet arrived at Botany Bay,

Australia. About 778 of the passengers were convicts sent bythe government to ease prison overcrowding. The fleet movedon in search of fresh water and landed in Sydney Cove, wherea British flag was raised and the first European colony settled.

1788 THE COLONIZATION OF AUSTRALIA

Boomerangs wereused for hunting bythe Aboriginal people.

Frog’s legsIn the 1780s, Italian

biologist Luigi Galvanidiscovered that the musclesof a dead frog’s legs twitched

when struck by an electricspark. His experiments

would go on to reveal theelectrical nature ofthe nervous system.

NEW HOLLAND(AUSTRALIA)

Indian Ocean

Sydney Cove

1790

In 1887, a settlement was establishedin Sierra Leone, West Africa, for freedslaves from British colonies.

T h e F r e nc h

R e vo l u t io n See pages

192 –193

1789

1789

Botany Bay



192

Key events

Storming of the BastilleOn July 14, 1789, a rumor that the king was going to shut down the NationalAssembly caused a riot in Paris. Around 600 rioters attacked the Bastille prison,a symbol of the absolute power of the king. They freed the seven prisonersheld inside and proceeded to destroy the fortress. The Revolution had begun.

The French RevolutionIn 1788, France was ruled by a king, queen, aristocracy, and clergywho lived in luxury, while many of their subjects starved. Just five

years later, the king and queen were dead, along with thousandsof others, and the country was controlled by radical revolutionaries

who abolished the monarchy and nobility, and attacked Christianity.Centuries of tradition and privilege were swept away, but the chaoscleared the way for a new era of political freedom and democracy.

Tennis Court OathWhen Louis XVI became kingin 1774, France was bankrupt.

His attempts at reform were blocked,and by 1789 bread shortages werecausing riots. In a bid to raise taxes,Louis called a meeting of the EstatesGeneral parliament. It was thefirst meeting since 1614. But therepresentives of the commonpeople, the Third Estate, declaredthat they alone had the rightto be the “National Assembly.”Meeting in an indoor tenniscourt in June (above), theyswore an oath to create anew constitution for France.

“Liberty, equality,fraternity!”Rallying cry of the

French Revolution

The National Assemblyis established and theBastille is stormed.Later, there is theVersailles protestand the bread riots.

1789The NationalAssemblyabolishesthe nobility.

1790The king and queentry to flee France butare captured andkept under guard.

1791The guillotine is usedto execute prisonersfor the first time.

1792King Louis XVI issent to the guillotinand the “Reign ofTerror” begins.

1793



193

TIME FOR CHANGE

Reign of TerrorAfter the death of the king, the radicals,led by Maximilien Robespierre, begana ruthless campaign against aristocratsand other “enemies of the Revolution.”Between 18,000 and 40,000 peoplewere condemned and killed, mostly bypublic execution under the guillotine. Theperiod was known as the “Reign of Terror.”

March on VersaillesBy September, the National Assemblywas in virtual control of the government,but there were still bread shortages.On October 5, about 7,000 armedmarket women marched on the royalpalace of Versailles, demanding breadfor their hungry families and callingfor the king to move from Versailles

to Paris. He was forced to agree.

Power shiftIn 1791, Louis XVI and

Queen Marie Antoinette

tried to escape Francein disguise. They werecaught and sent back to

Paris under armed guard,and all political power

passed to parliament. In January 1793, Louis was

executed, and MarieAntoinette followed

nine months later.

Execution machineIn late 1789, a member

of the National Assemblyand medical doctor named

Joseph-Ignace Guillotin

called for all executions tobe as quick and painless aspossible. His motive was

humane, but his name wassoon given to the machine

that sliced off the headsof thousands duringthe Reign of Terror.

Who’s whoThe French Revolution was driven by the anger of poor, hungry people ruledby rich aristocrats. They were encouraged by radical politicians who wantedto destroy the political power of the aristocracy and the Catholic Church.Some revolutionaries went by curious names:

Sans-culottesThe name means“no shorts,” since theworkers could not affordshort silk culottes.

Les tricoteusesThe women who knittedas they watched the dailyexecutions became known as“Les Tricoteuses” (knitters).

JacobinsRadical activists called Jacobins took over thegovernment and beganthe Reign of Terror.

Armed female protestors head for Versailles.

MaximilienRobespierre isarrested and sentto the guillotine.

1794 A blue-and-redcockade showedthat a person wasa revolutionary.

Heir to the throne LouisCharles dies in prison.The Jacobins arereplaced by a lessradical governmentcalled the Directory.

1795The Directoryis overthrown byNapoleon Bonaparte,who takes poweras First Consul.

1799Napoleon Bonapartecrowns himselfEmperor of France.

1804

The royal coachis captured.



194

Ancient

Egyptian

hieroglyphs

1790▶1800

Haitian slave revoltInspired by the revolution in France,slaves working on plantations in thecolony of Haiti seized the opportunity

to revolt. Toussaint L’Ouverture emergedas the leader of the revolution, helpingHaiti to became the first black-ruled state.

Demotic

Ancient Greek

Women’s rightsWriter, philosopher, and feminist

Mary Wollstonecraft publishedA Vindication of the Rights ofWoman . Her radical bookargued that women onlyappeared inferior to menbecause girls never had anequal right to education.

Fruity cureWhen it was discovered thatthe disease scurvy was causedby a lack of vitamin C, the

British admiralty begansupplying citrus fruit toits sailors on board ships.

Death ofLouis XVI

The French kingwas chargedwith treason,found guilty,and condemnedto death. On January 21, hewas guillotined.

First vaccinationEnglish doctor Edward

Jenner carried out the firstvaccination—giving a patient

a mild or reduced-strengthinjection of something inorder to prevent a more

serious disease.

Rosetta StoneFrench soldiers in Egypt unearthed a

stone inscribed with three versions of thesame passage, two written in Egyptianscripts (hieroglyphic and Demotic) and

one in ancient Greek. Known todayas the Rosetta Stone, it enabled

experts to decipher hieroglyphsfor the first time.

1790

1792

1791

1793

1796

1793

1799

Voltaic pile

Lemons, used toprevent scurvy

Early vaccination kit

Engraving of L’Ouverture revolting against the French

Mary Wollstonecraft(1759–1797)

Voltabattery

After years ofexperimenting, Italian

inventor Alessandro Voltabuilt the voltaic pile, or battery.

This was the first practicalmethod of generating electricity.

Volta published his findingsin 1800, and the unit “volt”

is named after him.



195

TIME FOR CHANGE

Military heroNapoleon headed a series of successful

battles and expanded his empire acrosswestern and central Europe. He also ledthe French army to a successful invasion ofEgypt. However, the invasion of Spain and adisastrous invasion of Russia led to his exile.

“Death is nothing,but to live defeated and

inglorious is to die daily.”Napoleon Bonaparte, 1814

Empire of FranceNapoleon was crowned emperor in 1804at the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, thusending the Republic. His reorganization of theterritories he conquered, in Italy and parts ofGermany, had a profound impact, includingthe ending of the Holy Roman Empire.

Battle of WaterlooNapoleon escaped to Franceand continued to wage war.The Battle of Waterloo, nearBrussels, in 1815, was the lastmilitary engagement of theNapoleonic Wars. It was foughtbetween Napoleon’s army andcoalition forces, led by the Dukeof Wellington from Britain andGeneral Blucher from Prussia.The outcome of this closelyfought battle saw the end of26 years of fighting betweenEuropean powers and France.

1800

A driven and fearless soldier, Napoleon Bonapartecame to power at the end of the FrenchRevolution. His military genius brought him manyvictories and resulted in much of Europe coming

under French control. He also introduced a systemof law, the Code Napoléon, that gave poor peoplein France new rights. However, his ambitionwas his undoing and he ended his life in exile.

1769–1821 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE

Napoleon’s throne

KEY DATES

1769 Born in Corsica

1796 Made commander of

the French army in Italy

1798 Conquers Ottoman-

ruled Egypt

1799 Appoints himself

first consul after a coup

1804 Made emperor

1805 Victory at Austerlitz

1812 Failed invasion

of Russia

1813 Defeat at Leipzig

1814 Forced into exile

1815 Escapes to France

before Battle of Waterloo

1821 Dies after six years

imprisoned on St. Helena





197

TIME FOR CHANGE

Execution of Louis XVIOn a bleak winter’s morning in January 1793, a green coach trundledthrough the streets of Paris on its way to the Place de la Révolution.Inside was Louis XVI, king of France, guilty of high treason andsentenced to death. After more than 1,000 years of monarchy, Francehad become a republic in 1792 and was now ready to execute itsformer king. The blade fell at 10:22 a.m., watched by 20,000 people.One of the assistants showed the king’s head to the crowds, andtheir cheers and artillery fire rang out to celebrate a new era.



198

1800▶1810

1800

Steam locomotivesEnglish engineer Richard Trevithickinvented a steam engine on wheels,called a locomotive. It was much moreefficient than horses at pulling heavyloads andwas designed to travel on roads.

Act of UnionNegotiated by Prime

Minister William Pitt, theAct of Union was passed

by the Irish and Britishparliaments despite muchopposition. It created the

United Kingdom, abolishedthe Irish parliament, and

united the Church ofIreland and England.

With France’s finances in trouble,Napoleon decided to raise fundsby selling the Louisiana Territory toUS president Thomas Jefferson. Thistransaction doubled the size of the UnitedStates and gave it control of the MississippiRiver and the port of New Orleans.

Louisiana TerritoryLouisiana was a large territory thatcovered what is now Oklahoma,Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, andIowa, plus parts of nine other states.

Lewis and ClarkFacing unknown dangers,Meriwether Lewis and William

Clark set out on a two-year trekacross the Louisiana Territory to

find and explore the best traderoute through the area by water.

They confronted Native Americantribes and saw wild animals that

had never been described before,including new species of beaver.

Present-dayMexico, Central

America, and thewestern UnitedStates were underSpanish controlin this decade.

Union flag—the flag ofthe United Kingdom

Pocket compassused during

the Lewis andClark expedition

One of Trevithick’s firststeam engine locomotives

This engravingshows one ofLewis and Clark’s

team hiding ina tree, taking

shot at a bear.

1803 LOUISIANA PURCHASE

LOUISIANATERRITORY

1804

1801



199

TIME FOR CHANGE

Peninsular WarThis six-year war wasfought for control of theIberian Peninsula withSpanish, Portuguese, andBritish forces pitted againthe French under NapoleDefeat at the Battle ofVitoria in 1813 contributeto Napoleon’s demise andestablished the British Duof Wellington’s reputation

Empire’s endThe Holy RomanEmpire—a CentralEuropean empire

ruled by emperorsappointed by the

pope—was anunusual union of

territories that hadexisted since 962 CE.

It was finallyended when the

last emperor,Francis II, abdicated.

1810

Battle of TrafalgarFor five hours, the Battle of Trafalgar ragedat sea, pitting the navies of France and Spainagainst Great Britain. It ended with a clearvictory for the British, although Lord HoratioNelson died from his battle wounds.

“You may chooseto look the other way

but you can neversay again that you

did not know.”William Wilberforce,

discussing slavery in 1789

THE ROMANTIC MOVEMENT

German landscapes

Caspar David Friedrich was aGerman Romantic artist whosework emphasized the beauty of nature.When people appeared in his paintings,they were shown in silhouette.

The Romantic Movement was a reaction tothe industrial world of the time, influencing art,literature, philosophy, and music. Artists wantedto convey emotion and imagination, oftensetting them within the natural world. This

was a direct challenge to thescientific reasoning of the

Enlightenment. It wasmost active in westernEurope, especiallyEngland and Germany.

Beethoven’s musicGerman composer Ludwigvan Beethoven (1770–1827)wrote some of the mostfamous symphonies andsonatas for the piano atthis time. Although hegradually lost his hearing,

Beethoven continuedcomposing.

Warring ships at the Battle of TrafalgarWilliam

Wilberforce(1759–1833)

Wanderer above the Sea of Fog (1818)

1807

1808

1806

1805 T h e s la v e

t rad e


Abolition of slave tradeDuring the 18th century, Britainhad one of the largest fleets of slaveships. But in 1807, the slave tradewas brought to an end by WilliamWilberforce, a member of the Britishparliament who fought tirelessly forthe abolition of all forms of slavery.



200

Key events

Slave auctionsBy the 1780s, between 80,000 and 100,000 enslaved

Africans were being forcibly transported to the Americasevery year. Those who survived the voyage were sold a

auction, and became the legal property of their buyers. Thestrongest and fittest slaves brought the highest prices

Families might be split up, never to see each other again

The slave tradeSince the beginning of history, there have been people forced to workas slaves, with no reward and no liberty. In ancient times, many slaveswere prisoners of war or criminals. But in the 16th century, slaverybecame a profitable trade that stole the lives of more than 12 million

Africans. They were kidnapped, sold to traders, then shipped to theAmericas in such appalling conditions that many died on the way.

The first Africanslaves to crossthe Atlantic areshipped to SouthAmerica bySpanish traders.

The Atlantic slavetrade reaches itspeak. Most of theslave traders areBritish-born.

Denmark becomesthe first Europeancountry to abolishslavery and theslave trade.

The Royal AfricanCompany is set upin London to tradegoods with Africaand buy slaves.

A campaign for theabolition of the slavetrade is launched inBritain by WilliamWilberforce.

Forced laborThe Atlantic slave trade exploitedthe labor of African men, women,and children who were forced to workin the colonies of Brazil, the Caribbeanislands, and mainland North America(now the United States). They workedas farm laborers on the plantations, asminers, and as servants. They had norights, and most were granted only themost basic necessities and brutallypunished for any disobedience.

1510

“I should havequitted it sooner,

had I considered it,as I do now, to be

unlawful and wrong.

But I never had ascruple on this headat the time.”John Newton, former slave

trader turned abolitionist,

from Thoughts Upon the

African Slave Trade , 1788

1672 1780 18031787

Slaves weretransportedin chains.



201

TIME FOR CHANGE

Abolition of slaveryAfter 20 years of campaigning,activists such as British politicianWilliam Wilberforce succeededin getting Britain to outlaw theAtlantic slave trade in 1807.Slavery throughout theBritish Empire was abolishedin 1834, as commemoratedby this coin. In the UnitedStates, it continued until theend of the Civil War in 1865.Slavery was outlawed

in Brazil in 1888, finallyending it entirely in theWestern Hemisphere.

Almost 70,000 slavesare shipped fromAfrica each yearin defiance of theslave-trade ban.

Slavery is abolishedin the United Statesunder the presidencyof Abraham Lincoln.

The AmericanAnti-Slavery Societyis founded byabolitionists inthe United States.

There are 4 millionslaves in NorthAmerica and theirvalue is estimatedat $4 billion.

Trading systemSlave ships set sail from ports around Europe, loaded withiron, guns, wine, and textiles. They headed to West Africawhere the goods were exchanged for slaves. The slaveswere shipped across the Atlantic to sell to land ownersin the Caribbean and North America. The ships returnedto Europe laden with sugar, coffee, and tobacco.

Triangular tradeThe route taken by the slave

ships from Europe to Africa tothe Americas and back again wasknown as the triangle of trade.

Slave shipsThe slaves were crammed so tightly below the decksthat they could barely move during a voyage lasting

up to ten weeks. During the 1700s, up to 10,000slaves were dying on board the ships every year.

PlantationsSlaves in America and the Caribbean were made to workon plantations—big estates where crops were grown. Slavelabor reduced costs, so owners made huge profits.

Britain declares theabolition of the slavetrade, but not theinstitution of slaveryitself, as doesthe US in 1808.

1807–1808 1825–1850 1833 1860 1865

A model of the slaveship Brookes showinghow the slaves werepacked close togetheron board

Coffeebeans

Insidea cocoabean• Sugar

• Cocoa• Coffee

• Cotton• Tobacco• Rice

Cotton plantation on the Mississippi

Slaves were bought inWest Africa, where they

boarded slave ships.

Plantation goods included:

NORTHAMERICA

AtlanticOcean

SOUTHAMERICA

AFRICACARIBBEANISLANDS

EUROPE



202

1810▶1820

Call to armsIn Mexico, Priest Miguel Hidalgocalled people to join him in a revolt

against the government. His rallyingspeech became known as Grito deDolores , or Cry of Pain, and led tothe Mexican War of Independence.

Venezuela

In 1811, Venezuela becamethe first part of Spain’s empireto break away. Francisco deMiranda and Simón Bolívarled the campaign.

The LiberatorSimón Bolívar was a

Venezuelan militaryhero who played aleading role in thefight for independenceand earned the nicknameEl Libertador . He freedPeru, and Bolivia wasrenamed in his honor.

Tin canBritish merchantPeter Durand

patented his ideafor preserving food

in tin cans. Thefirst cans had to be

hammered open.

Civil warArgentina gained independencein 1816, but a civil war followed

between city dwellers and ranchersof the provinces. Argentine

ranchers, called gauchos, wereopposed to government.

Grimm’s Fairy TalesGerman brothers Jacoband Wilhelm Grimmpublished the firstvolume of folk tales.The 86 stories included

the tales of Snow White,Hansel and Gretel,and Rapunzel.

LudditesSkilled workers,later known as

Luddites,wreckedlooms in textile millsto protest against the

new machinery thatwas making their jobs redundant.

War of 1812America declared war onGreat Britain as a resultof numerous disputes. Themain reasons cited werethe British navy forcingAmerican sailors to joinits warships and Britishships blockading US ports.The war ended with theTreaty of Ghent in 1814.

Congress

of ViennaFollowing the fal

of Napoleon’s armya congress of the grea

powers of Europe met in

Vienna, Austria, to settlethe future boundarieof the whole continent

This resulted in therestructuring of Europe

which stood untiWorld War I in 1914

1810

1811–1825 INDEPENDENCE IN SOUTH AMERICA

For most of South America, independence fromSpain and Portugal came between 1811 and 1825.In Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador, Simón Bolívarled the way. In the south, Jose de San Martin andBernardo O’Higgins liberated Argentina and Chile.Brazil declared itself independent of Portugal in 1822.

Mural showing Miguel Hidalgo

Snow White and Rose Red,one of the stories in

Grimm’s Fairy Tales

Miranda and Bolívarsign the Declaration

of Independence.

1810

1810

1811 1812

1812 1814



TIME FOR CHANGE

203

Singapore

Sir Thomas StamfordRaffles, an agent of

the British East IndiaCompany, arrived in

Singapore in search of asuitable trading port. After

signing a treaty with theTemenggong—the local

Malay chief—and SultanHussein, he established

the free port of Singapore,and the Union Jack flag

was officially raised.

First stethoscope

French physician RenéLaennec invented thefirst stethoscope usinga rolled paper tube tofunnel the sound. Inaddition to magnifyingthe heartbeat, italso helped doctorsunderstand how bloodmoves through the heart.The tube design waslater adapted to havetwo earpieces.

Safety lampMiners’ lives were madesafer when English chemistSir Humphry Davy invented

a special lamp for use ingas-filled coal mines. Thisreplaced earlier lamps,which could spark off a fire.

Science fiction

Considered one of theearliest examples ofscience fiction, Englishnovelist Mary Shelleywrote Frankensteinduring a trip toSwitzerland. In the book,Victor Frankenstein, anarrogant Swiss chemist,conducts an experimentto create life. Instead, hecreates a monster whowill haunt him forever.

Basic bicycleGerman Baron von Drais introduceda new machine to the public in Paris.It had two wheels connected by awooden frame. The rider sat astrideand pushed it along with his feetwhile steering the front wheel.

The year 1816 was known as“the year without a summer”as clouds of gas and dust from thevolcanic eruption of Indonesia’sMount Tambora circled the world,causing heavy rain and snowfall.

1820

Argentinegauchos

Sir Humphry Davytesting his lamp

Laennec’s single-tubedstethoscope enabled

him to listen to apatient’s heartbeat.

The Draisienneor “hobby horse”

1817

18181816

1815

1819



204

“Nothing istoo wonderful

to be true if it beconsistent with thelaws of nature.”Michael Faraday,

from his diary, March 19, 1849

A new continentAlthough others had sailed close,

Russian explorer Thaddeus vonBellingshausen was the first person tosee the ice shelf that edges the continentof Antarctica. The sound of penguinsconvinced him that land was nearby.

Electric motorIn 1821, Faraday started his

most important work onelectricity and magnetism.He demonstrated that anelectric current could be

produced in a coil of wirewhen a magnet was movedthrough the coil. He had

invented the world’sfirst electric motor.

Michael FaradayThe son of a poor blacksmithfrom the north of England, MichaelFaraday received very little formaleducation. However, he had anintuitive understanding of physicsand became one of the mostinfluential scientists of his time.

Florida handoverFlorida was ruled by Spain until

Spain handed the territory over to theUnited States in 1821. This was partof a deal to cancel $5 million in debtsowed by the Spanish. In 1845, Floridaofficially became the 27th state.

Independent BrazilWhen the Portuguese royal family

fled their country in 1808 as Napoleoninvaded, they sailed to their colony inBrazil. Although King Jao VI returned

to Portugal in 1821, his son Pedroremained in Brazil and became

Emperor Pedro I. He declared Brazil’sindependence the following year.

1820▶1830

In 1824, Australia is finally adopted as the nameof the country once known as New Holland.

1821

1822

1820

1820

The energy of electricity had always fascinated scientistsand, during the first half of the 1800s, the understandingof its true potential advanced rapidly. In 1821, followingDanish physicist Hans Christian Oersted’s discovery ofelectromagnetism, Michael Faraday demonstratedhow to make electricity from magnetism.

ELECTRICITY

Present-day Antarctica

Michael Faraday (1791–1867)

Details of Faraday’selectric motor were

recorded in hislaboratory notebook.





206

Medical scienceFor centuries, most medicine was based on traditional remediesthat were often useless, and when they did work no one knewwhy. Pioneers such as Galen, who lived in the Roman era, hada more systematic approach, but medical science really began

in the 16th century with the work of doctorswho studied the body by dissectingit. Breakthrough medical inventionsand safer hospitals had transformedhealth care by the 19th century.

Edward Jenner develops a vaccinefor smallpox, derived from a similarbut far less dangerouscattle disease knownas cowpox. This is theworld’s first safe vaccine.

The Royal College of Surgeonsreceives a royal charter. As anassociation dedicated to promotingthe highest standards of surgicalcare, it has helped makesurgery much safer.

German physician Samuel Hahnemann(1755–1843) produces his first majorwork on homeopathy—an alternativeto the medical techniques of his era.His theories are never proven.

Frenchman René Laennecinvents the stethoscope,allowing doctors to hear theheart and lungs, and check fsounds that indicate disease

Key events

Medical inventionsEarly 19th-century doctors and surgeons carried abasic tool kit of scalpels, forceps, probes, and smallsaws. But medical technology progressed quickly,and earlier versions of much of the equipment

used today were developed during the 1800s.False teeth, 1860This spring-loaded setof porcelain and ivory“teeth” is mountedon metal.Endoscope, 1880s

This was used to lookinside a patient’s ears,by the light from a candle.

Ether inhaler, 1847The glass jar contained

sponge soaked in ether, anearly general anesthetic.

Dentist’s drill, 1864A wind-up clockwork motordrove this early dental drillfor about two minutes.

“The doctor of thefuture will give nomedicine, but will

interest his patients inthe care of the human

frame, in diet, and in thecause and prevention

of disease.”Thomas Edison,American inventor

Syringes, late 1800sInvented centuries earlier,hypodermic syringes wereperfected in the 1800s.

Blood pressure meter, 1880sThe pressure needed to stopblood flow in an artery wasshown on the dial.

Thermometers, 1865The straight version wasused in the mouth, and theangled one in the armpit.

Candle

1796 1800 1810 1816





208

1830▶1840

King of FranceCharles X was forcedto abdicate duringthe July Revolution.Louis Philippe, Dukeof Orléans, wascrowned King of France.During his reign, Louisimproved France’sposition in Europeand introduced newdemocratic reforms.He would be the lastking of France.

Way of lifeThe American Indians were groupedinto tribes, or nations, usually basedon where they lived and their culture,such as customs and language.They generally leda nomadic existence.

Many, especially thoseon the Great Plains,hunted buffalo, butthey treated theland with respect.

Trail of TearsTo facilitate the movement of settlers to the West, theUS government passed the Indian Removal Act in 1830.This forced native tribes to move to reservation lands,though most did not want to leave their spiritual homes.The Cherokee were made to trek almost 1,250 miles(2,000 km) in what became known as the Trail of Tears.

Greek getawayA desire to break away

from the Ottoman Empirewas finally realized after theGreek War of Independencewhich established Greece a

an independent kingdom

Independent

Belgium

In 1814, the Congressof Vienna had joined

Belgium with Hollandto form the Kingdom

of the Netherlands. In1830, inspired by the

July Revolution inFrance, discontented

Belgians rioted inBrussels. By 1831,

Belgium was declaredan independent

country.

Factory ActTo improve appalling

conditions for childrenworking in factories, theBritish government passed

a Factory Act. The act ruledthat there should be no child

workers under nine years old

Great Reform ActSerious riots across England

forced Parliament to pasnew laws, which made

the way people voted foMembers of Parliament (MPsmore fair and less open to

bribery and corruption

Buffalo partsEvery part of the buffalo was used by

the American Indians. The hide becameclothing and teepees, the bones werecrafted into tools, and teeth were usedfor ceremonial masks and rattles.

AMERICAN INDIANS

1831

When European settlers arrived in America, theland had already been occupied for more than11,000 years by native peoples. It is believed thatthey first arrived by traveling across a land bridgefrom Siberia to Alaska before making their homesin what is now the United States and Canada.

1833

1830

1830

1832

1832

American Indianhunting buffalo

Ceremonial mask ofthe Kwakiutl tribeof British Columbia

Flag ofGreece

LouisPhilippe I





210

“The most deeply affectinginvention... in terms both of people’slives and of the development of

the American economy was surelyCyrus McCormick’s reaper.”Carroll W. Pursell,

from his book Invention in America

1831, UNITED STATES

McCormick’s reaper at work in the American Midwest in 1870



211

TIME FOR CHANGE

RevolutionaryreaperThe mechanical reaper was one of the major

inventions that would revolutionize agriculturein the 19th century. Created by American CyrusMcCormick (1809–83), the reaper enabled farmersto harvest grain quicker than ever before. Thehorse-drawn machine had a rotating wheel to pullcrop stalks against its cutting bar before droppingthe cut ears onto a platform. Farmhands rakedthem up ready for gathering. The reaper madeMcCormick one of the country’s richest men.



212

1840▶1850Morse code

American inventor SamueMorse proved that signals

could be transmitted down a

wire by tapping out a codeof dots and dashes. The

words of the first messagebetween the Washingtonand Baltimore telegraph

line were “What hath Godwrought?” Samuel Morse

had sent the first electricallycoded message

Mines ActIn reponse to growing concernabout women and childrenworking in coal mines for upto 12 hours a day, the MinesAct came into force in Britain.It ruled that no females of anyage or boys under 10 yearswere to work underground.

1840

1842

1844

Penny postIn Britain, Rowland Hill introduced the

first prepaid postage stamp. This cheapnew stamp was called the Penny Black.Until that point, the cost of postagewas paid for by the receiver, so letterswere often delivered but not paid for.

1840

Treaty of NankingWhen China lost the Opium War in 1842, they also

lost part of their country. The treaty stated that HongKong be given to Britain on a 99-year lease and thatthe Chinese ports of Canton, Amoy, Foochow,Ningpo, and Shanghai open to British trade.

1842

Agreement in English

(left) and Chinese (below)

The Treaty of Nanking gaveBritain control of Hong Kong.

Machine for key-tapping Morse code

Young miner

A typical horse and wagonused by pioneer families to

travel across America

Oregon TrailDuring the 1840s, hopeful

families drove from Missouriacross dangerous territory tofind new homes in the West.

This route was called theOregon Trail. Most pioneers

traveled in farm wagons withcovers stretched over

hooped frames.

T he I ndus tr ial Re v o lutio n See pag es 182– 183



TIME FOR CHANGE

213

“It’s enough. This is theright place. Drive on.”Brigham Young, on finding

Salt Lake City, July 24, 1846

Irish Potato FamineFor many years, Ireland’spopulation had dependedon potatoes for basic food.In September 1845, adisease called potato blight

devastated the crop. Englanddid little to help, and between500,000 and 1.5 million Irishpeople died from famine,while millions of othersfled the country.

Gold rush!When James Marshall’s work crew startedbuilding a sawmill for Swiss immigrant

John Sutter on a river in California, theyfound a few tiny nuggets of gold. Furtherdiscoveries followed, and news of thefind traveled fast. Before long, 500,000people from around the world arrivedin the hope of getting rich quickly.

Mormon settlementWhen the religious group known

as the Mormons were driven fromtheir community in Illinois, theyneeded to find somewhere freefrom persecution. A small group,led by missionary Brigham Young,found the perfect place in SaltLake City. During the first four

years of settlement, almost 12,000Mormons joined the community.

Independence of LiberiaFreed slaves from America hadbeen settled in Liberia (meaning“land of the free”) since 1822.Under pressure from Britain,

America granted the countryindependence, making the WestAfrican nation the first democraticrepublic in African history.

Revolution in EuropeToward the end of the decade,revolutions swept throughEurope, fueled by the desire

for political and social change.The rebellions began in France,forcing the French king toabdicate, and soon spread toGermany, Austria, and beyond.

Sound of the saxBelgian manufacturer

Adolphe Sax patentedhis new instrument—the

saxophone—in 1846,having exhibited it tothe world at the 1841Brussels exhibition.

1845 1847

1846

1848

1850

Mormon leader Brigham Young

1848

Irish families crowd onto paddle steamersto Liverpool to escape the famine. Flag of Liberia—

the white starrepresents freedom.

Panning and minifor gold in Californ



214

CHILDREN IN HISTORY

Heading westIn the middle of the 19th century, thousands of familiesliving in the eastern United States packed all their belonging

into wagons and headed west. Before them lay a journeyof 2,000 miles (3,200 km) and the promise of land forfarming, or even gold! Most pioneers traveled in largegroups of families and friends, often with more childrenthan adults. A strict routine was needed to keep themall in order, but every day on the trail was an adventure.

An early start

The days began at four o’clock, when a guard on the night shift fired arifle to wake the camp. From wagons and tents, sleepy pioneers emergto start their fires. The men and older boys would round up the cattle anhorses and bring them back to camp, while the women and childrenmade breakfast. Then everything had to be stowed in the wagons.

Wagons ho! At seven o’clock, the cry went out—“Wagons ho!”—and the procession set off down the trail. Most wagonswere pulled by oxen, which were strong but slow, witha speed of about 2 mph (3 km/h). Only the youngestchildren, or the sick, rode. The rest walked, so as notto add to the weight of the wagon.

Nooning time There would be a short stop around noon, then thewalking continued. The pace was slower now, andtired children often walked in silence. Toward the end

of the afternoon, a scout went ahead to find a campsite. He marked out

a circle in the dust, and led the wagons in to form a barricade.Camp life The children had lots of chores, including sewing, milking the cows,fetching water, and collecting buffalo chips (dried dung) for the fire.But there was also time to play tag with friends, or with hoops, dolls,and jump ropes. Young people gathered to chat, sing, play the fiddle,and dance. Around eight o’clock, the pioneers settled down for thenight, to sleep and dream of their future lives. Most of them endedup settling on farms in California or Oregon, where they built newlives for their families.

Promised land

Pioneers were lured west by posters

promising cheap land. Between 1839 and

1850, about 55,000 people had traveled west.

Family portr

This photograph sho

a mother, her you

children, and their d

outside their wagon

the long journey we

River crossing

The journey held manydangers and one of the

greatest was getting

the animals and heavy

wagons across the

rivers along their path.

“The road was lined with the skeletonsof the poor beasts who had died in the

struggle… Sometimes we found the bonesof men bleaching beside their broken-

down and abandoned wagons. ”Luzena Stanley Wilson, gold rush entrepreneur, describingthe deserts on her family’s travels west in 1849

“When we stopped, the boys’ faces were a sight;

they were covered with all the dust that couldstick on. One could just see the apertures where

eyes, nose and mouth were through the dust;their appearance was frightful.”Sarah Raymond, from her diary of her journey in 1865



215

TIME FOR CHANGE

“So Pa sold the little house. He sol

the cow and calf. He made hickorybows and fastened them upright to

the wagon box. Ma helped himstretch white canvas over them.”Laura Ingalls Wilder, the American author of a serie

of books based on her childhood in a pioneer family





Between 1850 and 1945, the world was brought together as never

before. The development of telephones, radio, television, trains,

cars, and airplanes got the whole world talking and moving. But as

nations became more influential and powerful, they also came into

conflict with each other. Vast areas of the planet were taken over

by Europe’s empire builders. Increasing international rivalries

exploded in two global wars and resulted in the death of millions.

1850–1945Empires and World Wars



218

1850▶1860

1851

1853

Florence NightingaleThe British death toll was keptto a minimum by the work ofthe nurse Florence Nightingale.Known as the “lady with thelamp,” she improved thehygiene of the soldiers’ hospital,which greatly reduced thedisease and infection rate.In 1907, she became the firstwoman to be given the Orderof Merit, an award for herservices during the war.

Taiping

rebellionThis was a period ofunrest in China, inwhich people turnedto outside ideas asa protest against theunpopular Manchurulers. In an act ofrebellion, Christianconvert HongXiuquan formed thebreakaway TaipingHeavenly Kingdom.This led to a civilwar lasting 14 years

and killing 20 millionpeople beforethe governmentregained control.

Great ExhibitionMore than 14,000 exhibitors fromaround the world showed off the latesttechnological wonders at Britain’s GreatExhibition. The venue was the CrystalPalace—a giant, temporary glassstructure built in London’s Hyde Park.

Japan opens upSince the 1600s, the Japanese rulers,the Tokugawa Shogunate, refused toengage with the outside world. In 1853,US commodore Matthew Perry sailedfour warships to Japan, determined toopen up trade between America and

Japan. After a brief standoff, the Japanese agreed, and the following

year the two nations signed theKanagawa Treaty, permitting theUnited States to create a baseand conduct trade in Japan.

The two sides in the Crimean War wereRussia and an alliance made up of theOttoman Empire, Sardinia, Britain, andFrance. After three years of fighting,mostly in Crimea (modern Ukraine), theRussians were defeated. This was the firstconflict to be reported and photographedin newspapers.

Charge of the Light BrigadeA misunderstood order spurred abrigade of British cavalry to attack abattery of Russian cannons. When thepointless charge was over, more than

150 British soldiers lay dead.

1853–1856 THE CRIMEAN WAR

1850

CrimeanWar medal

The Great Exhibition attracted more thansix million visitors—a record for the time.

The CrystalPalace wasmade of293,655 panesof glass.

Casualties fallduring the charge.

1850



219

EMPIRES AND WORLD WARS

1858

British naturalist Charles Darwin is regarded as one of theworld’s greatest scientists thanks to his groundbreakingtheories of evolution. After traveling in South America,he developed his theories for 20 years before publishing

his celebrated book, On the Origin of Species .Scientific voyageBorn to a large family

in England, Charles Darwinstudied at school and college

until he joined a scientific voyage toSouth America’s Galápagos Islands.In 1831, he set sail on board the shipHMS Beagle and spent five yearsstudying the animal and plant lifehe encountered on the islands.

Natural selectionIn the Galápagos, Darwin noticed each island had

similar species that were slightly different. He realized thatanimals with the best characteristics for the environmentsurvived, for example, birds with the best beak for finding

food available on the island. Animals then passed onthese characteristics to their young, and so the species

gradually evolved by a process he called natural selection.

Transatlantic communicationThe first telegraph cable was laid across the AtlanticOcean, signaling a new age of intercontinentalcommunication. However, the first cable worked foronly a few weeks before breaking down. A reliablereplacement would not be in place until the middleof the next decade, laid by the SS Great Eastern.

1809–1882 CHARLES DARWIN

1857Indian rebellionResentment at the British presence

in India was building. The nativearmies of the East India Company—the British business that ruled Indiaat the time—finally revolted (left),following the introduction of a newrifle. Its cartridges were rumored to begreased in pork and beef fat, sparkingoutrage among Muslims and Hindusbecause these animal products wereagainst their religions. The rebellionlasted a year, after which Britain tookdirect control of India as the British Raj.

1858Mexico’s War of the Reform

During the 1850s, there were twomain political groups in Mexico. The

conservatives wanted the governmentcontrolled by the military and the Catholic

Church, while the liberals wanted powerto be spread among the people. The

liberals introduced laws reducing thepower of the Church and the military.The conservatives staged a rebellion,

but were defeated by the liberals.

Laying cables under the Atlantic Ocean

186

Commodore MatthewPerry arrives in Japanto build relations.

AmericaninventorElisha Otisdesigned andinstalled theworld’s firsteleveator inNew York.

A variety of finch beaks



1865War of the Triple Alliance

In South America, Paraguay entered intoa disastrous war with its three neighbors, Uruguay,Brazil, and Argentina. The country was devastated,experiencing some of its worst losses in battle, with

the population reduced by more than half.

1860▶1870

1863Underground travelThe world’s first undergroundrailroad, the Metropolitan Railway,opened in London, with 30,000passengers traveling on the first

day. The wooden carriages werepulled by steam locomotivesbelching thick clouds of smoke.

1863Second Mexican EmpireAfter gaining independence in 1821,Mexico briefly had a monarchy(1821–1823)—this was the FirstMexican Empire. By the 1860s,conservative supporters of themonarchy, backed by France,overthrew the liberal governmentand made Austrian Duke Maximilian Ithe new emperor of Mexico. Withsupport from the United States,the liberal forces rebelled. France

withdrew in 1866, the liberalgovernment was reinstalled, andEmperor Maximilian was executed.

1860American Civil WarIn the United States, the Northernand Southern states went to war overslavery and states’ rights. After four

years of fighting and millions ofcasualties, the North proved victoriousand slavery was officially abolished.

1860 1862 1864

Infantry drumused during theAmerican Civil War

London’s Baker Street Station in 1863

1861Freeing the serfs

In the 19th century,23 million Russians wereserfs—slaves who farmed

the fields for rich landowners.In an effort to radically reformhis country, Tsar Alexander IIgave the serfs their freedom.

Paraguayan troops sufferedhuge loss of life during theWar of the Triple Alliance.

Tsar

Alexander II

A m e r ica n

C i v i l Wa r

See pages

222 –223




221

1867Das Kapital published

The German philosopherand socialist writer Karl Marx

published the first volume of hisbook, Das Kapital , a criticism

of capitalism. His theorieswould become a major influence

on the Communist regimesof the 20th century.

Meiji artDuring the Meiji (meaning“enlightened rule”) period,

Japan experienced rapid change.

The economy was modernized andinternational trade began. Art was

now supported by the Japanesegovernment and Meiji artifacts

grew popular in Europe and the US.

Emperor Meiji Japan emerged as a major world powerunder Emperor Meiji (1852–1912), whointroduced radical political, social, andeconomic change. His policy was to

modernize Japan by taking the bestfrom other nations, while

keeping the distinctive Japanese culture.

The military rulers of Japan—the TokugawaShogunate—still distrusted other nations andtried to limit their access to the country. Japanfinally opened up to the outside world when the

Tokugawa Shogunate was overthrown in 1868and replaced by 15-year-old Emperor Meiji.

1868 MEIJI RESTORATION

1866 1868 1870

German

unificationPrussia and Austriawent to war to see whichcountry would dominatethe German-speakingworld in the years ahead.Prussia was victorious.Over the next few years,several German states

joined forces withPrussia, resulting in theproclamation of a unitedGerman Empire in 1871.

1867Founding of Canada

The North American provincesof Canada, Nova Scotia, and NewBrunswick were brought togetherto found Canada—a dominion of theBritish Empire. Ottawa was chosenas the capital of the new country,which was home at the time tomore than three million people.

Karl Marx

EmperorMeiji onhorseback

Goldenvase fromthe Meiji

period

1869Transcontinental railroad

The Atlantic and Pacific coastsof the United States were linked

together for the first time with theconstruction of the 1,777-mile

(2,860 km) First TranscontinentalRailroad. A golden spike was

driven into the last section of trackto signal the route’s completion.

Swedish scientist Alfred Nobel patented hisinvention—explosive dynamite—in 1867.

1866

Suez Canal

Egypt’s Suez Canal opened in 1869.It sped up the sea trade between Easand West, since ships no longer hadto undertake the hazardous journeyall the way around the bottom ofAfrica—a trip of several thousandmiles. Instead, ships could takea shortcut through the new 102-mile(164 km) waterway between theRed Sea and the Mediterranean.

1869

Crowds gathered to watch the canal’s o

U n i f ica t io n

o f G e r ma n y

See pages

226 –22 7





223


At the naval Battleof Hampton Roads,the Confederatesfailed to break theNorth’s blockade.

The Union captured theConfederate capital ofRichmond, Virginia,and Lee surrenderedto Grant. The CivilWar was over.

The EmancipationProclamation was issuedby Lincoln on January 1,declaring all slaves in theConfederacy to be freed.

The Union army marchedthrough Confederateterritory from Atlantato the sea at Savannah,destroying towns,railroads, and supplies.

1862 18651863 1864

A month after the Battle ofGettysburg, Lincoln made

his famous GettysburgAddress, vowing to

continue the fight.

1863

Who’s who

Abraham LincolnThe election of theabolitionist Lincoln

as president in 1860 jump-started the

Civil War. He led theNorth to victory and

signed the law

freeing the slaves.

Ulysses S. GrantHe led the Union army

from 1862 onward.Grant masterminded aseries of victories over

the Confederates. Heserved two terms as

president after the war.

Jefferson DavisPresident of theConfederacy, Davis wasa less effective leaderthan Lincoln. He failedto get support fromforeign countries ordevise a strategy to stop

the North’s advance.

Robert E. LeeLee was such a hugelyrespected professionalsoldier that he was evenasked to be commanderof the Union army. Buthe remained loyal tothe South.

UNION

vs.

vs.

CONFEDERATE

Battlefield medicineThe war saw medical as well as military

advances. With the men off fighting,women worked as nurses for the first

time. They worked in portable fieldhospitals, such as this one in Virginia,set up to care for wounded soldiers.

African-American soldiers

About 180,000 African-Americansserved in the Union army, making upapproximately 10 percent of the totalforce (about 40,000 of whom died).Toward the end of the war, theSouth even raised the possibility offorming African-American battalions,although these never materialized.

New warfareMany new technologies were used during

the war, most of which benefited the moreindustrially advanced Union in the North.Railroads allowed troops to move around

quickly, while telegraph lines ensuredthat orders were delivered

immediately. The invention ofnew weapons resulted in a

high number of casualties.

The 1861 Springfield rifle musketwas used throughout the war.

The dragoon pistol was aheavy single-shot weapon.

Sword bayonets couldbe attached to a rifleor used independently.

Grenade foundat Gettysburg



1870▶1880

1870 1872 1874

1870Franco-Prussian War

Having defeated Austria a few years earlier,the Prussians, under Otto von Bismarck,provoked France, under Napoleon III, intowar. The Prussians easily steamrolled theFrench in a series of battles, toppled Napoleon,and marched into Paris as victors in 1871.

1871

Unified ItalyThe French occupation ofRome began in 1849, whenFrench troops overthrewthe revolutionary RomanRepublic. It ended in 1870,allowing the city to becomepart of Italy. Under KingVictor Emmanuel II, Romebecame the capital ofa newly unified Italythe following year. 1874

British Gold CoastThe Asante people were rulers of a large

stretch of West Africa. They fought off theBritish in the First and Second Anglo-AsanteWars of the 1820s and 1860s, but were less

fortunate in the Third Anglo-Asante War,when the British took control of most of

their territory. It became the British Empireterritory of the Gold Coast (now Ghana).

Prussian soldierson horsebackattack theFrench army.

King VictorEmmanuel IIon horseback

U n i f ica t io n

o f G e r ma n y

See pages

226 –22 7



225

First WimbledonIn the early 1870s, a new

racket game, “Sphairistike,”grew in popularity in the UK.Renamed tennis, the sport’s

first official championship washeld at the All England Lawn

Tennis and Croquet Clubin Wimbledon

in 1877.

Invention ofthe telephone

Scottish-born inventorAlexander Graham Bell

patented his telephone designon the same day in 1876 thatAmerican Elisha Gray triedto patent his version. ButGray got there too late.

Bell’s patent becamethe most valuable

ever granted.

1876 1878 1880


1878Second Afghan War

Britain invaded Afghanistan to prevent Russiafrom gaining influence there. This was part of theso-called “Great Game,” in which the two powerscompeted for supremacy in Central Asia. Followingits defeat in 1880, Afghanistan was forced to give upcontrol of its foreign policy to Britain.

1876The Porfiriato EraFormer Mexican soldier Porfirio Díazoverthrew the president of Mexico,and went on to rule the countryas a dictator until 1911—a periodknown as the Porfiriato. He oversawtremendous economic growth andindustrial modernization, but healso grew increasingly unpopular,and was eventually overthrown aftermore than 30 years in power.

1878

1879

Treaty of San StefanoFollowing the Russo-Turkish Warof 1877–1878, the weakeningOttoman Empire lost control of anumber of Balkan countries, whichit had ruled for centuries. TheTreaty of San Stefano in 1878ended the war and granted Serbia,Romania, and Montenegro theirfreedom. Bulgaria received limited

Anglo-Zulu WarAt the Battle of Rorke’s Driftin Zululand, South Africa,130 British troops repelled anattack by more than 4,000 Zuluwarriors. The battle was partof the Anglo-Zulu War, in whicBritain extended its colonialinterests in South Africa througthe conquest of Zulu territory.

1876Battle of Little Bighorn

Sioux and Cheyenne Indians joined forcesto attack American troops under thecommand of Colonel George ArmstrongCuster. It was a rare reversal for the USgovernment in the ongoing AmericanIndian Wars, which forced many NativeAmericans from their lands.

One of Bell’s early model phones,known as a box telephone, hada trumpetlike mouthpiece.

The Battle of Little Bighorn left hundredsdead, including Colonel Custer.

In 1872, America’sYellowstone NationalPark became theworld’s firstnational park.

A wooden frameand thick stringswere typical of the19th-century tennis racket.

Lieutenant Melvill, horseback, attemptscut through Zulu lin



226

Unification ofGermany and ItalyThe map of Europe was constantly being redrawn during

the 19th century as old empires crumbled and new powersemerged. In 1850, the countries of Germany and Italy didn’texist. Instead, there were many different German-speakingand Italian-speaking states, each with their own leaders,which formed part of several different unions, kingdoms,and empires. But in the 1860s and 1870s, ambitiouspoliticians brought these states together, through acombination of warfare and political agreements,to create the countries of Germany and Italy.

Prussia and Austria unitedfor a short war during whichthey captured the provincesof Schleswig and Holsteinfrom Denmark.

Prussia and Austria wentto war, with Prussiaemerging victoriousand taking control of anumber of German states.

Bismarck dragged France into theFranco-Prussian War by publishingan edited telegram (left) that madeit look like the Prussian king hadinsulted the French ambassador.

Wilhelm I of Prussia wascrowned emperor of theGerman Empire. Theceremony was held inParis, further rubbing saltin France’s wounds.

1864 1870 18711866

Key events

The German statesIn 1866, the armies of Prussia(a north-central European industrialpower including what is nownorthern Germany and Poland) easilydefeated those of the traditionallydominant German power of Austria.

This allowed Prussia to unite severalGerman states into the North GermanConfederation under its command.“

The main thing is to make

history, not to write it.”Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898)

Rival forces

Otto von BismarckBismarck, prime ministerof Prussia, was a craftypolitician who provokedthe wars and arrangedthe deals that resulted ina united Germany withhim as the chancellor(political ruler).

Napoleon IIIThe emperor of Francewas the big loser ofGerman unification.Following his army’sdefeat in the Franco-Prussian war, he wasforced into exilein Britain.

War and peaceIn the Franco-Prussian

War of 1870–1871, Germanstates led by Prussiadefeated France. This

victory meant that France’sdomination in Europe

was over. As part of thepeace deal, France gave

up two of its German-speaking provinces,

Alsace and Lorraine.A new unified German

Empire was proclaimedon January 18, 1871.

GermaniaThis image shows Germania, the symbolof a united Germany. Germania is usuallydepicted as a woman carrying the Reichsschwert (imperial sword) and a shield bearing a blackeagle. Following unification, Germany wouldbecome a major power by the late 19th century.

Prussianterritory

Other NorthGerman States

South GermanStates

Border of theNorth German

Confederation,1867Border ofthe GermanEmpire, 1871

North Sea Baltic SeaSCHLESWIG

BOHEMIA

RUSSIANEMPIRE

PRUSSIA

B A V A R I A

WÜRTTEMBERGFRANCE

HANOVER

KINGDOM OFSAXONY

MECKLENBURG

NETHERLANDSHOLSTEIN





228

The firstautomobile

Though many otherinventors were working

on creating an automobilepowered by gasoline, it

was German engineer KarlBenz who got there first in

1885. He was awardeda patent the next year.

1880▶1890

1880

Anglo-Egyptian WarFollowing a short war, Britainmade Egypt a territory of itsempire. Britain also faceda revolt in Sudan led byMuhammad Ahmad, whoclaimed to be the Mahdi—a great ruler prophesied inIslamic teaching. Sudan finallyfell to the British in 1898.

Alexander’s

assassinationThe tsar of Russia,Alexander II, was

assassinated by theterrorist organization

Narodnaya Volya(“People’s Will”). Russia’s

Jewish population wasfalsely accused of the

crime, causing antisemitichostility (violence against

the Jews). Thousands of Jews emigrated to Europe,

the US, and Palestine.

American inventor Thomas Edisonwas one of the leading industrialfigures of the 19th century, creditedwith patenting more than 1,000inventions, including the record player,

the film camera, and the firstcommercially practical

incandescent light bulb.

1847–1931

Invention FactoryEdison did not work alone. At his researchlaboratory in Menlo Park, New Jersey,he employed a vast number of workersto develop his ideas. He named it theInvention Factory.

Power systemIn addition to the light bulb,

Edison also invented a system forproducing electricity to power the

bulbs, as well as power plants tocarry electricity to people’s homes.

1883Eruption of KrakatoaIn what is believed to be the

loudest eruption in recordedhistory, the Indonesian volcanoKrakatoa blew its top in 1883.At least 35,000 people werekilled. The explosion washeard more than 3,000 miles(5,000 km) away.

1882

THOMAS EDISON

Scramble for AfricaThe major European powersmet at the Berlin Conferenceto discuss dividing up Africabetween them. No Africanleaders were invited oreven consulted. The so-called “Scramble for Africa”was underway.

Bertha Benz,wife of Karl,took his caron the firstknown roadtrip in anautomobile.

1884

1881

One of the world’sfirst electric street

lights was installedin Indiana in 1880.

Sc ra m b l e fo r A f r ica

See pages

230 –231





230

Berlin ConferenceIn 1884–1885, the Berlin Conference on thefuture of Africa started the empire-buildingscramble. The European countries claimedthat they wanted to help Africa stamp outslavery. But in reality, they decided to carveup the continent between them in order toexploit its resources. No African leader wasinvited to the conference.

British takeoverThe major winner in the scramble was Britain. By1900, the country was in control of 30 percent ofthe African population. Britain took over territorystretching from Egypt in the north and Gambia inthe west to Kenya in the east and South Africa.

Tunisia became aFrench protectorate.The following year,Egypt became partof the British Empire.

American-born HiramMaxim invented the firstself-powered machine

gun, giving theBritish a militaryadvantage in Africa.

The Berlin Conferencegave the green light toEuropean powers to beginthe “Scramble for Africa.”

Germany acquirednew territories,including what isnow Namibia, whileBritain acquired whatis now Botswana.

The Southern IvoryCoast became aFrench protectoratewhile the NorthernIvory Coast followetwo years later.

1881 1884 1884–1885 1885 1889

Key events

The Scramblefor AfricaEuropeans had been involved in Africa since the days of the

slave trade, but had acquired little territory. However, the speedand scale of their colonization of Africa during the 1880s and1890s was unprecedented. In 1870, just 10 percent of thecontinent was controlled by Europeans. By 1900, Europeansruled 90 percent of the continent, or one-fifth of the globe’slandmass. Only Liberia and Ethiopia remained free.

Colonizingcountriesin Africa, 1914

France

Spain

Germany

Italy

Portugal

Belgium

England

Uncolonized

IndianOcean

AtlanticOcean

Maxim’smachine gun




231

David LivingstoneThe first Europeanto see Victoria Fallsin southern Africa,Livingstone crossedAfrica to convert

people to Christianity.

African resistanceThe colonization of Africa

was often a hard fought,bloody affair. The Asantepeople of West Africa, theEdo people of Benin City,Nigeria, and the Zulus of

South Africa (right) allfought fiercely to defendtheir land. However, thesuperiority of European

weapons was usuallythe deciding factor.

Looting of AfricaThe Europeans paid little attention

to the rights of native Africans.Treasures were stolen, such as this

bronze carving from Nigeria, lootedby the British in 1897. In Central

Africa, King Leopold II of Belgiumestablished a personal colony—the

Congo Free State—employing aprivate army to force the local

people to harvest rubber.

Cecil RhodesOne of the most ruthlesscolonizers of southernAfrica, Cecil Rhodeshad Rhodesia (nowZimbabwe) namedafter him.

King Leopold IIThe Belgian king’sbrutal exploitationof his African colonytriggered outrage and

the intervention of theBelgian government.

Henry MortonStanleyThis Welsh-bornAmerican journalisthelped King Leopold IIestablish his Africancolony in the Congo.

Britain acquired theisland of Zanzibarand the city of Pembafrom the Germans inreturn for the North Seaisland of Heligoland.

Britain seizedYorubaland (nowpart of Nigeria), whileFrance gained controlof much of Senegal.

France tookover Dahomey(now Benin).

Italy tried to conquerEthiopia, but wasdefeated at theBattle of Adowa.

The Second BoerWar resulted inBritain takingover the wholeof South Africa.

1890 1892 1893 1896 1899–1901

Zulu spear

Key figures

Reasons for the scramble To end the slave trade

This was given as one of the officialreasons for colonization. However,the colonial powers did exploit andmistreat the African people.

Medicine

The discovery of quinine as a cure formalaria meant that more Europeanswere prepared to settle in Africa.

ExplorationThe African adventures of Europeanexplorers, such as Livingstoneand Stanley, had helped map thecontinent. This raised interest inthe riches to be found there.

Power and prestige

The great European powers—particularlyBritain, France, and, after unification,Germany and Italy—competed witheach other to build bigger empires.

Exploitation

Africa had vast mineral depositsand other resources that couldbe exploited.

Military superiority

The development of superior weapons,such as rifles and machine guns, gavethe Europeans a military advantageover the Africans.

Racism

Some believed white people weresuperior to blacks, and had the right totake over their land to “civilize” them.

British soldiers gathered at theSphinx in 1882, the year Egypt

became part of the British Empire.

Religion

Many European missionaries went toAfrica to convert people to Christianity.

Ethiopian commanderat the Battle of Adowa



232

“At Ellis Island I wasborn again. Life for me began

when I was 10 years old.

”Edward G. Robinson, movie actor,born Emanuel Goldenberg in Romania,who passed through Ellis Island in 1903



233


CHILDREN IN HISTORY

Children ofEllis IslandIn the late 19th and early 20th centuries, hundreds ofthousands of children traveled from Europe to the UnitedStates to start new lives. Some came with their families, whileothers made the trip alone, usually because their parents hadgone ahead to find work. After a long, miserable sea journey,they would land at Ellis Island in New York Harbor, where theywere checked before they could begin new lives in America.

Welcome to America Most families traveling to the United States were escaping poverty orreligious persecution back home. Many cheered and wept with joy as theirsteamships passed the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor. They hadendured storms and seasickness, but the long journey was finally over.

First impressions

The Immigration Station was busy and noisy with crowds of new arrivalswaiting to be seen by the authorities. Different languages were heard aspeople talked excitedly to each other. Nurses were on hand to welcomeand talk to the children. They reassured the youngsters, holding theirhands and giving them milk to drink. Doctors and inspectors woreuniforms, which was intimidating for many of the immigrant children.

Entry tests

Families were put through a series of entry tests. The most importantwas the medical test. Anyone with an infectious disease was notallowed into the country. In the mental test, immigrants were asked a

few arithmetic questions. Children gave their names to inspectors for theofficial documents, while parents had to prove they had money (usuallyabout $25) to support the family. Those who were ill but could be treatedat Ellis Island Hospital were detained. Children traveling alone were keptuntil relatives came, or until money or a prepaid ticket was sent for them.

A new life Once all the tests were over, the new arrivals could live in the UnitedStates—the land of freedom and opportunity. On the first floor of the EllisIsland Immigration Station, family and friends waited in anticipation forloved ones to arrive after months or even years apart. This area of thebuilding became known as “the kissing post,” since reunited relativeskissed and hugged each other there. About one-third of the immigrants

stayed in New York, where many worked in industries such as textile andclothing production. Thousands of children were employed as cigaretterollers, bobbin doffers in mills, and general helpers on production lines.

Open wide

Doctors carefully examined

every child as soon as they

arrived at the island to make

sure they were not bringing

any diseases into the country.

Milk service

There were

hundreds of

employees on

Ellis Island. Thisworker pours milk

for waiting women

and children.

Island of Hope

New York’s Ellis Island Immigration Station opened

in 1892 to process the vast numbers of people

arriving from Europe—about one million a year.

“So when I came to EllisIsland, my gosh, there wassomething I’ll never forget.

The first impression—all

kinds of nationalities. Andthe first meal we got… I said,‘My God, we’re going to havea good time here. We’re going

to have plenty to eat.’”Marta Forman, Czechoslovakianimmigrant, at Ellis Island in 1922

Loaded with luggage

This child has arrived at Ellis Island with

his family. Families brought everything

they could carry with them, ready to start

their new lives in the United States.



234

1890▶1900

1890

Battle of Wounded KneeAmerican Indians lost their battle with

the US Army at Wounded Knee Creekin South Dakota. In the massacre,

150 Native Americans and 25 armytroops were killed. It was triggered

by the American government’s attemptto ban the Ghost Dance—a new

religious ceremony that AmericanIndians believed would stop

US expansion into their land.

1890

Club used in the GhostDance by the Arapaho, atribe of American Indians

The Chinese andJapanese naviesbattle at the mouthof the Yalu Riverdividing Koreaand China.

1891

Russian railroadConstruction of theworld’s longest railroad began in Russia. Ittook more than a decade to build, andeventually the Trans-Siberian Railway linkedthe capital, Moscow, with the port ofVladivostok on the Pacific coast,

1893Votes for womenNew Zealand became thefirst self-governing countryin the world to give womenthe right to vote. This was theresult of a series of petitions toParliament organized by the

British-born women’s rightscampaigner Kate Sheppard.

1894First Sino-Japanese War

When China and Japan sent troops to calm anuprising in Korea, the two nations ended up atwar. The Chinese were defeated and forced togive up the island of Formosa (now Taiwan)to the Japanese. Japan became a new power,and Korea gained independence from China.

Ellis Island opensIn New York Harbor, work beganon the construction of Ellis IslandImmigration Station. Work wascompleted two years later in 1892.When the station closed in 1954,more than 12 million people hadpassed through. Today, at least40 percent of the US populationhas an ancestor who enteredthe country in this way.

Italian baker RaffaeleEsposito created theclassic Margheritapizza in 1899 as atreat for the visit ofQueen Margherita.

Poster advertising theTrans-Siberian Railway

1890

C hildr e n o f E llis I s land See pag es 232-233



235


1898

1896

This groundbreaking year sawthree dramatic technologicalbreakthroughs, which would havelong-lasting effects: Italian Guglielmo

Marconi invented the wirelesstelegraph, German physicist WilhelmRöntgen discovered X-rays, and theFrench Lumière brothers premieredthe world’s first moving picture film.

Moving picturesViewers of the first

motion picture film,presented by Auguste

and Louis Lumièrein Paris using a

projector, wereshown a 50-second

scene of workersleaving a factory.

X-raysWith the discoveryof X-rays, it wasfinally possible fordoctors to see insidethe human body. Theworld’s first X-rayshowed the handand wedding ring ofWilhelm Röntgen’swife. He was awardedthe first Nobel Prizefor Physics in 1901.

Wireless telegraphThis is a replica of Marconi’s wirelesstelegraph, which used radio waves totransmit Morse code signals. The inventionpaved the way for the development ofbroadcast radio in the 20th century.

Spanish-American WarIn the Cuban War of Independence, the United Statescame to assist Cuba against the Spanish. Spain wasdefeated and forced to give its remaining colonies— the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico—to the US.Although Cuba was supposed to have achievedindependence, the United States continued tooccupy the island for years to come.

Battle of AdowaAt this time, all of Africa exceptfor Liberia and Ethiopia was underEuropean control. Italy hoped toadd Ethiopia to its empire, but wasdefeated at the Battle of Adowa inthe First Italo-Ethiopian War. ButItaly would try again in 1935 andwin the Second Italo-Ethiopian War.

1895 A YEAR OF INVENTION

1900

1896Olympic GamesBelieving that sports couldbe used to promote peacebetween nations, Frencharistocrat Pierre deCoubertin organized thefirst modern revival of theOlympic Games in Athens,Greece. About 300 athletescompeted in variouscompetitions, includingswimming, cycling,weightlifting, wrestling,and track and field.

Future US presidentTheodore Rooseveltand his troops plant

the American flagto celebrate victory

in the Spanish-American War.

Medal given to all participatingathletes at the 1896

Olympic Games

1899Second Boer WarIn South Africa, war brokeout between the Boersettlers and the Britishimperial forces. After bitterfighting, the Boers weredefeated in 1902, but the

British were criticized fortheir brutal tactics—sendingcivilians to concentrationcamps (where 25,000 died)and trying to starve theBoers into submission.

Film projectorbelonging to theLumière brothers



236

1900

1900▶1910

1900

High flierAir travel got off to aflying start in the 20thcentury with the firstflight of a new type ofairship. Known as thezeppelin, it was namedafter its Germaninventor, Ferdinand

von Zeppelin.Commercial flightsbegan in 1910, and thecraft was used forbombing missionsduring World War I.

Australian CommonwealthAlthough still part of the BritishEmpire, six Australian colonies

joined together to form the federalAustralian state, which would

control its own domestic and foreignpolicy. A new capital, Canberra,

was built a decade later.

First flight

American brothersWilbur and Orville Wrightinvented the first powered

flying machine, namedFlyer . The maiden flighttook place at Kill Devil

Hills, North Carolina, andlasted just 12 seconds.

Riyadh capturedA member of the exiledruling family of Riyadh

in Arabia, Ibn Saudreturned in 1902 to

capture the city of hisbirth. For the next

two decades, he tookcontrol of the rest of

central Arabia, foundingthe Kingdom of Saudi

Arabia in 1932,which he ruled as

King Abdulaziz.

Boxer Rebellion

In China, a nationalist group,the Righteous and HarmoniousFists (nicknamed “Boxers”), ledan uprising against foreigners.It was eventually stoppedby an international forceincluding British, American,Russian, and Japanese troops.

Russo-Japanese War

In the Boxer Rebellion of1901, Russia occupied theregion of Manchuria innortheast China. This causedhostility between Russia and

Japan. When talks failed, Japan declared war. Japandrove the Russians out ofManchuria and emerged fromthe conflict as a world power

Airship Graf Zeppelin on a flight test in 1900

The Model T pavedthe way for the massownership of automobiles.

19021900

1903 1904

1901

L ea r n i ng

to f l y

See pages

238 –239

Depiction of the Russo-Japanese War



237


Model TBefore the Model T,

cars had been handmade andexpensive. In 1908, American

businessman Henry Fordrevolutionized the industry by

building his vehicles on factoryassembly lines and selling

them cheaply. By 1927,about 15 million had

been built.

1910

San Francisco

earthquakeAn enormous earthquake hitSan Francisco early in themorning of April 18, destroyingmost of the city’s buildings andkilling more than 3,000 people.The damage took years to repair.

Young Turk movement

The Ottoman Empire in Turkeywas taken over by the Young Turkmovement, which forced the sultanto grant a constitution and allowdemocratic elections. The YoungTurks also advocated for legalreforms and more rights for women

Russian revoltAlready unpopular withmost of the nation, TsarNicholas II faced massprotests following Russia’sdefeat by Japan. To avoidbeing overthrown, the tsarwas forced to introducea new elected parliament,called the Duma, in 1905.

Special Theory of RelativityEinstein suggested that mass and energy are versionsof the same thing, which he expressed in his famous

equation: E=mc2. His later work explained how space andtime form an interconnected whole called “space-time.”

Scientific geniusBorn in Germany to a

Jewish family, Einsteinmoved to Switzerland to

study, and then to the UnitedStates in 1933, where he liveduntil he died. After his paper

was published, he becamethe world’s most

famous scientistand was awardedthe Nobel Prize forPhysics in 1921.

Crumbling buildings lined the streets after the earthquake.

German stamp celebratingthe centennial of Einstein’s

theories in 2005

The two US baseballleagues—the

American Leagueand the NationalLeague—competedin an end-of-the-year championshipfor the first time in1903. It is now theWorld Series.

1879–1955 ALBERT EINSTEIN

In 1905, German scientist Albert Einstein publisheda revolutionary paper that explained many of the

mysteries of the Universe. Einstein worked inan office in Switzerland and had developed his“Special Theory of Relativity” in his spare time.

1905 1906 1909



238

DECEMBER 17, 1903, NORTH CAROLINA

Wilbur Wright watches his brother Orville take off from Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina.



239


Learning to flyOn a blustery morning in 1903, two American brothers—bicycle-makers by trade—proved that powered flight was possible. In anaircraft of their own design equipped with a small engine, OrvilleWright nervously took the controls while his brother walkedalongside. The first flight lasted just 12 seconds and covered only120 ft (37 m), but it launched the age of aviation. That morning, fourflights were made in all, two by each brother. The final one, piloted byWilbur, lasted 59 seconds and traveled a distance of 852 ft (260 m)— the world’s first air pilots had shown that the sky was now the limit.

“We could not understand that there wasanything about a bird that would enable it tofly that could not be built on a larger scale.”Orville Wright



240

Nobel Prizemedal

1910

1910▶1915

1910Mexican Revolution

After more than four decades as Mexico’sdictator, Porfirio Díaz was finally forcedfrom power by an uprising demandinggreater freedoms for the people. However,fighting between liberal and conservativeforces continued for another decade.

In 1911, two men competed to be first to reach theworld’s last unexplored territory, the South Pole,in Antarctica. Robert Scott, a British navy officer,got there on January 17, 1912, only to discoverthat the Norwegian explorer RoaldAmundsen had beaten him to it.

1911 THE RACE FOR THE SOUTH POLE

Norwegian victoryCaptain Amundsen and his fourcompanions arrived at the South Poleon December 14, 1911, where theyplanted the Norwegian flag. The triphad been meticulously planned and allthe explorers made it home safely.

Chinese

RevolutionMore than 2,000 yearsof imperial rule inChina ended with arebellion against theunpopular ManchuDynasty. Puyi, thesix-year-old emperor,was forced to abdicate,and the country wasdeclared a republic.

First Balkan War

The Balkan League—an alliance betweenBulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, andSerbia—declared war on the Ottoman

Empire to free Macedonia from Turkishrule. The Ottomans were defeated the

following year and lost Albania andMacedonia, which represented almostall of its remaining European territory.

1911

1912

Nobel PrizePierre was killed in

a car accident in 1906,but Marie continued herwork and was awarded

a second Nobel Prize forChemistry in 1911. Shealso pioneered the use

of X-rays in surgeryduring World War I.

In an age when most scientists were men, Marie Curiewas a notable exception. Born Marie Sklodowska inPoland, she studied in Paris, France, where she met

and married Pierre Curie, a physics professor.Together, they investigated the recently

discovered phenomena of radiationand X-rays, winning the NobelPrize for Physics in 1903.

1867–1934 MARIE CURIE

New Delhi is bornIn 1911, George V was crowned kingof England. During his coronationcelebrations in India, the king declaredNew Delhi to be India’s new capital,replacing the old capital of Calcutta.

1911

Crowds gather at a durbar (assemblyheld to celebrate the king’s coronation

On April 14, 1912,

the British linerTitanic hit aniceberg and sankin the AtlanticOcean. More than1,500 passengersand crew died.







243


Women at warAs more and more men werecalled up to fight, women werehired to fill their places in the

workplace, with the largestnumbers employed in factoriesand farms. In Germany, by theend of the war, women madeup more than half of the totaldomestic workforce. Thewartime role of women wouldlater help them win the vote.

Zeppelin attacksThe Germans used airships, mainly for

spying. They also launched bombingraids on Britain with limited effect.

New weapons of warWorld War I saw new weapons used in battlefor the first time. Early zeppelins and planesproved useful for spying, but inflicted only limiteddamage on the enemy. Tanks were unreliable,but hinted at possibilities for the future.

TanksFirst used by the

British at the Battleof the Somme inFrance, tanks oftengot stuck in themuddy battlefields.

AirplanesThis was the first war

where aircraft wereused on a large scale.

Small biplanes tookpart in aerial dogfights,

but they had littleinfluence on the

conflict’s outcome.

Casualties of warAbout 65 million men fought in World War I, of whom 8.3 milliondied. Germany suffered the highest number of casualties.

Military deaths 116,000325,000460,0001,114,8001,200,0001,385,0001,700,0001,808,0008,000,0008,300,00019,536,000

By November, it was clear thatneither Germany nor its alliescould continue the fight andan armistice was signed onNovember 11, ending the war.

The German Spring Offensivepushed the Allies back 40 miles(65 km) in just four days, butan Allied counteroffensivepushed the Germans backtoward Germany.

The United States entered thewar, while the revolution forcedthe Russians to make peacewith Germany. Major Westernoffensives by the Allies atYpres failed in their objectives.

1917 19181918

CountryUnited StatesOttoman Empire (Turkey)Italy Britain and the CommonwealthAustria-Hungary FranceRussiaGermany Civilians of all countriesEstimated combatants killed, all nationsEstimated wounded soldiers, all nations

RemembranceThe poppies thatgrew on the WorldWar I battlefieldshave becomea symbolof remembrancefor the war dead.

America callingIn May 1915, the British liner Lusitania

was sunk by a German submarine,killing 1,201 people on board,including 128 Americans. Outrageat the attack was a major factor in theUnited States joining the war in 1917,alongside the Allies, giving a big boostto manpower and morale. “UncleSam” featured on a poster callingon Americans to join the army.

An end to warThe final Allied offensives beganon August 8, 1918, and pushedtoward the German border.As the Allies advanced, theCentral Powers collapsed.Revolution spread throughouta crumbling and weakenedGermany. On November 11,an armistice was arranged,ending the war. Peace treatiesredrew the map of Europe,penalizing the defeated nations.Surviving soldiers receiveda hero’s welcome home.



1915▶1920

1915

1916

Gallipoli campaignDuring World War I, the Allied forcesstarted their fight against Turkey bytargeting Gallipoli, near the Turkish

capital of Constantinople. The Turksrepelled the invasion, inflicting aquarter of a million Allied casualties,including many ANZACs (Australianand New Zealand Army Corps).

1916The Western Front

From 1914 to 1918, British andFrench troops faced the Germanarmy along a line of trenches called

the Western Front. In 1916, therewere two attempts to break through

the front. First, a German attackagainst the French city of Verdunresulted in 400,000 casualties on

both sides. Then, Britain launched anequally disastrous offensive at theSomme; more than 300,000 Alliedand German soldiers were killed.

1917

1917

Russian Revolution

By 1917, the Russians were losing WorldWar I as German forces pushed themback. Tsar Nicholas II abdicated, leadingto revolution. Eventually, the Communists,led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power.He signed an armistice with Germanythat saw one-third of Russia’s prewarpopulation placed under German control.

America declares warThe United States entered World War I for twreasons: the launch of unrestricted submarin

warfare by Germany, which led to the loss ofseveral US ships; and the publication of atelegram showing that Germany was seekingan alliance with Mexico if America joined thewar. American manpower was a hugeboost to the Allies.

Crowds in Londoncelebrate afterthe signing of thearmistice endedWorld War I.

German submarine U-10 served during World War I.

Soldiers from an Australianartillery unit wait offshore.

The 100 DaysFollowing the failure

of the German SpringOffensive, the Alliesbegan to fight backin August, pushingthe German troops

toward Germany ovea 100-day period. Anarmistice was signed

on November 11, 1918ending the war

1918

The Eastern FrontLess stable than theWestern Front, theEastern Front was wherethe Russians confrontedGerman and Austriantroops. The Russianswere victorious when anattack led by their general

Brusilov forced theAustrians briefly intoretreat. It was theRussians’ greatestsuccess of the war.

1915

Poster for the RussianRevolution, showing a worker

smashing his chains

19181918End of the tsarsRussian tsar Nicholas I

and his family wereimprisoned by the

Communists in the UraMountains. They were

then assassinated by

Bolshevik gunmen



245

Atlanticaviators

In 1919, British aviators JohnAlcock and Arthur Brown flew

nonstop across the AtlanticOcean in just under 16 hours.The distance was 1,890 miles(3,040 km). This feat helpedthem claim a 10,000-pound

prize offered by the Daily Mail newspaper.


1920

The biggest killer of 1918 was not war, but a powerfulstrain of flu that killed more than 50 million peopleworldwide. It was called Spanish flu because most ofthe reports on the disease came from Spain. This wasnot because the disease had originated there, but becauseSpain had remained neutral in the war and so did nothave a media blackout like some other countries.

Taking precautionsPeople tried to avoid catching

the disease by wearing masks.Governments tried to stop its spread

by quarantining communities andpreventing infected people from

moving around—which proved verydifficult during a world war.

Global epidemicThe flu was one of the worst naturaldisasters in history, affecting nationsacross the world. Hospitals struggledto cope with the volume of casualties—it is estimated that about 3 percentof the world’s population was killed.

1918 SPANISH FLU

1919Versailles conference

The treaty signed at the end-of-warconference in Versailles, France,imposed severe peace terms onGermany. The country lost allits colonies as well as Europeanterritory in the east and west. Italso faced a huge bill for the war,known as reparations, amountingto $31 billion.

1919Amritsar massacreFearing a nationalist uprising in India, British

troops were ordered to fire on an unarmedcrowd gathered at the Jallianwala Baghgardens in Amritsar for a religious festival.Nearly 400 people were killed, and more than1,000 injured, prompting outrage and fuelingcalls for Indian independence from Britain.

The 1919 Treaty ofVersailles resulted

in an economic crisisfor Germany duringthe 1920s, and a senseof injustice thathelped pave the wayfor the rise of Nazismin the years beforeWorld War II.

Policemanon duty wearing

a protective mask

Emergency hospital tents for flupatients in Massachusetts



246

1920▶1930

ProhibitionThe sale of alcohol was banned

in the United States from 1920until 1933. During this time,organized crime gangs grewrich selling illegal alcohol andrunning secret bars, knownas “speakeasies.”

Irish Civil WarIn 1921, Ireland had been

divided into Northern Ireland,which remained part of the UK,and the Irish Free State. ManyIrish republicans objected to thedivision, launching a civil war.

League of

NationsThe League of Nationswas an internationalbody founded in1919 to try and solvedisputes betweencountries. It had itsfirst meeting in 1920,but without the UnitedStates. Although USpresident WoodrowWilson proposed theoriginal idea, the USdecided not to join. 1922

Lenin and StalinVladimir Lenin (left) died in 1924and, after a brief power struggle,

was replaced by Joseph Stalin (right),who consolidated his power as he

built his army, assassinating hispolitical rivals. Stalin launched a

five-year plan to expand farming andindustry, and exerted ruthless control

over the state for three decades.Mussolini in power

Benito Mussolini was the leader of the ItalianFascist Party, which he formed in 1919. In 1922,he was invited to join the government to deal

with a political crisis. By 1925, he had madehimself dictator, “Il Duce,” with a mission to

turn Italy into a major European power.

From 1917, Russia experiencedcivil war between the “red”Communists and the “white”opposition forces. VictoriousCommunist leader Vladimir

Lenin united most of theterritory formerly ruled by thetsar to form the Soviet Union.

1922 SOVIET UNION ESTABLISHED

“Bread, Peace, and Land.”Communist slogan, 1917

1923Turkish settlement

Following its defeat in World War I, much ofthe Ottoman Empire was divided between

Britain and France. However, Turkeyfought off the Allies and in 1923 gainedtheir recognition of its modern borders.

Drinkers breakthe law in anAmericanspeakeasy.

Tutankhamun’sgold deathmask

Badge bearing thehammer and sickle—a symbol of Communism

1920

TutankhamunAfter years of

searching, Britisharchaeologist Howard

Carter discovered the tombof the Egyptian pharaoh

Tutankhamun. Leftundisturbed for more than3,000 years, the tomb was

filled with treasures.

1920

1920 1922



247


In 1927, The JazzSinger , the firstfilm with spokenwords, signaledthe beginning

of the end forsilent movies.

Scottish scientist AlexanderFleming found that in disheswhere staphylococci bacteriawere being grown, a moldformed that was killing thebacteria. This accidentaldiscovery led to thedevelopment of the firstantibiotic, penicillin.

Fleming’s laboratoryFleming discovered penicillin and

developed it in his laboratory. Thentwo scientists, Australian Howard

Florey and German Ernst Chain,made penicillin a usable drug.

AntibioticsAn antibiotic is a chemical substance

derived from a mold that cures infections.By the late 1940s, the antibiotic penicillin

was being mass produced and has sincesaved millions of lives as a treatmentfor bacterial infection.

1928 DISCOVERY OF PENICILLIN

1930

Birth of televisionScottish inventor John LogieBaird demonstrated the firstflickering television images to agroup of 50 scientists in London.Within two years, he had sent

pictures through a cable acrossthe Atlantic Ocean to the US.

1926

Mickey MouseThe famous animated

character first appearedin the short cartoon, Steamboat Willie. Itscreator, Walt Disney,

went on to found WaltDisney Productions,creating full-length

animated cartoons andopening the theme park

Disneyland in the 1950s.

1928

1929Wall Street CrashThe good times of the

“Roaring Twenties”came to a sudden endin October 1929 whenpanic-selling wipedbillions of dollars off thevalue of businesses onthe US stock market andsent the world into theGreat Depression.

In New York, a man tries to sell his car, havinglost all his money in the Wall Street Crash.

Walt Disney, with a model ofhis creation, Mickey Mouse

Early Baird black-and-white television

Television

screen

Penicillin mold (green)attacks bacteria (white)

Oscarceremony

The first AcademyAwards celebrating the

year’s best films were heldin a small hotel ceremony in

Hollywood in 1929. Eachwinner received a small

gold-plated statueknown as an Oscar.

T h e G r ea t

D e p r e s s io n

See pages

250 –251





249


1935

Famine in Ukraine

According to official Sovietpropaganda, the SovietUnion’s economy wasthriving while the restof the world suffered inthe Great Depression. Inreality, Ukraine wassuffering one of the largestfamines in history withmillions dying of starvation.

Failed flightsIn the early 1930s, airships looked likethe future of flight. But a series of disasterscaused people to lose faith in the industry.The British R101 crashed in 1930, but thefinal blow came when the GermanHindenburg exploded in flames (above)in 1937 while docking in New Jersey,killing more than 30 people.

Born and raised in Austria, Adolf Hitler servedas a soldier in a German regiment duringWorld War I. Defeat was his motivation to

try building a new German Empire, but hisdoomed attempt unleashed carnage and

slaughter on an unimaginable scale.

1889–1945 ADOLF HITLER

Nazi originsAfter serving in the war, Hitler became theleader of the far-right National Socialist (Nazi)Party. The Nazis blamed Germany’s economicproblems on the Treaty of Versailles and theinfluence of other races, particularly the Jews,who they considered inferior to the Germans.

Rise of a dictatorHitler was a gifted public speaker whoconvinced many people to support the Nazis.But when the Nazis came to power in 1933,they turned Germany into a dictatorship withHitler as the supreme Führer (ruler).

1935

1935

Ethiopia invadedHaving failed to conquerEthiopia several decadesearlier, Italy tried again.Despite determined

resistance by theEthiopians, led by theiremperor Haile Selassie,Ethiopia fell the next yea

Dust Bowl

The Depression in the UnitedStates was made even worseby an agricultural disaster. Poorfarming techniques and severestorms ripped the topsoil fromfarmland in Oklahoma, Texas,and several other states,creating a “Dust Bowl”that forced thousandsof farmers to migrate.

1933

Haile Selassie,emperor of

Ethiopia

A truck drives away from a giant dust cloud in Colorado.

T h e G r ea t

D e p r e s s io n

See pages

250 –251





251

Desperate for workUnemployment figures soared duringthe Great Depression. By 1932, morethan 12 million Americans were outof work as banks closed, companieswent out of business, and factorieslaid off workers. People took to the

streets of New York, wearing bannersstating their professions and

skills. They were preparedto work for only a dollar

a week. Without money,families grew desperatefor food, and were forcedto line up for free soupat public kitchens.

Mass protestProtests against the Depression tookplace across the world. In 1936, oneof the most famous protests involved200 unemployed shipbuilders whomarched nearly 300 miles (500 km) from

Jarrow in northeast England to Londonto appeal to the government for help.

Escapist entertainmentThe Depression also coincided with

the arrival of “talkies,” new films thatbecame one of the most popular forms

of entertainment for the masses.The movies were a cheap

way for many peopleto escape the harshreality of daily life.

Wartime recoveryAlthough the economy

improved in the late 1930s,the Depression did not fullyend in the United Statesuntil it entered WorldWar II. Factories supplyingvehicles and weapons tothe war effort createdthousands of jobs.

Roosevelt launchedthe “New Deal,” aset of programsdesigned to bringthe US out ofeconomic gloom.

President Rooseveltbegan his “firesidechats”—weeklyradio broadcaststo the nation.

The Dust Bowlforced the migrationof thousands of farmersin the Midwest. TheGreat Depressiondeepened.

Roosevelt introducedthe “Second NewDeal,” includingpensions and plans fordisability benefits andunemployment benefits.

America’s economicrecovery was backon track, followingthe country’s entryinto World War II.

1933 1933 1935 1936 1941

Industrial unemploymentUnemployment rose and trade declined in allthe main industrialized countries during theDepression. Germany was the hardest-hit nation

of all, and the public’s dissatisfaction becamea contributing factor in Hitler’s rise to power.

Technicolorcamera used to

shoot earlycolor films

Two men advertisetheir need to findwork during theGreat Depression.

Poster to advertisewar-related workin factories

Country Millions of Unemploymentunemployed rate

Germany 5 million 30.1%

United Kingdom 3 million 22.1%

France 1 million 15.4%

United States 13 million 26.3%


Men wait for work



252

“

The chief value of money

lies in the fact that onelives in a world in whichit is overestimated.”Henry Louis Mencken,

American journalist

1920s, GERMANY

Worthless moneyAfter World War I, Germany was faced with huge wardebts and also reparations—money demanded by theAllies to compensate for the damage of the war. In anattempt to deal with the financial crisis, the governmentprinted money. This only made it worthless and sentprices soaring, a situation called hyperinflation. A loafof bread that cost 163 marks in 1922 cost 1.5 millionby September 1923, and 200 billion by November 1923.Germans used wads of banknotes as fuel, to papertheir walls, and let children play with it.




253

Children playing with kites made of Germany’s worthless banknotes



254

1935▶1940

Jesse Owens

Hitler used the BerlinOlympic Games of 1936,the first games to be televised,to showcase Nazi Germany tothe world. But his theories ofracial superiority were blown

away when the African-American Jesse Owens

won four gold medals.

1935

1938Kristallnacht

“The Night of the Broken Glass”

saw the Nazis’ antisemitic (anti- Jewish) policies put into deadlyeffect as Jewish businesses and

synagogues across Germany weredestroyed. About 30,000 Jewishpeople were arrested and taken

to concentration camps.

1936Edward VIII’s abdication

Less than a year after becoming king of Britain,Edward VIII gave up the throne so he could marrythe American divorcée Wallis Simpson—the rules

of the time did not allow the British monarch tohave a wife who had already been divorced.His brother George VI took over the throne.

1938Union of Germany

and AustriaThe next stage inHitler’s plan for a Greater

German Reich (empire)was to create an Anschluss

(union) of Germany andAustria, the country of thedictator’s birth. In March,

Hitler’s troops marchedunopposed into Austria.

1938

Munich ConferenceAt the Munich Conference, Germany, Italy, France, andBritain signed the Munich Agreement, which tried to limit

German expansion. Only part of Czechoslovakia (theSudetenland) was given to Germany. Hitler broke the

Munich Agreement by taking all of Czechoslovakia.

Edward andMrs. Simpson ontheir weddingday in 1937

1937Second Sino-Japanese War

Already in control of Manchuria innortheast China, Japan launched anall-out war on China, taking several

cities, including the capital Nanjing. Thewar continued until Japan’s defeat byUS forces at the end of World War II.

In 1931, Spain’s king abdicatedand the country became a republic.However, in 1936 the NationalistParty, led by General FranciscoFranco, wanted to return to the

old ways and revolted againstthe new Republican government.

Franco in powerThousands were killed during three years

of fighting. General Franco emerged victoriousagainst the Republicans and went on to rule

Spain as a dictator for the next 36 years.

1936–1939 SPANISH CIVIL WAR

Jesse Owenscompeting in 1936

Republican poster

German troops in Vienna, Austria

British Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlain signedthe Munich Agreement.



255


1940

Rivals in the skiesHitler’s plan was to destroy Britain’s air defenses to preparefor a full-scale invasion. From July onward, squadrons ofGerman Messerschmitts and Stukas targeted British airfieldsand aircraft factories. In September, the Germans changed tactics,launching devastating bombing raids on London. When Britain didnot surrender, the Germans called off the attacks on October 31to prepare for their imminent invasion of the Soviet Union.

After the defeat of France, Germany turned itsattention to Britain, which had started the warbadly with much of its army forced to evacuateFrance at Dunkirk. In the summer and autumnof 1940, the British Royal Air Force (RAF) andthe German Luftwaffe engaged in intensecombat in the skies above Britain.

1940 BATTLE OF BRITAIN

The Messerschmitt,the main Germanbattle aircraft

British Spitfires took to the skies torepel German attacks, engaging inhundreds of aerial “dogfights.”

1939Award-winning cartoonIt took three years to make and costmore than $1 million, but the first

feature-length cartoon, Snow Whiteand the Seven Dwarfs, proved a hugehit when it was released in 1938. Itsproducer, Walt Disney, was presentedwith an Oscar for the film in 1939.

Child star Shirley Temple presents the Oscar to Walt Disney.

1940France surrenders

German forces quickly overran Belgium,the Netherlands, Denmark, and Norway.France was hit with such ferocity that it

surrendered within weeks. The Germansthen ruled the north while the French

Vichy government ruled the south.In 1942, the Germans took over

the whole of France.

Propeller

Nazi swastika

Cockpit

1939World War II beginsGermany invaded Poland onSeptember 1. Shortly after,Britain and France declared waron Germany, while the UnitedStates announced its

neutrality—as did Italybefore entering thewar on Germany’sside in 1940.

Wheel retracted

in wing

1935 was a year for music legends, with bothAmerican rock-and-roll star Elvis Presley andItalian opera singer Luciano Pavarotti being born.

British Royal Air

Force roundel

Wa r i n

E u ro p e

See pages

256 –25 7



256

War in EuropeIn 1939, the army of Nazi Germany invaded Poland. This wasthe first step in the plan of the German dictator, Adolf Hitler, toconquer Europe. Two days later, Britain and France declared waron Germany, but Hitler’s invasion of Europe continued and by

1940 Belgium, Holland, France, Denmark, and Norway had allfallen. The Allied forces of Britain, Australia, New Zealand,Canada, and the exiled French and Poles were joined in 1941by the Soviet Union and the United States. Their enemieswere the Axis powers of Germany, Italy, and (from 1941)

Japan, as the war expanded across the world.

Key events

Battle of the AtlanticThe conflict was fought at sea as

well as on land. In the Atlantic,German bombers and U-boats

(submarines) off France andNorway tried to sink ships

carrying supplies of food andweapons from the United States.

Allied battleships and aircraftcarriers fought back.

Germany invadedPoland, causing Britainand France to declarewar on the Nazis.

France surrendered. Britishtroops were forced to makean emergency evacuationfrom the French port ofDunkirk using a mixof naval vessels andprivate “little ships.”

Germany turned on itsformer ally, the SovietUnion, in 1941. FromAugust 1942 to March1943, German troopstried and failed to takethe city of Stalingrad.

In the First and SecondBattles of El Alamein innorthern Africa, theBritish forces attackedand defeated the GermanAfrika Korps.

Germany surrat Stalingrad.Germans and were expelledNorth Africa.Mussolini wasforced to resig

1939 1940 1941 1942 1943

German expansionBy 1942, German troops hadoverrun much of Europe andNorth Africa. In many of the landsthey occupied, such as France,Russia, Yugoslavia, and Greece,there was resistance from thenonmilitary population.

Lightning warGermany achieved a number of swift victoriesin World War II using the speed and surpriseof joint tank and aircraft attacks to catch theAllied forces off guard. This tactic becameknown as blitzkrieg (lightning war).

A US ship destroysa German U-boat.

SOVIET UNION

ICELAND

S W E D E N

B U L GA

RIA

F I N

L A N D

G E R

M A N Y

N O R W

A Y

Atlantic Ocean

IRELAND

SPAIN

PORTUGAL

FRANCE

SWITZERLAND

MOROCCO

ALGERIALIBYA

TURKEY

Black Sea

SYRIA

IRAQJORDAN

EGYPT

ROMANIA

HUNGARY

UKRAINE

DENMARK

NETHERLANDS

DENMARK

UNITEDKINGDOM

I T A L Y

GREECE

Mediterranean Sea

AlliesAllies controlledor alliedNeutral

AxisAxis controlledor allied

Front lines,

1942

Little shipof Dunkirk




257

Hitler used new weapons,the V-1 (an unmanned jet-propelled flying bomb)and the V-2 (a supersonicrocket bomb), but withlimited success.

Allied troops continuedto push through France,capturing Paris. At the Battleof the Bulge, the Germanscarried out their finalcounteroffensive untilthey were forced back.

By 1945, Germany waslosing the war. The Alliesattacked Germany fromeast and west to captureHitler’s capital of Berlin.On May 7, Germanysurrendered.

The Allies invadedFrance on June 6—D-Day. Thousandsof British, American,Canadian, and Frenchtroops landed to pushthe Germans back.

The Italian governmentsigned an armistice in1943, but the Germansremained in controlof much of Italy until1944, when US forcescaptured Rome.

1944 1944 19451944 1944

African advanceThe war reached north Africa by 1940. Italian forces invadedEgypt, but the defending British troops drove them back.The conflict continued until the British victory at El Alamein,Egypt, in 1942. British and American forces arrived in Algeriaand Morocco, leaving the Axis armies caught betweenthe Allies. The Axis armies surrendered in 1943.

Turning pointDuring intense conflict on Europe'sEastern Front, the Russians beat the

Germans at Stalingrad in 1942, andthen pushed them steadily westward,capturing Warsaw in January 1945 andthen encircling Berlin in April. Meanwhile,Allied troops pushed into Germany fromthe West. On May 7, Germany finallysurrendered as Berlin lay in ruins.Hitler had killed himself in his bunker.On May 8, a formal announcementcame that the war in Europe was over.

V-2

Code breakersBoth the Allies and theAxis powers disguisedtheir communicationsusing codes. Onebreakthrough of thewar was the successof British code breakersin deciphering Germanmessages encoded bythe Enigma machine.As a result, valuablemilitary informationfell into Allied hands,giving them a greatadvantage over theirenemies in the war.

Who’s who

Winston ChurchillOne of the fewpoliticians to warnagainst Hitler duringthe 1930s, WinstonChurchill led Britain

through the war asprime minister.

Dwight EisenhowerA general in the USArmy, Eisenhowercommanded theAllied Forces inWestern Europe, anddirected D-Day. Helater became president.

Adolf HitlerIt was the ambitionsof Germany’s leader,Hitler, that drove thecountry to war andled to its defeat. At

the end of the conflict,Hitler took his own life.

Joseph StalinSoviet leader JosephStalin led the retaliationafter Germany’s attackin 1941, but ended uptaking over many of

the countries “freed”from German control.

GermanEnigmamachine

British soldiers advance at theBattle of El Alamein in 1942.

Russianmilitary hat



258

Japan against the Allies Japan started the war at a furious pace,declaring war on both the US and Britain.After Pearl Harbor, it took control of thePhilippines, Indonesia, Hong Kong, Malaya,and Burma, as well as many Pacific islands.

But from mid-1942 onward, it was mainly inretreat as the Allies went on the offensive.

War in the Pacific Japan, which had been allied to Germany since 1940,wanted to create an empire across Asia and the Pacific.However, Japan feared American interests in the area mightprevent its ambitions. So in 1941, the Japanese launched an

attack on the US fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The idea wasto inflict so much damage that the US would be unable towage war. The battle for control of the Pacific Ocean turnedthe war into a global conflict. With its Allies, the US foughtback against Japan, finally claiming victory when it droppeddevastating atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

In December, Japan attackedthe US naval base at PearlHarbor, Hawaii. The UnitedStates declared war thenext day.

Japan stepped upits Asian campaign,conquering territoriesacross Southeast Asiaand the Pacific.

By the middle of the year,the US had begun topush the Japanese back,preventing their attemptto take the US naval baseat Midway Island.

The US defeated Japaneseforces at the Battle ofTarawa, the bloodiest yetin the Pacific. More than1,000 American and 4,000 Japanese soldiers perished.

The Japanese attackethe British in northeaIndia. The Britishregrouped and, withthe Burmese army,drove the Japaneseout of Burma in 1945

1941 1942 1943 19441942

Key events

Who’s who

Franklin D. RooseveltThe US president described PearlHarbor as “a date which will livein infamy.” He led his country tothe edge of victory, but died beforethe war ended. He was succeeded

by Harry S. Truman.

Emperor Hirohito Japan’s ruler was not prosecutedfor war crimes, and remained inpower until the 1980s, overseeingan economic boom in his country.

JAPAN

HiroshimaNagasaki

MONGOLIA

CHINA

TIBET

SOVIET UNION

AUSTRALIA

IndianOcean

SouthChina Sea

DUTCH EAST INDIES

HAWAIIANISLANDS

PacificOcean

MANCHURIA

PHILIPPINEISLANDS

BURMA

MALAYA

Allies

Axis

Axis control

Neutral

Extent of

Japanesecontrol, 1942Atom bombs

Pearl Harbor memorialin Hawaii today

Japan’s kamikazebomber planes

PearlHarbor

MidwayIsland

Iwo Jima

Okinawa

MarianaIslands




259

Cities under attackBetween March 10 and June 15, 1945,six major Japanese cities were decimatedby heavy US bombing raids.

Pearl HarborIn December 1941, Japan’s surprise attackcaused huge devastation. More than 2,000people were killed, 188 aircraft were destroyed,and many warships were damaged. But it was

not a knock-out blow. The US was able to replaceits losses and lead the attack on Japan in 1942.

Japanese fliersAt the start of the war, the

Japanese Mitsubishi Zero fighteraircraft (left) was much fasterand more agile than anything the

Allies could produce. However, Alliedtechnology caught up, and the Japanesebegan to lose more battles, forcingthem to adopt more desperate tactics.

Kamikaze bombersIn the latter stages of thewar, with the conflict goingbadly, the Japanese came upwith a new military strategy:kamikaze, meaning “divinewind.” It involved pilotslaunching suicide attacksagainst US vessels in planesloaded with explosives.About 50 Allied vesselswere destroyed in this waywith at least 4,000 kamikazepilots sacrificing themselves.

Nuclear warfareDeveloped by American and

British scientists, the two nuclearbombs dropped on Japan causedmassive devastation. The impact

of the bombs was like nothingthe world had ever seen before. Inthe city of Hiroshima, more than

90,000 people were killed, and70 percent of the buildings weredestroyed, while in Nagasaki, atleast 60,000 perished. After the

second blast, Japan surrendered.World War II was over.

The Battle of thePhilippine Sea endedin defeat for Japan atthe Mariana Islands.

In the war’s largestnaval battle, and thefirst to feature kamikazebombers, the US defeatedthe Japanese fleet near thePhilippine island of Leyte.

Fighting for the tiny butstrategically importantisland of Iwo Jima wasfierce. The US lost morethan 6,000 troops, and the Japanese at least 20,000.

The US spent two monthsconquering the heavilydefended island of Okinawa.It lost 12,000 soldiers,while the Japanese lostmore than 100,000 men.

The US finally endedhostilities by droppingtwo nuclear bombs onthe Japanese cities ofHiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan surrendered.

1944 1944 1945 1945 1945

Japanese

cities

Number

of raids

Percentage of

city destroyed

Tokyo 5 50%

Nagoya 4 31%

Kobe 2 56%

Osaka 4 26%

Yokohama 2 44%

Kawasaki 1 33%

“I realize the tragic significance of the atom bomb…We thank God it has come to us instead of our enemies.”President Harry S. Truman, August 9, 1945

Japanese Rising

Sun emblem

Kamikaze pilot

Cloud of debrisover the cityof Nagasaki

Replica of the nuclear bombdropped on Hiroshima



260

1940▶1945

1940

1940

1942

The BlitzGermany tried tobreak Britain’s resolveto continue fighting bybombing 16 major cities.German Luftwaffe carriedout aerial attacks onLondon on 57 consecutivenights. About 40,000 peopledied before the raids werecalled off in 1941.

Battle of

StalingradGermany’s failedattempt to capturethe Soviet city ofStalingrad (nowVolgograd) was one

of the major turningpoints of the war. TheSoviets held out formore than six months,eventually destroyingthe Nazi forces.

Operation BarbarossaIn June, Germany launchedOperation Barbarossa—an

all-out attack on its former ally,the Soviet Union. By the end

of the year, German troopswere at the gates of Moscow.

However, a Soviet counterattackin January 1942 managed to

push the Germans back.

US enters the warAlthough the United States haddeclared its support for the

Allied cause, public opinion wasfirmly against the country

joining the war. That changedwhen the Japanese attacked

the US naval base at PearlHarbor, Hawaii, on December 7.

The United States Congressdeclared war the next day.

1941

1941

Siege of Leningrad endsThe longest and deadliest siege of the war was

Leningrad. Started in 1941, it finally came to an endwhen the Soviets reopened the communication lines

to the city and forced the Germans out. The conflictresulted in more than one million Soviet casualties

1944

Battle of the BulgeIn December, the Germans launched their las

major offensive against the Allies. The attack initiallycreated a break, or “bulge,” in the Allied lines in France

and Belgium, but this was quickly closed up and soonthe Germans were retreating back toward Germany

Battle of El AlameinIn north Africa, an Alliedoffensive at El Alamein,

Egypt, forced the Germansinto retreat. The following

year, the German armyin north Africa had

surrendered to the Allies.

1944

1942

On June 6 (code-named D-Day), thousandsof Allied troops landed on France’sNormandy coast for a surprise attack.The Allies faced stiff resistance, but by

June 17, more than half a million troopswere on French soil and the pushtoward Berlin, Germany, had begun.

1944 D-DAY

Parachute dropsThe attack began with thousands o

paratroopers being dropped behind theGerman lines. Their task was to capture

key targets and destroy German defense

and communication systems before theinvasion force marched across France

Beach landingsTroops and equipment were gathered inBritain ready for the attack, and then sailedacross the English Channel. Soldiers wadedashore on Normandy’s beaches under heavy

fire, but were eventually able to breakthrough the German defenses.

St. Thomas’s Hospital inLondon was wrecked bybombing in the Blitz.

The ruins of Stalingrad in 1942

Wa r i n

E u ro p e

See pages

256 –25 7



261


War rationingTo preserve precious

resources, both the UK andGermany rationed what the

public could eat during the war.Everyone was issued a rationbook. Sweets were limited to

12 ounces per month.

1945

The Nazis’ antisemitic (anti-Jewish) and racistpolicies led to the slaughter of more than six million

Jews, gypsies, homosexuals, and disabled people.This systematic killing was known as the Holocaust,meaning a burned offering or sacrifice.

1933–1945 THE HOLOCAUST

Concentration camps Jewish people were rounded up and sentto concentration camps, where they were imprisonedand forced to do hard labor. Later, the Nazisestablished “extermination” camps such as Auschwitz(above), where millions of people were murdered.

Anne Frank’s diaryIn 1942, a Jewish girl named Anne Frankand her family went into hiding in asecret apartment in the Netherlands.

The diary she kept reveals the fearof a life in hiding. In 1944,they were discoveredand Anne died in aconcentration camp.

Jewish labelIn Nazi Germany, Jewish people

were forced to sew yellow stars ontotheir clothing to identify them to

the rest of the population and theauthorities. The stars were marked

with the word Jude, German for “Jew.”

Italy defeatedAllied troops invadedItaly and took the cityof Rome in 1943. The

war continued untilMay 1945, when

German forces in Italysurrendered. Italy’s

dictator leader, BenitoMussolini, had tried toflee, but was captured

and executed.

1945Germany

surrendersWith German forces

retreating in the East, theSoviets were ordered by

their dictator leader, JosephStalin, to “race” to Berlin to

capture Hitler. But knowingthat all was lost, Hitlercommitted suicide. Berlin

was captured and on May 7,Germany surrendered.

The next day, May 8,was declared V-E (Victory inEurope) Day, and saw masscelebrations across Europe.

1945

Japan’s surrender Japan continued to fight

for a few months after thedefeat of Germany. It finallysurrendered in August afterthe US dropped two nuclearbombs, destroying the citiesof Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

1945

British girls dancedwith American soldiers tocelebrate V-E Day in London.

Yellow star worn

to identify Jews

American boxer

Muhammad Aliwas born CassiusClay in 1942.He was the firstperson to winthe heavyweightchampionshipthree times.



262

CHILDEN IN HISTORY

Fleeing the NazisIn November 1938, as the Nazi persecution of Germany’s Jews grew worse, Jewish leaders appealed to Britain for help

This led to the development of the Kindertransport (Germanfor “transportation of children”), a rescue operation set upby British Jews to help Jewish children in Nazi-occupiedcountries. As a result, thousands of Jewish childrenwere sent to Britain for their own safety. It was meantto be a temporary measure until the situation improved,but once war broke out, the children were forced to stay.

The lucky few

The plan’s organizers chose the most vulnerable children to be rescuedorphans, those with poor parents, or those with parents ina concentration camp. About 10,000 children from Germany, Austria,Poland, and Czechoslovakia made the journey before war broke out.

Traveling light The children were allowed to bring just one small suitcase each and no

more than 10 German marks in money. They were issued a simple IDcard, which was often pinned to their clothing. Then, leaving theirparents behind, they faced the long journey to Britain by train and boat

Life in Britain

About half of all the Kindertransport children ended up in foster homesThe rest lived in hostels, group homes, and farms. Some of the olderchildren went to work, mainly on farms, as servants in houses, or asnurses. Once they turned 18, many Kindertransport refugees joinedthe military and fought with the Allies against the Nazis.

After the war

Some children were reunited with their parents after the war, but manylearned that their parents had died in concentration camps. Despite theirmisfortunes, most went on to lead happy lives in their new country. TwoNobel Prize winners were former Kindertransport children: German-bornAmerican Arno Penzias won the Prize for Physics in 1978, whileAustrian-American Walter Kohn won the Prize for Chemistry in 1998.

“We all leant out of the

carriage window and myparents waved white

handkerchiefs. I didn’tknow that would be the

last time I would seeany of them alive.”Vera Schaufeld,Czechoslovakian girl, who lefton the Kindertransport at age 9

“I was one of the lucky onesin that I saw my parents again.

The majority of children,in fact, didn’t.

”Marion Marston, German

Kindertransport child, at age 14

Saying goodbye

These Kindertransport children are saying

their final goodbyes to their parents at

the train station in Vienna, Austria.

Parting gifts

This stuffed dog was the

last thing Evelyn Kaye’s

father gave her as she

left Vienna at age 9.

New arri

Recently arrived in Brita

a young German girl holds h

doll and her bag as she wa

to be placed in tempora

accommodation in Harwi

A safe haven

Children stand outside

their rooms at a British

holiday camp in Harwich.

Many Kindertransport children

were housed here while foster

accommodation was arranged.



263


“At the time I thought it

was quite an exciting adventure.I said ‘goodbye’ to my mother,‘see you soon.’ Who could tell

what was going to happen?”Inga Joseph, an Austrian Kindertransport

child who left Vienna at age 9





After World War II, two superpowers emerged and a 40-year standoff

began, with the United States and its capitalist allies on one side and the

Soviet Union and its Communist allies on the other. The period also saw

the disintegration of European overseas empires, and the formation

of the European Union. Meanwhile, technology was leaping forward,

putting men on the Moon and personal computers in most homes,

and linking people all around the globe through the World Wide Web.

1945–2012Fast forward



266

Nuremberg trialsIn the German city of Nuremberg, 20 surviving Nazi leadewere charged with crimes against humanity and genocide

their part in World War II. While 12 of them were sentencedeath by hanging, the others were sent to prison, includinRudolph Hess, Hitler’s deputy until the early 1940s.

1945 1946

1945▶19501945

United NationsThe United Nations (UN) was established

after World War II as a global organizationwhere nations could meet to discuss their

disagreements without resorting toviolence. From its original 51 members,

the UN has expanded to represent193 countries. Its logo (above) shows the

world framed by olive branches—a symbol of peace.

1946

Calls by Indiannationalists for theircountry to be freed fromBritish rule had beengrowing throughoutthe 20th century. WithBritain economicallyexhausted after WorldWar II, India was finallyreleased from the BritishEmpire in 1947 andpartitioned (divided) intomainly Hindu India andmainly Muslim Pakistan.

1947 INDIAN INDEPENDENCE

“Victory attained by violence is...a defeat, for it is momentary.”Mohandas Gandhi

GandhiThe Indian independencemovement was led byMohandas Gandhi (above),who preached a policyof satyagraha, or nonviolentprotest, against the BritishEmpire. He was assassinatedin 1948 by an Indian Hindu.

New countriesIndian independence eventually resulted in the creation

of three new countries. India and Pakistan were foundedin 1947. In 1971, a region of Pakistan broke away to formBangladesh. These are the three nations’ flags today.

Mass migrationIndependence led to instantturmoil as millions of Muslimsin India, and Hindus and Sikhsin Pakistan, were forced to leavetheir countries. It was the largestmass migration in history, leadingto religious riots and many deaths.

Pakistani flag Bangladeshi flagIndian flag

Singles were

known as “

because

were playe

45 rpm (revolut

per min

Rudolph Hess (second from left) on trial



267

FAST FORWARD

The KoreanWar is not

over as nopeace deal wasever signed.

USSR develops atomic weaponTo catch up with the military power ofits great rival, the United States, the SovietUnion became the second nation to develonuclear weapons. Its program, code-named“First Lightning,” relied heavily on secretsstolen from the US by Soviet spies.

People’s Republic of ChinaAfter a truce in World War II, China’s rulingNationalist Party reentered a civil war withthe Communist Party. In 1949, the leader of thvictorious Communists, Mao Zedong, becamethe head of the new People’s Republic of ChinThe Nationalist leader, Chiang Kai-Shek,fled to Taiwan to form the Republic of China.

1947 1948 1949 1950

Marshall PlanUS secretary of state GeorgeMarshall persuaded his governmentto provide $13 billion in aid tohelp the recovery of Europe’s

war-ravaged economies. TheUS government also believedthe aid would help prevent thespread of Communism, thentaking hold across Eastern Europe.

1947

Previously controlled by Japan, Korea was split intotwo states after World War II: Communist North Koreaand democratic South Korea. In 1950, the Northinvaded the South, prompting three years of intensefighting and the first major conflict of the Cold War.

THE KOREAN WAR

1949

International warCommunist North Korea,led by Kim Il Sung (above),was backed by the SovietUnion and China. SouthKorea was supported bythe US and the UN.What began as a localdispute threatened toescalate into a world war.

Birth of IsraelAfter World War II, the UnitedNations proposed dividing theMiddle Eastern region of Palestineinto a Jewish state and an Arabstate. The Jews agreed, but theArabs did not. The subsequentwar was won by the Jews, and thenew Jewish State of Israel, whichincluded parts of the proposed Arabstate, was proclaimed in May 1948.

1948

1949

First

7-inch singleIntroduced in March 1949,

the new, smaller, 7-inch vinylrecord format revolutionized

the music industry andhelped fuel the rock-and-roll

explosion of the 1950s.

1950–1953

StalemateAfter early gains, NorthKorea was driven backwith the help of UStanks, soldiers, and bombers(above). The North was onlysaved from collapse by China.The result was a stalemate withno eventual change to theborders of the two countries.

German pro–Marshall Plan poster

US bombersattackNorth Korea.

Chinese Commupropaga

SYRIAMediterraneanSea

Israel after 1948What remained of proposedArab state after 1948

JORDAN

EGYPT

Gaza Stripwas taken

over by Egyptin 1948.

West Bank wastaken over by

Jordan in 1950.

LEBANON

ISRAEL



268

Key events

The Cold WarAfter World War II, the capitalist United States and theCommunist Soviet Union (USSR) emerged as rival world“superpowers.” However, since both were armed with enoughnuclear weapons to destroy the other several times over, they

couldn’t risk an outright war. Instead, they engaged in a “ColdWar” that lasted more than 40 years, conducting their conflictby other means: by forming alliances, backing rival opponentsin conflicts, developing new technologies, and spying.

Berlin airliftAfter World War II, the Germancapital of Berlin was divided into

different zones, controlled by theUSSR and the Allies. In 1948, theSoviets tried to force the Allies out by

cutting off road and rail links to starvethe city into submission. However,

a massive, almost year-long Alliedairlift of supplies foiled the plan.

Joseph Stalin

The USSR’s leaderdid more than anyoneelse to set the ColdWar in motion bybringing Eastern Europeunder Soviet control.

John F. Kennedy

The US presidentconfronted the Sovietsin 1962, demanding thatthe USSR remove theirnuclear weapons fromCommunist ally Cuba.

Leonid Brezhnev

A slight thaw in thewar came when thisSoviet leader met USpresident Nixon todiscuss the reduction oftheir nuclear arsenals.

Cold War leaders

Cold War alliances

Both superpowers maintained a tight networkof alliances with other countries throughout theCold War. In 1949, the United States broughttogether 13 countries to form a military unioncalled the North Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO). The Soviet Union responded byestablishing the Warsaw Pact in 1955. Bothsides also regularly backed opposing allies inother conflicts, as happened in the Korean War,the Vietnam War, and the Afghanistan War.

Children in Berlin celebrateas an Allied plane drops

off essential supplies.

NATO countries

Other US allies

Warsaw Pact countries

Other USSR allies

British ex-Prime MinisterWinston Churchill (right)described the divisionbetween Western andEastern Europe asan “Iron Curtain.”

Capitalist West Germanyand Communist EastGermany were founded.China became Communistand an ally of the USSR.

The Berlin blockade ended,NATO was established,and the Soviets developedatomic weapons.

The superpowers backedopposing sides in theKorean War, the firstmajor conflict of theCold War.

1946 19491949 1950

The Warsaw Pactwas established,making allies ofthe USSR and sevenEastern EuropeanCommunist states.

1955

U N I T E D S T A T E S

C

A

N A D A

M E X I C O

CUBA

DOMREP

GUATEMALA



269

Arms raceDuring the Cold War, the United Statesand the Soviet Union took part in an armsrace, producing vast reserves of nuclear

weapons and other military equipment, suchas cruise missiles (above). But they alsoinvested in smaller technology, particularlyspy gadgets, such as secret cameras andbugs, which they used to try to discovereach other’s military and political secrets.

Peaceful conclusionThe conflict came to a peaceful end in thelate 1980s, when both sides agreed to reducetheir store of weapons. In 1989, US presidentGeorge Bush met the Soviet leader MikhailGorbachev in Malta (above) to declare theCold War over. The USSR was weakening,and dissolved less than two years later.

The handshake that ended the Cold War

Cold War flashpoints

KoreaIn the Korean War (1950–1953), the US and UN foughtalongside South Korea, while the Communist North

was supported by both the Soviets and China.

Hungary and CzechoslovakiaAttempted uprisings in Hungary (1956)

and Czechoslovakia (1968) againstCommunism were violently quashed

by the USSR. The West was appalled,but chose not to intervene.

Berlin WallFacing increasing numbersof people fleeing Soviet-controlled East Berlin forWest Berlin, the Communistgovernment of EastGermany built a hugesecurity wall in 1961to divide the city in two.

CubaThe Cold War heated upduring a tense standoffbetween the United Statesand the USSR over theSoviet Union’s stationingof nuclear missiles inCuba in 1962. The USSReventually backed down

after a US blockade.

VietnamAmerican troops fought alongside

South Vietnam, while the Soviets

provided aid and military equipmentto Communist North Vietnam in a

20-year war that began in 1955. It endedin victory for the Communists.

AfghanistanThe Soviets invaded Afghanistan in 1979, but

faced fierce resistance from the Afghan Mujahideenfighters, who had been secretly trained and armedby the US. The USSR finally withdrew in 1989.

FAST FORWARD

The signing of anAnti-Ballistic MissileTreaty was the firstattempt by the twoCold War powers to limittheir nuclear arsenals.

The leaders of the UnitedStates and the SovietUnion met in Malta todeclare an official end tothe Cold War.

The United Statesand the USSR wenthead-to-head overthe Cuban missilecrisis. The Sovietsbacked down.

US president RonaldReagan and Soviet leaderMikhail Gorbachevsigned a treaty reducingtheir nuclear arsenals.

The Soviet Unioncollapsed andthe Warsaw Pactwas dissolved.

1972 19891962 19911987

A Soviet missile

S O V I E

T U

N I O

N ( U

S S R )

C H

I N A

M O N G O L I A

P A K I S T A N

AN

T U R

K E Y

N O R W A Y

G R E E

C E

P O L A N

D

R O M

A N I A

S Y R I A

I R A N

I R A Q

B U L G A R I A

H U N G A R Y

I T A L Y

F R A N C E

U N I T E D

K I N G D O M I C

E L A N

D

S P A I N

C Z E C

H O S L O V A K

I A

SOUTH KOREA

THAILAND

LAOS

NORTH KOREANORTH VIETNAM

CAMBODIA

PHILIPPINESSOUTH

VIETNAM

WEST GERMANY ALBANIA

BELGIUMLUXEMBOURG

PORTUGAL

EAST GERMANYDENMARK

NETHERLANDS



270

“I’m tired of everyone in theWest thinking we’re unhappy here.

I’m not saying I love it here all

the time. Sometimes I do want toleave, look around. But I can’t . And

even if I could, this is my home;and I would return here if I left.”12-year-old boy from East Berlin

Across the divide

A young boy in East Berlin gazes

through the barbed wire that

divided the city just before

the wall was erected.



271

FAST FORWARD

CHILDREN IN HISTORY

Divided BerlinAfter World War II, Germany and its capital, Berlin, weredivided into zones by the Allies. The East was controlled

by the Communist Soviet Union; the West by the UnitedStates, France, and Britain. By 1961, hundreds of familiesa week were fleeing the poverty of East Berlin for thepromise of opportunity in the West. Fearful of damage tothe economy, the East German authorities built a wallbetween East and West Berlin. It stopped migration, but ata terrible cost to the families who were split up by the wall.

Building the wall

On August 13, 1961, East Berlin closed its border with the West,sealing off roads, cutting train lines, and putting up barricades andbarbed wire. The dreams of thousands were over. Construction beganon a huge concrete wall manned by armed guards told to “shoot to kill.”

Divided families The barrier tore families apart. It went up overnight, so people couldn’t

leave either side. Parents were separated from children, and childrenfrom their siblings. As time passed, split families knew less and lessabout how their relatives were living their lives.

Side by side

West Germany was more prosperous than the East. Families shopped forluxuries, such as sweets and toys, and traveled freely. They could visitshops, restaurants, and museums. Life in East Berlin was much moreregulated. Families lived in fear of the secret police, the Stasi . If parentswere suspected of trying to escape, their children could be taken away.Two-thirds of children belonged to Communist youth movements, which

taught them not to question the system or try to leave the country.Escaping the East

The Berlin Wall made escape to the West almost impossible, yet many tried.Some dug under it, while others flew over it in homemade balloons or hid incars. More than 130 people died trying to cross it. The city and its peoplewould remain divided until the wall came down in 1989.

“

I heard people... yelling,screaming, and crying...

a wall had gone up overnight.Friends and relatives who

had been visiting in East Berlinwere now stuck and wouldnot be allowed to return.”Marion Cordon-Poole,American child who was staying with

her German mother’s family in 1961

Failed escape

East German troops arrest

a man trying to escape to the

West through the sewer system.

Separated families

Parents in West Berlin hold their

babies up so their grandparents

on the other side of the wall can see

them, shortly after the border closed

in 1961.

“The whole village waslike a prison. Wherever

you went, you had

to see the Wall.

”Gitta Heinrich, from East Germany

In the shadow of the wall

West German children play beside the wall

that divided the city from 1961 to 1989.



1950▶1960

272

Elvis’sfirst record

Elvis Presley, alsoknown as the “King of

Rock and Roll,” released his

first single in 1954 called“Jailhouse Rock.” He would go

on to sell morethan 100 million

records beforehis death

in 1977.

1950 1952 1954

1950Apartheid in South AfricaThe National Party that cameto power in South Africa in1948 launched a policy of racialsegregation known as apartheid.The country was ruled by theminority white population, whilethe majority black populationwas banned from voting and notallowed to live in white areas.

1952

1952Queen Elizabeth II

After the death of King George VI,his daughter Elizabeth becameQueen of the United Kingdom andHead of the Commonwealth. Shewas crowned the next year in a lavishceremony at London’s Westminster Abbey.

Mau Mau uprisingIn Kenya, an anticolonial group called the MauMau led an uprising against British rule. It wasbrutally put down, with 13,000 Kenyans killedas the British fought to hold on to the country.Seven years later, Kenya achieved independence.

1953The structure of DNA

Scientists James Watson and Francis Crickmapped out the structure of DNA—the moleculefound in every cell that contains the instruction,or gene, that builds and runs the cell. Its shape,

like a twisted ladder, is known as a double helix.

1952

A deadly weaponSeven years after the first atomicbomb was dropped, the UnitedStates revealed a deadlierweapon: the hydrogen—orthermonuclear—bomb. The firsttest of the device completelydestroyed a Pacific island.

Whites-only sign at aSouth African beach

1954French leave

southeast AsiaFollowing years of intensefighting, French-ruled Laos andCambodia became independentwhile Vietnam was divided in twNorth Vietnam had a Communistgovernment, and the South declaitself to be a democratic republic

Crick (standing) and Watsondemonstrate the structure of DNA.

Testing of the hydrogen bomb in the Pacific

The highest mountain on Earth,Mount Everest, was scaled for

the first time by Edmund Hillaryof New Zealand and TenzingNorgay of Nepal in 1953.



273

FAST FORWARD

1956 1958 1960

1957

1957

Sputnik 1

The Soviet Union took an early lead in theSpace Race, launching the first artificial satellite,

Sputnik 1, into Earth’s orbit in October. A monthlater, Sputnik 2 carried the first living creature,a dog named Laika, into space.

Independence

for GhanaGhana, formerly knownas the Gold Coast, gainedindependence from theBritish Empire.

1956Hungarian revolutionWhen Hungary attempted to form a liberalgovernment and withdraw from the WarsawPact, Soviet tanks came rolling in (below).After a week of heavy fighting, the SovietUnion reasserted its control.

1955

1955

Bus boycottIn Montgomery, Alabama,a black woman namedRosa Parks refused togive up her bus seat toa white person as the lawof the time required. Shewas jailed, leading to aboycott of the bus systemby the black population,and eventually an endto segregation onMontgomery’s buses.

Warsaw PactIn response to the formation in

1949 of NATO, a military allianceof Western powers led by the UnitedStates, the Communist countries ofEastern Europe formed their ownalliance—called the Warsaw Pact—led by the Soviet Union.

1957Treaty of RomeAfter the bitter conflictsof the 1940s, the countriesof Europe began toestablish better relationsin the 1950s. The Treaty ofRome set up the EuropeanEconomic Community(EEC), a trading unionbetween six nations: WestGermany, France, Italy, theNetherlands, Belgium,and Luxembourg.

1959Castro’s CubaAfter a six-year campaignCuban revolutionaries leby Fidel Castro overthrewthe US-backed Cubandictator Fulgencio BatistaCastro established Cuba a Communist state, whiche led until 2008, despitenumerous US attemptsto assassinate him.

Soviet Union stamp commemoratingSputnik 2 and Laika

1958China’s Great Leap ForwardChina’s leader, Mao Zedong, devised aprogram of reform, called the Great LeapForward, to change the country from a ruraleconomy to an industrial one. It forced peopleto produce steel rather than food. The policywas a disaster, resulting in famine and thedeath of 35 million people.

Chinese propaganda poster

Cuban revolutionaryFidel Castro



Telstar 1

The firstcommunications satellite,

Telstar 1, was sent into orbitby the United States in

1962. It relayed television,telephone, telegraph, and

other signals to Earth, buttechnical faults caused it

to fail after lessthan a year.

274

1960▶1965

1960

1961

First man in spaceSoviet pilot Yuri Gagarin captured the world’sattention when he became the first man to travel

into space. Aboard his rocket, Vostok 1, he took justunder two hours to orbit Earth before returning to

the ground an instant international celebrity.

Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin

Algerian crowdcelebrate theirindependence,waving thecountry’s new

1961Berlin Wall erected

By 1961, thousands ofpeople were leaving CommunistEast Berlin for democratic WestBerlin, seriously weakening the

East’s economy. Immigrationwas halted when the East

Germans built a heavilyguarded wall, splitting

the city in two.

1962Beatles release first single

Having spent years playing smallclubs, a pop group called the Beatles,from Liverpool, England, finally got a

record deal and released their first single,“Love Me Do.” The group went

on to become the most popularmusicians in the world

during the 1960s.

1962Cuban missile crisis

US spy planes discovered that the SovietUnion was installing nuclear weapons

on Communist-controlled Cuba, just offthe American coast. President Kennedy

demanded that Soviet leader NikitaKhrushchev remove the weapons or

face retaliation. For several days, theworld stood on the brink of nuclear

war before the Soviets backed down.

Algerian independenceSince 1954, the French army and Algerian

protestors—who wanted their countryfreed from French rule—had fought a

bloody war. French wartime leaderCharles de Gaulle was brought back

as president in 1958 and was expectedto lead France to victory. However, he

granted Algeria its independence in 1962.

1962

The Beatlesin concert

D iv ide d B e r lin

See pag es 27 0– 27 1



275

FAST FORWARD

1965

1964

1963

1963

1963

Nelson Mandela jailedIn the early 1960s, NelsonMandela was one of the leadersof the African National Congress(ANC), which fought for the rightsof black South Africans. Hecampaigned for the overthrow

of the apartheid regimeof racial segregation butwas arrested and sentto jail—where he spentthe next 26 years.

March on WashingtonAt an American civil rights rally inWashington, DC, Martin Luther King, Jr.,gave a famous speech, stating “I have adream that one day this nation will riseup and live out the true meaning of itscreed… that all men are created equal.”

Organization of African UnityIn the two decades since World War II, anumber of African countries had becomeindependent from their former Europeancolonial masters. In 1963, 32 African states setup the Organization of African Unity to promotetheir economic, political, and cultural interests.

Women’s LiberationTriggered by the release of American writerBetty Friedan’s book The Feminine Mystique,the Women’s Liberation Movementcampaigned for women to have the rightto do the same jobs and earn the samepay as men. They also demanded equalstatus for women in society.

The world was shocked by the assassinationof US president John F. Kennedy inNovember. According to the officialreport, a lone gunman killed Kennedyas the president was riding in an open-topcar through the streets of Dallas on anofficial visit. His killer was identified asCommunist sympathizer Lee Harvey Oswald.

Death in DallasAs Kennedy’s car drove slowly through theDallas crowds, it is alleged that Oswald firedthree shots from the sixth floor of a nearbybuilding, killing the president.

Lee Harvey OswaldOswald (left) wasarrested, but was killed

while being transferredto jail before standingtrial. This led some tobelieve that there hadbeen a cover-up andthat the true killer ofthe president wassomeone else.

1963 PRESIDENT KENNEDY ASSASSINATED

The “hotline,” adirect communicatline between the Uand the USSR, wasset up after the

Cuban missile crisi

BettyFriedan

NelsonMandela





FAST FORWARD

277

March on WashingtonIn 1963, Martin Luther King led the largest march of theCivil Rights Movement. About 250,000 people arrived inWashington, DC, to call on the government to do moreto end racial discrimination. With the crowd gatheredin front of the Lincoln Memorial, King delivered hisfamous “I have a dream” speech. The march is widelycredited for spurring the government to passthe Civil Rights Act the next year.

On the marchAfter the success of the Washingtonprotest, King organized anothermarch in 1965, from Selma toMontgomery. This was a protestagainst restrictions placed on blackvoters. In Alabama, black peopleoften had to pass a literacy testor pay a tax in order to vote.The Voting Rights Act, passed thesame year, banned these practices.

Civil rights progressIn 1968, King was assassinated

by James Earl Ray, who opposed

the Civil Rights Movement. Bythat time, segregation had

legally ended. The extent of thecountry’s progress in race

relations over the next fewdecades became clear in 2008

when the United States electedits first black president, Barack

Obama. He was sworn in for hissecond term in 2013 on King’s

own copy of the Bible (right).

Following years of protests andthe mass rally in Washington, DC,the government passed the CivilRights Act, outlawing discriminationon the basis of race, religion,or gender.

Martin Luther King electrified anation with his famous “I have adream” speech in Washington, DC, atthe largest rally of the civil rights era.

The government passed laws toprotect the voting rights of African-Americans in the South, wherethey often faced harassment atthe voting booths.

The year witnessed both thetriumph of the Fair Housing Act,which banned discriminationin the housing market, and thetragedy of the assassinations ofboth Dr. King and Robert Kennedy.

19641963 19681965

New legislationAs a result of the Civil Rights Movement, several importantpieces of legislation were passed by the federal government:

1964 Civil Rights Act This banned employers from hiring employees on thebasis of their “color, religion, or national origin.”

1965 Voting Rights Act This made it illegal for states to have extra votingrequirements designed to stop black people from voting.

1968 Fair Housing Act Ensured equality when selling or renting out property.

Martin Luther King and his wife,Coretta Scott King, lead the march.

“Now is the timeto make justice areality for all of

God’s children.”Martin Luther King, Jr.,1963



278

1965▶1970

Cultural revolution in ChinaChina was plunged into anarchy when leader

Mao Zedong unveiled the Cultural Revolution.Its aim was to remove capitalist sympathizers

from positions of power across society.Hundreds of thousands were murdered

before Mao ended the revolution in 1969.

1966

1965

T h e fi r s t fl i g h t o f t h e

s u p e r s o n i c a i r l i n e r

C o n c o r d e t o o k

p l a c e i n

1 9 6 9

From the mid-1950s to the mid-1970s,the United States and the USSR were lockedin a competition to lead the exploration ofspace. But the “Space Race” was also abattle for international prestige and militaryadvantage between the two superpowers.

THE SPACE RACE

Viet CongMuch of the North’sfighting was carriedout by the Viet Cong(left), a group of South

Vietnamese Communrebels who undertookguerilla raids and actssabotage against SouVietnam’s governmen

In the late 1950s, Communist NorthVietnam attacked South Vietnam.The United States entered the conflict in1965 in support of South Vietnam, to tryto prevent Communism from spreading

to other countries in the region—a theorycalled the “Domino Effect.” Despite itssuperior firepower, the US was unable todefeat the North and signed a cease-firein 1973. In 1975, North Vietnam finallydefeated the South.

1965–1975 VIETNAM WAR

This Soviet postagestamp depictsLeonov’s space walk.

The USSR takes the leadMost of the early victories wentto the Soviets, who launched thefirst satellite, Sputnik , in 1957 andthe first manned spaceflight four

years later. Then, in 1965, Sovietcosmonaut Alexei Leonov becamethe first man to step outside aspacecraft on a “space walk.”

Cooperation in spaceIn 1975, the Apollo-SoyuzTest Project marked the endof the Space Race, whenUS Apollo and Soviet Soyuzcrafts docked in space.

Chinese childrenread from theLittle Red Book,a collectionof ChairmanMao’s quotations

Apollo-Soyuzmission patch

The US catches upThe US pulled ahead of the

Soviets in the late 1960s with theirApollo space program. In 1967, theAmericans successfully launched

the Saturn V rocket (right). Two years later, a Saturn V put the first

man on the Moon.



279

FAST FORWARD

Gaddafi comes

to powerThe young army officerMuammar al-Gaddafiseized power in Libyawhile the king was outof the country on vacation.He led the countryfor the next

42 years, untilhe too wasoverthrownin 2011.

1969AssassinationsTwo of the leading figures of theCivil Rights Movement fell to lonegunmen. On April 4, Martin LutherKing was shot while in Memphissupporting a strike by local blackworkers. His death triggered raceriots across the country. In June,Robert Kennedy was assassinatedwhile campaigning for president.His Palestinian killer, Sirhan Sirhan,had objected to Kennedy’s supportof Israel in the Six-Day War theprevious year.

1968

Che Guevara killedA leading figure in the CubanRevolution, Ernesto “Che”Guevara left Cuba in 1965 tostart Communist uprisingsin other countries. However,he was hunted down by UStroops in Bolivia and killed.

1967Strikes in FranceStudents in Paris rioted overthe government’s educationpolicy. Soon, a revolutionarymood had swept the country,with more than 11 millionworkers putting down theirtools to demand higher wages.The protests stopped only afterthe government stepped downand new elections were called.

1968

Czechoslovakia

invadedIn January, the new leader ofCommunist Czechoslovakia,Alexander Dubcek, began aprogram of reform known asthe “Prague Spring,” designedto give the people more freedom.Alarmed at the changes, theSoviet Union invaded in Augustand stopped the reforms.

1968

WoodstockThis three-day American

music festival in 1969featured some of the biggestbands of the time and wasa high point of the “hippie”

youth movement dedicatedto peace and love.

US pulls outBy 1969, thousands of UStroops had been killed, andNorth Vietnam’s resistancewas as strong as ever.President Nixon beganwithdrawing troops, while

the US national securityadvisor, Henry Kissinger,negotiated a cease-firein 1973.

Peace protestsThe war in Vietnamwas the first whereday-to-day conflictcould be followedon television. Protest

grew as people wereshocked by theviolence againstboth US troops andinnocent civilians.

President Nixon (left)with Henry Kissinger

1970

“I ask every citizen toreject the blind violence

that has struckDr. King, who livedby nonviolence.”President Lyndon B. Johnson, 1968

A student protests during the May 1968 Paris riots.

Images of Che Guevarabecame a popular symbolof protest and revolution.



280

JULY 21, 1969



FAST FORWARD

281

“That’s one small stepfor [a] man, one giantleap for mankind.”Neil Armstrong, on becoming the

first human to walk on the Moon

This boot print, left by Aldrin, is still onthe Moon since there is no wind to erode it.

Man onthe MoonIn July 1969, millions of people aroundthe world tuned in to see if the Apollo 11 mission to the Moon would be successful.American astronauts Neil Armstrong and“Buzz” Aldrin landed their craft and madetheir way down to the featureless, graysurface, becoming the first humans to setfoot on a world other than Earth. Ten otherpeople have repeated their feat since.



1970▶1975

1970

1970East Pakistan cyclone

The deadliest cyclone in recorded history hit EastPakistan, leaving more than half a million dead.The limited help from West Pakistan provokedresentment and calls for independence. In 1972,the region broke free from West Pakistan’s rule,forming the new country of Bangladesh.

1970Palestinian plane hijackings Palestinian terrorists hijacked three large

passenger aircraft and flew them to a remoteairfield in the Jordanian desert. There,40 passengers were taken hostage and theplanes were blown up. The passengers werelater freed in return for seven Palestinianprisoners being released from Western jails.

282

1971Idi Amin seizes power

The commander of the Ugandan Army,Idi Amin, overthrew the president in January. He proved to be a brutal ruler,and was responsible for the death ofmore than 100,000 Ugandans.

1972

Munich Olympic killingsEleven members of the Israeli Olympic team

were taken hostage in Munich by members ofthe Palestinian terrorist group, Black September.

After a botched rescue attempt by the Germanauthorities, all of the hostages —and most of the

terrorists—were killed.

1972

1972

Bloody SundayIn Northern Ireland, conflicts between

the Nationalists, who wanted the regionto become part of the Republic of Ireland, and

the Unionists, who wanted it to stay in the UK,became known as “The Troubles.” In one of the

most notorious incidents, known as BloodySunday, 13 unarmed Nationalist protestors were

shot dead by the British army during a march.

Nixon meets MaoSince 1949, the US had refused to recognize

China’s Communist regime. However, relationsimproved when Richard Nixon became the first

US president to visit China, meeting its leader, MaoZedong. In 1978, the US finally recognized China.

A soldier clashes with aprotestor during Bloody Sunday.

Survivors dig through the debriscaused by the East Pakistan cyclone.

A Black September terrorist



Sears TowerUpon its completion in

1973, the 108-story,1,451 ft (442 m) Chicago

skyscraper was theworld’s tallest building.

Now called the WillisTower, it is still the

tallest building in theUnited States.

283

FAST FORWARD

1975

1973

Lucy discoveredScientists digging in an Ethiopian valley found

the fossil remains of one of humankind’s oldestancestors—an apelike female who lived about3.2 million years ago and walked on two legs.

She was given the species name Australopithecusafarensis, but the research team called her “Lucy.”

Yom Kippur WarEgyptian and Syrian forces launched a surpriseattack against Israel on the holiest day of the

Jewish year. But Israel fought back successfully.In retaliation for assisting Israel, Arab nations cutoil supplies to the West, triggering a recession.

1973

1974

Coup in ChileFrom 1970 to 1973, SalvadorAllende led one of the fewdemocracies in South America.That changed when the headof the army, General AugustoPinochet, launched a coupthat sucessfully toppledAllende. Pinochet ruledas dictator until 1990.

WatergateIn 1973, seven men were jailed for bugging the

Democratic Party’s headquarters in the Watergatebuilding in Washington, DC. An investigation by the

Washington Post newspaper proved that PresidentNixon had been involved in the scheme,

forcing him to resign from office.

Turkey invades Cyprus

Turkey invaded the Mediterranean island of Cyprus,fearing it would become part of Greece. The northernpart declared independence as the Turkish Republic ofNorthern Cyprus, but only Turkey has recognized this.

Chile’sdictator,General

Pinochet

1974

Microsoft, the computercompany Bill Gates founded in1975, made him the wealthiestman in the world by 1995.

1974

President Nixon just before leavingthe White Housefor the last time



284

Now part of theByzantine Empire—theEastern Roman Empire—Palestine was conqueredby Arab Muslims.

The Jews were expelledfrom Palestine followingtheir revolt againstthe Romans.

The Jewish people emergedin the Middle Eastern regionof Palestine and went on toform the Kingdom of Israel.

A Zionist (pro-Jewish)conference called for theestablishment of a Jewishhomeland in Palestineto curb Europeanantisemitism.

638C. 133 CE C. 1200 BCE 1897

Control of Palestine pato Britain after the collof the Ottoman Empire Jews began to immigrathe region en masse.

1922

Key events

Arab-Israeli conflictThe establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 was intendedto signal a more peaceful era for the world, giving the Jewishpeople a safe homeland after the horrors of World War II.Instead, it led to decades of conflict with the people who

had been displaced—the Palestinians—as well as withneighboring Arab countries.

Israel foundedIn 1948, Jewish people living in the MiddleEastern region of Palestine declared thecreation of a new country, Israel, with anew flag (left). However, the Palestiniansliving there objected. War soon followed.

Yom Kippur War and the oil crisisEgypt and Syria launched an attack on Israel onthe Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur in 1973. Onceagain, Israel managed to reverse the attack andpush into both Egypt and Syria, before a cease-fiDuring the conflict, Arab countries cut oil supplieto nations, such as the United States, that weresupporting Israel. The ban stayed in place until

March 1974, leading to worldwide fuel shortageslines at gas stations, and a global recession.

Six-Day WarIn June 1967, Syrian, Egyptian,and Jordanian military forcesbegan massing on Israel’sborders. Israel decided tostrike before they invaded,and, in six days, claimedthe Golan Heights fromSyria, the West Bank from

Jordan, and the Gaza Strip andthe Sinai Peninsula from Egypt.

Wars 1948 Arab-Israeli War: When Israel wascreated, its Arab neighbors launched animmediate attack. Israel managed to repelthe attack and eventually claim more land.

1967 Six-Day War: Israel launched aswift assault, taking the Gaza Strip fromEgypt and the West Bank from Jordan.

1973 Yom Kippur War: Egypt and Syrialaunched their own surprise attack onIsrael’s holiest day. They enjoyed someinitial success, but were pushed back again.

1987–1993 First Intifada: By themid-1980s, Palestinians in Gaza and theWest Bank were calling for these areasto be turned into a Palestinian state. Theylaunched a mass uprising, the Intifada,against Israel. Hundreds of Israelis andthousands of Palestinians died duringsix years of fighting.

Jordanian tanks

roll into battle in

the Six-Day War.



FAST FORWARD

285

The State of Israel wasproclaimed against Palestinianobjections, leading to theArab-Israeli War.

The PLO, the main politicalvoice of the Palestinianpeople, was founded.Yasser Arafat became itsleader in 1969.

Israel captured the WestBank and the Gaza Stripduring the Six-Day War.In time, these becamethe Palestinian territories.

Israeli Prime Minister YitzhakRabin was assassinated byan Israeli who objectedto Israel’s concessions tothe Palestinians.

The two main parties inthe Palestinian Authoritysplit, with Fatah ruling theWest Bank and Hamasruling the Gaza Strip.

1948 1964 1967 1995 2006

Palestinian oppositionIn the early years, oppositionto Israel was provided mainlyby Arab nations in the region.But gradually the Palestinianpeople found their voice,with the formation of thePalestinian LiberationOrganization (PLO) in 1964.In 1987, Palestinians launchedthe First Intifada, or uprising,against Israeli presence in theWest Bank and Gaza Strip.

West Bank barrierContinued Israeli settlement building in Palestinian areastriggered a Second Intifada in 2000. Israel responded byconstructing a giant concrete barrier around parts of theWest Bank (below). Designed to prevent terrorist attacks,it was internationally criticized for also preventinglaw-abiding Palestinians from traveling freely.

Hope for peaceIn recent times, Israel has indicated that it

requires the Palestinians to accept itsright to exist, and that it will do the

same for Palestine if there is an endto violence on Israeli territory. The

Palestinians seek an end to the Israelioccupation of the West Bank and Gaza,

and a full recognition of their statehood.

Peace 1978–1979 Camp David Accords:The 1970s ended with an agreementbetween Egypt and Israel, committing thetwo sides to a peaceful future and limitedself-government for the Palestinians.

1993 Oslo Accords: Under the termsof the deal arranged in Oslo, Norway, thePalestinians recognized Israel’s right toexist, while Israel allowed a Palestiniangovernment, the Palestinian Authority, tobe established in the West Bank and Gaza.

1998 Land for peace: In another dealnegotiated by the US, Israel agreed towithdraw from Palestinian territoriesin return for an end to the Palestiniancampaigns of violence.

2002 Road Map: US president George W.Bush’s “Road Map” called for an end toPalestinian violence and Israeli settlement

building in Palestinian territory. A short-livedpeace was followed by a return to violence.

Palestinians throw rocks during the First Intifada.

The flag of the Palestinian people

Yasser Arafat



286

1975▶1980

1975

1975

1976

1976

1975

1975

End of the Vietnam WarUS troops pulled out of Vietnamin 1973, but fighting between theNorth and South continued. In 1975,Northern troops overran the South,which surrendered soon after.

Death of MaoThe leader of Communist China sincethe revolution of 1949, Mao Zedongdied at age 82. His disastrous policies,particularly the Great Leap Forwardand the Cultural Revolution, led tothe deaths of many millions.

Punk rockersPop music was shaken up whenthe “punk” movement began.Punk songs were fast and loud,

with shouted lyrics often aboutpolitics or social problems.Bands such as the Sex Pistolscaused outrage with theirspiky hair, ripped clothing,and aggressive attitude.

The Khmer Rouge

Pol Pot, the leader of the KhmerRouge, Cambodia’s Communistparty, overthrew the Cambodiangovernment. He tried to turn thecountry back into a simple, ruralsociety, forcibly emptying citiesand ruthlessly massacring anyonewho opposed him. An estimated1.7 million people died before Vietnaminvaded, toppling Pot’s brutal regime.

Lebanese Civil WarIn Lebanon, tensions had been rising

between the Christians, who controlled thegovernment, and Palestinian refugees led bythe Palestine LiberationOrganization (PLO).An attack on a busfull of Palestiniansin Beirut by armedChristians triggereda brutal 15-yearcivil war.

The Communist party of Afghanistan seizedpower in a 1978 coup, renaming the countrythe Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA).However, after a rebellion by Islamic militants,the Mujahideen, the Soviet Union sent in troopsto help secure the country for the Communists.

MujahideenThroughout the 1980s, the Mujahideen (below)

successfully repelled the Soviets. They were backedby a number of countries, including Pakistan,

Saudi Arabia, and, most importantly, theUS, who supplied them with weapons.

1979 INVASION OF AFGHANISTAN

First Applecomputer

Cofounded and led byAmerican Steve Jobs, Apple

launched its first productin 1976, a simple personal

computer called Apple I (left).The company would growto become one of the most

valuable in the world.

Johnny Rotten, leadsinger of the Sex Pistols

Wreckage ofthe bus

Northern troops seize the

presidential palace in the South.



287

FAST FORWARD

FirstWalkman

The introduction of theWalkman, a small portable

cassette player with

lightweight headphones,revolutionized the experience

of listening to music,allowing people to enjoy

recorded music onthe move.

1980

The king, or shah, of Iran,Mohammad Pahlavi, was a closeally of the United States. This madehim very unpopular, and, in 1979,

he was overthrown by Muslimrebels. The country became anIslamic Republic headed by thecleric Ayatollah Khomeini.

Soviet withdrawalDespite years of bloody fighting,

the Soviet Union couldn’t stop theuprising and withdrew its troops in

1989 (above). The Mujahideen finallyoverthrew the DRA government in

1992, but then began fighting amongthemselves. One faction, the Taliban,would eventually emerge victorious.

Support for KhomeiniAlthough he had been exiled since 1964

for calling the Shah “a puppet” of the West,Ayatollah Khomeini still had a lot of supportwithin Iran. Big demonstrations, such asthe one shown here, eventually led to theshah fleeing, and Khomeini returning.

Iran-Iraq WarIn 1980, Iraq tried to take advantage of

the situation in Iran by launching asurprise invasion. However, Iran fought

back and the conflict soon became astalemate. The 1988 cease-fire returnedboth countries to their prewar borders.

1979 IRANIAN REVOLUTION

1979

1980

1980

Sandinista policies

After overthrowing Nicaraguanpresident Anastasio SomozaDebayle, the left wing Sandinista

party introduced a series ofliberal policies. In the 1980s,

they faced regular attacks by theUS-backed right-wing militia

group, the Contras.

Zimbabwe electionsIn response to international

pressure and internal rebellions,the Rhodesian government

finally ended white-minorityrule. After free elections, Robert

Mugabe became the first blackpresident of the country now

known as Zimbabwe.

SolidarityCracks began to appear in

the Soviet Union’s authoritywhen striking ship workersin Poland founded the first

independent trade union inSoviet-controlled territory.

Known as Solidarity, it wasbanned two years later

and its leader, Lech Walesa,was imprisoned, but the

government was later forcedto negotiate with the union.

Members of Solidarnosc (Solidarity) holda union banner.

President Robert Mugabe



1980▶1985

1980

1981Assassin attacks

In separate attacks, gunmen attempted to kill both USpresident Ronald Reagan and Pope John Paul II. Afterhis attack, the Pope began traveling in a bulletproof

vehicle known as the “popemobile.” In Egypt, PresidentSadat was assassinated by a solider angry at the recent

peace deal between Egypt and Israel.

Pope John Paul II after beingshot at by a Turkish gunman

1981

Space shuttleIn April, the US launched the first reusable spacevehicle, the space shuttle Columbia. Five space

shuttles were built in total, two of which explodedduring missions. Shuttles flew on 135 missions

before the program was retired in 2011.

Columbia preparesfor launch 1982

1982

Invasion of LebanonIn June, Israeli troops entered Lebanon toattack the Palestine Liberation Organization

(PLO) forces based there. A cease-fire wascalled two months later, and the PLO

leadership moved to Tunisia, in North Africa.

Falklands WarArgentina had long disputed Britain’sownership of the Falkland Islands in

the South Pacific. In April, its armyinvaded the islands, prompting Britain

to send troops (above) to take themback. After two months of fighting,

Argentina surrendered.

Infected white

blood cell

288

In the 1980s, Ethiopia received thelowest rainfall since records began,resulting in a devastating famineand more than 400,000 deaths.Television images of the starvingpopulation shocked the worldand provoked musicians to recordcharity singles and stage Live Aid,a day of concerts in the UK and US,to raise money for famine relief.

Refugee campsThousands of people left thhomes to seek help, with mpeople ending up in refugecamps (left). The suffering Ethiopia was made worse bthe policies of the governmwhich spent more than halnational budget on the mili

1983 ETHOPIAN FAMINE



289

FAST FORWARD

1985

1985Democracy in Brazil

After 21 years of militarydictatorship, Brazil became ademocracy again. However, its

first president, Tancredo Neves,died before he could take office

and was immediately succeededby his deputy, José Sarney.

1984Indira Gandhi assassinated

In June, Indian Prime Minister IndiraGandhi (below) ordered troops to attackSikh rebels in Amritsar’s Golden Temple,resulting in hundreds of deaths. Fourmonths later, two of her Sikh bodyguardstook revenge, assassinating her.

1983

1983

AIDS identifiedIn the early 1980s, a mysterydisease began killing people. Itwas eventually identified as AcquiredImmunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS),which is caused by the HIV virus,

which attacks the patient’s immunesystem. Since then, AIDS has killedmore than 20 million people.Medicines have been developed thatcan lessen its effects, but not cure it.

Sri Lankan Civil WarTensions in Sri Lanka between themajority Sinhalese people and theminority Tamils, who wanted toestablish their own separate state,erupted in 1983 into a 26-year longcivil war. An estimated 700,000people died in the fighting, whicheventually ended when governmentforces defeated the main rebelgroup, the Tamil Tigers.

Microscopicimage of awhite bloodcell infectedwith HIV

HIV virus

Live AidAfter seeing televised images of dying

Ethiopian families, Irish pop singer BobGeldof gathered musicians to record a

charity single called “Do They Know It’sChristmas?” In 1985, he organized theLive Aid concerts, which raised morethan 50 million pounds for the cause.

1984Miners’ strikeIn Britain, coal miners went on strike for morethan a year in protest over pay and planned mineclosures. However, the conservative governmentof Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher refused togive in to their demands. Eventually the miners,facing destitution, were forced back to work.

Thriller

The sixth album byAmerican pop star Michael Jackson, Thriller , became aglobal phenomenon and the

best-selling record of alltime, with sales of more

than 60 million.

Coal miners on stri



290

Key events

IndonesiaIn 1945, nationalist rebels in Indonesiadeclared the country free of the Dutch,who had ruled since 1800. The Dutchdisagreed. Three years of fighting ensuedbefore the Dutch withdrew, and Indonesiabecame independent in 1949 underPresident Sukarno (above).

Egypt

Egypt had officially becomeindependent in 1922, but

Britain continued to occupythe country and exertcontrol over its ruler, KingFarouk. British influencewas finally ended by the1952 Egyptian Revolution

led by Colonel Nasser(left), who went on to

become president.

Ghana

The British colony of the GoldCoast began campaigning forindependence after the war.Britain initially resisted buteventually gave in, and in1957 the newly independent,and newly named, countryof Ghana was born. Shownhere are Ghanaians holdinga parade to celebratetheir independence.

End of empiresThis map shows the world’sempires in 1938 on the eve War II. The colors show theempires, and the dates are colonies finally became indSome territories are still co

Wind of changeAt its peak, the British Empire was the largest in history,but it began to break apart after World War II. In 1960,British prime minister Harold Macmillan gave a speechto the South African parliament (above), where he predictedthat a “wind of change”—meaning independence—wouldsweep through Africa. Over the next two decades,most of Britain’s colonies declared independence.

DecolonizationBefore World War II, Europe’s major powers controlled large overseasempires, as did Japan. Italy and Japan lost their empires at the endof the conflict. The victorious European nations held on to theirsfor slightly longer, but with their economies shattered by the war—and nationalist sentiments stirring worldwide—the once-mightyEuropean empires gradually melted away to almost nothing.By the early 1980s, the process was largely complete.

Countries that becameindependent: India andPakistan (from Britain).

Countries that becameindependent: Moroccoand Tunisia (fromFrance); and the next year Malaysia andGhana (from Britain).

Countries that becameindependent: Burmaand Sri Lanka (from Britain).

Seventeen Africancountries becameindependent. Theseincluded Cameroonand the Ivory Coast(from France).

1947 19561948 1960Countries that becameindependent: Rwanda(from Belgium);Algeria (from France); Jamaica, Trinidadand Tobago, andUganda (from Britain).

1962

United Kingdomand colonies

Norwayand colonies

Denmarkand colonies

Italyand colonies

Portugaland colonies

United Statesand colonies

Franceand colonies

Belgiumand colonies

Spainand colonies

Australiaand colonies

Netherlandsand colonies

Japanand colonies

Sri Lankan flag

1981



291

Jamaica

In the late 1950s, Britainbrought together severalCaribbean islands, including

Jamaica, as the Federationof the West Indies. However,the federation broke up,and in 1962 Jamaicabecame independent.Shown here is PrincessMargaret, sister of the BritishQueen, attending Jamaica’sindependence celebrations.

Angola

Angolan nationalistsbegan fighting the Portuguesedictatorship that ruledtheir country in 1961. Theconflict ended only whenthe dictatorship was overthrownby a coup in Portugal in 1974.Agostinho Neto (left) becameAngola’s first president, butthe country was soon drawninto a 26-year-long civil war.

Countries that becameindependent: Guyana,Botswana, Lesotho, andBarbados (from Britain).

Countries that becameindependent: Angola,Mozambique, CapeVerde, São Tomé andPríncipe (from Portugal).

Countries thatbecame independent:Malawi, Zambia, andMalta (from Britain).

Countries that becameindependent: Mauritiusand Swaziland (fromBritain); EquatorialGuinea (from Spain).

Countries that becameindependent: Antiguaand Barbuda, and Belize(from Britain).

1966 19751964 1968 1981

1962

19561956

1961

1960

1960

1975

19601980

1975

1964

1960

1964

1966

1961

19631962

1956

19561941

1960

1967

1947

1947195319541953

1948

1945 19751962

1947

1948

19601960

1960

1960

19601960

19601962

19661975

1977

1984

1961

1961

1970

1946

1943

1975

1968

19621962

196019571960

1960

19581974

1960

1961

1960

1961

1945

1963

1978

1971

1966

1968

1946

1975

1946

1945

1945

1965

1971

197619971999

1960

1941

FAST FORWARD



292

1985▶1990

1985

On Monday, October 19, 1987, stockmarkets around the world sufferedthe biggest crash since 1929.However, unlike the earlier crash,it didn’t lead to a global economicdepression—just a slowdown.

October slumpThis graph, showing the value of the top 100 companiestrading in the UK between July 1987 and January 1988,shows a sharp decline for October, when their valuewas reduced by 26 percent. The crash started in HongKong, but affected every market in the Western world.

Computer troubleA trader at the New York Stock Exchange feels the

impact as the crash takes hold on October 19. The crashwas partly caused by computers that had recently been

installed in stock exchanges, since they could sell stocksmuch quicker and in greater volumes than ever before.

1987 BLACK MONDAY

1986

Challenger disasterUntil 1986, the American space shuttle programhad been an enormous success, with 24 missions

completed safely. But disaster struck in January whena faulty seal caused the Challenger shuttle to explodeshortly after takeoff, killing all seven crew members.

1986Chernobyl explosionThe worst nuclear disaster in history took placewhen a reactor at the Chernobyl plant in Soviet-controlled Ukraine exploded. It sent a cloudof harmful radiation out over Europe, forcingthousands of people to evacuate the area.

1987First IntifadaThe Palestinianslaunched an Intifada,or uprising, againstIsrael’s continuedoccupation of Gazaand the West Bank.It resulted in thedeaths of more than150 Israelis and2,000 Palestiniansover the next six years

Debris and smoke from the exploded Challenger

Ar ab-I s r ae li c o nf lic t

See pag es 284– 285

2500

2400

2300

2200

1900

2000

2100

1700

1800

1500

1600

07/01/87 08/01/87 09/01/87 10/01/87 11/01/87 12/01/87 12/01/87



293

FAST FORWARD

1990

1990

1989

Gulf WarIraqi leader Saddam Hussein ordered his troops

to invade Kuwait and seize its oil reserves. Inretaliation, the United States launched an

international operation that forced the Iraqisout, but did not topple Hussein from power.

The Berlin Wall fallsBerliners in both the East and West of the city toredown the Berlin Wall, after a series of events thatalso led to the fall of the government in the East.In 1990, East and West Germany were reunited.

1988Lockerbie bombingIn December, Libyanterrorists planted a bombon a transatlantic flight fromLondon, England, to NewYork. It exploded, killing all259 people on board. Thewreckage crashed onto theScottish town of Lockerbie,where another 11 peopleon the ground lost their lives.

1989Tiananmen Square

The Chinese authorities initiallyallowed pro-democracy protests by

students in Beijing’s TiananmenSquare to go ahead. However,

tanks were eventually sentin to stop the demonstration,

resulting in hundreds of deaths.

1989Exxon Valdez oil spillLoaded with oil and heading for California,the Exxon Valdez oil tanker ran agroundoff Alaska. A rupture in its hull spilledmore than 750,000 barrels of oil, seriouslydamaging the environment and killingwildlife. The Exxon oil company was forcedto pay nearly $1 billion in compensation.

1990Nelson Mandela released

After 26 years of international

pressure, the antiapartheidactivist Nelson Mandela was finally

released from prison in SouthAfrica. He immediately returned

to politics, becoming the head ofthe African National Congress

and negotiating an end toapartheid with South African

president F.W. de Klerk.

Looking atthe Universe

Built in the United States,the Hubble Space Telescopewas sent into orbit aroundEarth in 1990. It has taken

some of the most detailed andfar-reaching images of theUniverse ever produced.

A US marine watches an oil fire in Kuwait.

Crowds celebrate a united Germany outside the Reichstag (parliament).

Fa l l o f

co m m u n i s m

See pages

296 –29 7





FAST FORWARD

295

“That story… is not gettingweaker because of time. Because wedon’t know who he is, it’s actually

getting stronger… In the long frame ofhistory… human freedom, courage,

dignity will stay and prevail, and that’swhat that picture will testify forever.”Xiao Qiang, editor-in-chief of the China Digital Times

Unknown rebelAs Chinese tanks moved in to crush a pro-democracy protest in Beijing’s TiananmenSquare, one man stepped forward to try tostop the carnage. Carrying shopping bags,he simply stood in front of the tanks, blockingtheir path for several minutes before being ledaway. Although he has never been officiallyidentified, his protest has since become aniconic image and a global symbol of thepeaceful resistance of an individual inthe face of brute force.

The unknown rebel defiantlyhalts a row of tanks in their tracks.



296

Fall of the Berlin WallThe Berlin Wall, the most iconic symbol of the ColdWar, had divided the city since 1961. As Communist

regimes fell across Europe in 1989, pressure grew onthe East German government to open the border.

In November, it announced that the barrierwould open. Thousands of people

rushed to the wall to tear it down.

Fall of CommunismThroughout the Cold War, the Soviet Union had seemed apowerful force. But behind the scenes, the USSR was struggling.By the mid1980s, it could no longer match the US militarily, andits citizens were demanding more control over their lives. The new

Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, decided to try and rejuvenatethe country by granting the people greater freedom. Ultimately, thisprecipitated the fall of Communism, as people across the USSR andits allies used the opportunity to break away from Soviet control.

Key events

In January, the Soviet Union,the Warsaw Pact countries,and Yugoslavia hadCommunist regimes.

In July, Gorbachevgave the countriesof the WarsawPact the chanceto choose theirown governments.

The Velvet Revolutionin November sawCzechoslovakiapeacefully move awayfrom Communism.

The Berlin Wall,which had dividethe city for nearly30 years, fell onNovember 9.

Poland voted outits Communistregime in favorof the SolidarityParty in August.

1989 1989 1989 19891989

A SolidarityParty banner





298

1990▶1995

1990

The breakup of Yugoslavia afterthe fall of Communism was a bloodyaffair. As four of its states—Slovenia,Croatia, Macedonia, and Bosniaand Herzegovina—tried to becomeindependent countries, Serbia wagedwar to try to hold on to power andcreate a “Greater Serbia.”

Ethnic cleansing

In 1992, Bosnia and Herzegovinadeclared itself independent. Thiswas rejected by the Bosnian Serbs.Supported by the Serbian president,Slobodan Milosevic (right),they began to violentlyremove all non-Serbsfrom Serb-dominatedareas—a policy knownas “ethnic cleansing.”

Siege of SarajevoA ferocious four-year Serbian

siege of the Bosnian city ofSarajevo was ended by

NATO air strikes in1995. Soon after,a peace deal was

signed, but more than11,000 civilians had

died or gone missing.

1991–1996 WAR IN YUGOSLAVIA1993

The Waco siege

In Waco, Texas, the Bureau ofAlcohol, Tobacco, and Firearmsstormed the headquarters of the

Branch Davidians, a secretiveChristian sect, using tanks and tear

gas. The raid was a disaster and thecompound caught fire, killing about

70 people, including several childrenand the sect’s leader, David Koresh.

1992Maastricht TreatyThe gradual coming-togetherof Western European nations

that had begun at the endof World War II culminatedin the Maastricht Treaty.This created the EuropeanUnion, with member countriesagreeing to common foreignand defense policies. Somealso committed to adoptinga single currency, the Euro,in the future.

1993Oslo Accords

Israel’s leader, Yitzhak Rabin, andPalestine Liberation Organization(PLO) leader Yasser Arafat shake

hands on a peace deal, looked

on by US president Bill Clinton.This followed secret talks in Oslo,Norway, in which Israel agreed towithdraw from some Palestinian

territory, while the PLO agreedto end violence and recognize

Israel’s right to exist.

1991End of the Soviet Union

After more than 40 years as one ofthe world’s two superpowers, the

Soviet Union suddenly disintegratedfollowing popular protests in the

Soviet republics. The Soviet Uniondivided into 15 separate countries.

1992LA riots

In 1991, police officers werefilmed viciously beating a blacksuspect, Rodney King. Charged

with using excessive force, theywere acquitted at their trial thenext year, prompting a six-day

race riot in which 53 people died.

European Union



Brazil winsFIFA World CupThe South American

nation became the firstcountry to win soccer’sWorld Cup four times

in 1994. They defeated Italyon penalties in the final

match, held in California.

FAST FORWARD

1995

299

1995Oklahoma bombing

In protest against thegovernment’s handlingof the Waco siege, ex-soldierTimothy McVeigh planteda huge bomb next to agovernment building inOklahoma City. It exploded,killing 168 people.McVeigh was arrestedand executed in 2001.

1995Barings bank

The UK’s oldest merchantbank, Barings Bank, was

ruined by the activitiesof a single “rogue

trader.” Nick Leesongambled huge sums in

unauthorized, riskyinvestments, racking up

losses of 800 millionpounds—almost all

of the bank’s assets.

1994First Chechen War

The Chechnyan region’s attemptto break away from Russia wasfiercely resisted by the Russianarmy. Chechen forces fought back,and a cease-fire in 1996 gaveChechnya its independence.However, Russia regained controlof the region after the SecondChechen War (1999–2000).

1994Rwandan massacre

Around 800,000 people—20 percent of the population— were killed in Rwanda when

the Hutu ethnic groupattacked their long-term

rivals, the Tutsis. ExtremistHutu leaders used the

recent assassination ofHutu president Juvénal

Habyarimana as justification.

1994US invades Haiti

Haiti’s first elected president, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, was

overthrown in 1991 in amilitary coup. Three yearslater, the US led a military

mission that put Aristide

back in power—althoughhe was overthrown again

a decade later in asecond coup.

New flagSouth Africa adopted a newflag in 1994. It combines thegreen, white, and gold ofthe ANC with the red, white,and blue of the Netherlandsand the UK, South Africa’sold colonial rulers.

International heroImprisoned in 1964 for trying to overthrow South

Africa’s government, Mandela became an internationalhero during his time in jail. In the 1980s, concerts

were staged and records were recorded calling forhis release—which eventually came in 1990.

Prison lifeLife in prison was hard.Mandela slept in a tiny

cell (right), was allowedto receive just one

visitor a year, and hadto do hard labor. After

his release, Mandelasought to heal thedivisions betweenblacks and whites.

Nelson Mandela spent his whole life fightingprejudice. As a young man, he helped leadthe African National Congress (ANC) protestsagainst South Africa’s apartheid regime.

Later, he became the country’spresident and was awardedthe Nobel Peace Prizein 1993.

1918– NELSON MANDELA

In 1991,two Germantourists founda mummifiedCopper Ageman frozendeep in aglacier inthe Alps.



300

CHILDREN IN HISTORY

Livingunder apartheidApartheid (meaning “separateness”) was introduced inSouth Africa in 1948 by the ruling white Afrikaner NationalParty to give the government control over the majority blac

population. During apartheid, families lived very differenlives depending on the color of their skin—oneprivileged, the other impoverished. Black and whitechildren were not allowed to play together.

Racial divide

Under apartheid, black people were told where to live and onlyallowed to take menial jobs. When they were sick, black childre

were taken to the hospital in “black only” ambulances. Blackchildren only glimpsed the privileged lives of white South African

if they went to work with their parents as servants in white homes.

Living apart

Black familes were forcibly moved to townships—poor areas withfew facilities and overcrowded schools. Black people could only enterwhite areas to work, and had to carry an identity document knownas a passbook wherever they went. In some places, a six o’clock sirensignaled a curfew. Any black person out after this time could be arrestedso children waited nervously for their parents to hurry home each day.

Protesting against the regime

Children in the townships lived in the shadow of violence. Any protestwas violently put down, such as the march of young people in Sowetoin 1976. Opposition to apartheid was headed by black rights groups,

such as the African National Congress (ANC). One of the figureheadsof the ANC was Nelson Mandela, who was imprisoned for 26 years.

The end of apartheid As international awareness of apartheid increased, pressure grew onSouth Africa to change. In 1989, President F.W. de Klerk lifted the banon protest marches and ended the segregation of public facilities.In 1994, Nelson Mandela was elected president. He urged people toheal the old divisions, and for black and white South Africans to unite.

“At all the schoolsI attended from preschool

right up to university, the onlyblack people I met were

cleaners or people serving teaor looking after the gardens.”Gerrit Cooetzee, a white teacher, describing

growing up in apartheid South Africa

Kept out

Black children stand behind a

fence watching white children

play on a “whites only” beach.

Everything in apartheid South

Africa was segregated (separated

along racial lines), including the taxis.

Together at last

These children are

waiting for a visit from

Nelson Mandela, the

country’s first black

president. Their faces

are painted with the

new South African flag,

adopted in 1994.

Student uprising

In 1976, students in the

Soweto township marched

against apartheid. The police

opened fire, killing 600 people.

“If you met a policeman on theroad, the first thing they’d say

was ‘Where is your passbook?’and if you didn’t have it youknew where you’d spend the

evening—in prison.”John Biyase, teacher, describing lifein the Soweto township



301

FAST FORWARD

“The school I went to was

overcrowded. We’d have 70 to 80

children in one class.

”Obed Bapela, member of Parliament,

describing schooling for black children

in the Alexandra township

Back to school

A child sits in class in a “black only”

school during the apartheid era.

As protest gained momentum in

the 1980s, education in townships

was interrupted by class boycotts.



302

1995▶2000

1995

Flowers laid by mourners outside

Diana’s home at Kensington Palace

Skyscrapers

in Hong Kong

The first networks of computerswere created in the 1960s, butwere complicated to use. In 1990,a British computer researcher namedTim Berners-Lee (left) came up with asimple way of distributing information,using hyperlinks to make connectionsbetween documents. He called hisinvention the World Wide Web.

A slow startBerners-Lee’s innovation was usedby only a handful of people duringthe first few years, but with theintroduction of Internet browsersin 1993, it soon became very popular.By 1995, the Web was on its way tobecoming a global phenomenon.

A world onlineThis computer is thefirst Internet server,

and it hosted the firstwebpage when it wasset up by Berners-Leein 1990. He scrawleda notice on the side toremind people not

to turn it off.

1995 GROWTH OF THE WORLD WIDE WEB

1997

Hong KongIn 1898, China granted Britain a 99-yearlease for the island of Hong Kong, which

became a major financial center. It washanded back to China in 1997, but has

been allowed to continue operatingsemi-independently, with its own

currency and local laws.

1997

Princess Diana’s deathThe ex-wife of Prince Charles of the UnitedKingdom and mother of princes William andHarry died in a car crash in Paris. The nation

was stunned, and millions watched the funeralservice at Westminster Abbey on television.

1995

1996

Dayton peace accordsA peace agreement signed in Dayton, Ohio, ruledthat Bosnia would be split into the Bosnian SerbRepublic and the Muslim-Croat Federation, bothforming part of the country Bosnia-Herzegovina.The treaty ended the Bosnian War, the mostdevastating war in Europe since World War II.

Rise of the TalibanThe Taliban (left)overthrew the Afghan

government, which hadbeen in power since

1992. They establishedthe Islamic Emirateof Afghanistan, an

extremist Muslim state.

Harry Potter

The first of J.K. Rowling’sHarry Potter books, Harry Potterand the Philosopher’s Stone,was released in 1997, andbecame an instant smashhit. The seven Harry Potterbooks have sold more than450 million copies worldwide.

1997



Dolly the sheepIn 1996, scientists

managed to successfullyclone an adult mammal fo

the first time. Known as Doshe was an exact copy o

her parent sheep.

FAST FORWARD

2000

Irish prime minister Bertie Ahern, US

senator George Mitchell, and British

prime minister Tony Blair after signing

the agreement.

1998

Nuclear weapons forIndia and PakistanSince independence, India andPakistan had become fierce enemies,clashing several times over thedisputed border area of Kashmir.In an attempt to prove its militarysuperiority, India tested a nucleardevice in May. This was followedshortly after by Pakistan’s ownnuclear test.

2000

New millennium

Billions of people welcomedthe new millennium withcelebrations around the world.

As the new year approached,there were concerns that aso-called “millennium bug”

might cause a global computermeltdown. Ultimately, these

fears proved unfounded.

1999

1999

Coup in PakistanAfter being defeated byIndia in a border conflict,the elected Pakistanigovernment of Prime

Minister Nawaz Sharifwas overthrown in abloodless military coup.The coup leader, GeneralPervez Musharraf, becamethe country’s dictator.

East Timor is bornIn 1999, East Timor votedto become independent ofIndonesia. This triggereda violent revolt by aminority who wanted toremain part of Indonesia.UN troops restored order,and in 2002 East Timorbecame the first newcountry of the millennium.

1998

1998

The Kosovo WarThe Serbian President Slobodan Milosevicsent Serbian troops to prevent Kosovo—aregion in Serbia—from becoming independent.The Serbs were driven back by NATO airstrikes, and Kosovo finally declaredindependence in 2008.

Peace in Ireland

A major breakthroughin the Northern Irelandpeace process was madewhen Nationalist andUnionist political partiesagreed to serve ina power-sharinggovernment. The treatywas supported in bothNorthern Ireland andthe Republic of Ireland.

Revelers celebrate the millennium in 2000.

T h e H a r r y P o t t e r b o o k s h a v e

b e e n t r a n s l a t e

d i n t o 6 7 l a n g u a g e s .

Flag of East Timor



304

2000▶2005

2000

2001

Gujarat earthquakeA giant earthquake, measuring 7.9 on theRichter scale, rocked the state of Gujarat in

northwest India. It resulted in the deathsof more than 20,000 people and the

destruction of at least 400,000 homes.About 600,000 people were left homeless.

2001

2001

2001

2002

2002

2002

Al-Qaeda attacks

Members of Al-Qaeda flewplanes into New York’sWorld Trade Center onSeptember 11, in theworst terrorist attackin US history. Americaresponded by launchingattacks on Afghanistan,where Osama bin Laden,the head of Al-Qaeda,was hiding.

Human Genome ProjectBegun in 1990, the Human Genome Project employed

scientists around the world to map and identify therole of more than 20,000 genes that make up human

DNA—the blueprint for life. By 2001, the projecthad published its first draft of the genome.

Enron collapsesConsidered to be one of the most profitable

energy companies in the world, Enron suddenlycollapsed when it was found to have created

false accounts that made it look like it wasmaking more money than it actually was.

Milosevic on trialFormer Yugoslav presidentSlobodan Milosevic stood trial at theInternational Court of Justice in TheHague, Netherlands, for war crimes

during the Bosnian War. However, hedied in prison before the trial ended.

End of Angolan Civil WarThe Civil War in Angola finally ended after

26 years. Meanwhile, the African Unionwas launched, the successor to the

Organization of African Unity.

The EuroOn January 1, 17 countries in theEuropean Union gave up their oldcurrencies and adopted the Euro astheir new joint currency. Euro notesand coins are now used every dayby more than 330 million people.

Refugees from the Angolan Civil

War carry grain past a land-mine field.

The clean-up operation begins after

the devasting earthquake in Gujarat.

Sequence of human DNA

Euro banknotes

Wa r o n

T e r ro r

See pages

306 –30 7



305

FAST FORWARD

2005

2005

In the early hours of December 26, 2004,an enormous earthquake occurred underthe Indian Ocean. It created a tsunami(a series of huge waves) more than 100 ft

(30 m) in height, which raced acrossthe ocean, pummeling the surroundingcoastlines with devastating force.

Disorder and devastationThe huge tsunami struck 14 countries, destroyinghomes and property, and killing more than 230,000people. Since there were no warning signals, thewaves took most of the victims by surprise.

The aftermathThese images show Banda Aceh,

Indonesia, before (top) and after (bottom)the tsunami. The waves flattened most

buildings, leaving a bare landscape.

2004 INDIAN OCEAN TSUNAMI

2003 2003

Sudanese conflict

The Darfur region ofSudan rebelled against thegovernment, claiming theywere being oppressed. Morethan 200,000 lives were lostbefore a cease-fire was signedin 2010. Another civil war(1983–2005) resulted inSouth Sudan becomingan independent countryin 2011.

War in Iraq

As part of the “War on Terror,”the United States invadedIraq to overthrow its leader,Saddam Hussein. Hussein’sregime quickly crumbled, butthe war left the country veryunstable, even after the lastUS troops left in 2011.

2004

Beslan hostage crisis

Chechen separatists protestedagainst Russian rule by taking1,000 people hostage in a schoolin the town of Beslan. A rescueattempt by Russian troops endeddisastrously, with the deathsof 186 children.

Hurricane KatrinaThe city of New Orleans,

Louisiana, was devastatedby Hurricane Katrina. Thelevees (embankments) thatwere meant to protect thecity from flooding brokeunder the extreme pressureof the storm surge,leaving much of the cityunderwater and thousandshomeless. It caused billionsof dollars worth of damage.

iPodlaunched

In 2001, Apple cameout with a revolutionary

new product – the iPod – asmall portable device that

could store and playthousands of songs.

Sudanese

rebels

Cars stacked up

after the tsunami

Submerged homes

in New Orleans



306

Key events

War on TerrorIn the 1980s, the militant Islamist terrorist organizationAl-Qaeda was formed with the aim of establishing aworldwide Muslim nation. It carried out a series ofattacks, culminating in the destruction of New York’sWorld Trade Center in 2001. This prompted theUnited States to launch a “War on Terror” againstthe group’s worldwide network.

Under attackOn September 11, 2001,

19 members of Al-Qaedahijacked four American planes.

Two were flown into the TwinTowers of New York’s World

Trade Center, one hit thePentagon in Washington, DC,

while the final plane crashed intoa field in Pennsylvania. Almost

3,000 people were killed.

Osama bin LadenA member of a wealthy Saudi

family, Osama bin Laden foughtwith the Mujahideen against the

Soviets in Afghanistan duringthe 1980s. He later founded

Al-Qaeda (meaning “the base”in Arabic) to wage a worldwide

jihad (holy war) against what hesaw as the corrupt Western world.

Invasion of AfghanistanThe Taliban rulers of Afghanistanharbored bases of bin Laden’s Al-Qaedamovement. In 2001, US president GeorgeW. Bush ordered an attack on the country.Initially, the war went well for the USand the Taliban was quickly overthrown.But the Taliban fought back, and thewar continued for more than a decade.Bin Laden slipped out of the country.

“Today, our fellow

citizens, our way of

life, our very freedom

came under attack.”President George W. Bush

speaking to the nation

on September 11, 2001

Following the endof the Afghanistan War,Osama bin Laden foundedAl-Qaeda.

Bin Laden returnedto Afghanistan andcalled on his followersto launch a holy waragainst the United States.

Bin Laden set up terroristtraining camps in Sudan,but was later asked to leavethe country.

Al-Qaeda killed morethan 200 people byplanting bombs at USembassies in Kenyaand Tanzania.

1988 19961991 1998

The US retaliatedagainst the embassybombings with airstrikes on Al-Qaedatraining camps

in Afghanistan.

1998

Bombed

embassy



307

Iraq WarIn 2003, the US turned its

attention to Iraq. They believedits ruler, Saddam Hussein,

was hiding Weapons of MassDestruction (WMD) that could

potentially be used against theWest, and invaded the countryto destroy them. Hussein was

quickly forced from power,but no WMD were ever foundand the new US-backed Iraqi

government faced years offighting against rebel groups.

Bin Laden’s death

For a decade, America’s mostwanted man—Osama binLaden—evaded capture. Hecontinued to organize terroristattacks and released regular publicmessages, urging his supportersto continue the fight against theWest. But in 2011, he was trackeddown to a specially built compoundin Abbottabad, Pakistan. US soldiershelicoptered in, stormed thecompound, and shot bin Laden dead.

Al-Qaeda attacks

In the 2000s, Al-Qaeda and its associatedorganizations continued to launch terroristattacks targeting the West as protestsagainst the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq.

December 2001 British terrorist Richard Reid was arrestedtrying to detonate a bomb in his shoe on aplane from Paris, France, to Miami, Florida.

October 2002 Two bombs set off in a nightclub in Bali,Indonesia killed more than 200 people.

March 2004 Bombs on trains in Madrid, Spain, killedmore than 190 and injured at least 1,800.

July 2005 Bombs on underground trains and a busin London killed 52 people and injuredmore than 700.

December 2007 Former Pakistani president Benazir Bhuttoand 150 other people were killed by asuicide bomber in Pakistan.

FAST FORWARD

A statue of Saddam Hussein

is toppled by the Iraqi people,

with help from US forces.

Bin Laden’s

compound

On October 7, the USlaunched the war inAfghanistan with theaim of finding Al-Qaeda’sterrorist bases.

Following his capturein 2003, SaddamHussein was put ontrial for “crimes againsthumanity,” found guilty,and executed.

The terroristattacks on theUnited Statestriggered the“War on Terror.”

The Iraq War was launchedin the face of muchinternational opposition.

Osama bin Ladenwas finally trackeddown in Pakistanand assassinatedby American troops.

2001 20062001 2003 2011

Protest

banners



308

2005▶2012

2005

In late 2007, the world was plunged into the biggest economic crisissince the Great Depression. It started in the US, when housing pricessuddenly plummeted as a result of mistakes in the financial sector.But it soon spread around the world, as many financial institutionseither went bankrupt or needed to be rescued by governments.

Bankrupt countriesIn addition to banks,many countries also losthuge amounts of moneyin the crisis. Greece hadto be bailed out by

the European Unionin return for cuttinggovernment workers’pay, leading to riotson the streets.

Occupy movementAnother vein of protest at the economicsituation began in 2011 with the OccupyWall Street demonstration in New York,where people staged a sit-in at the heartof the US financial industry. The protestspread to cities across the world, oftenclashing with police, as shown herein Hong Kong (above).

2007 GLOBAL ECONOMIC CRISIS

By 2012, more than a billion

people, or one-sixth of the world’spopulation, had joined the socialnetworking site Facebook.

2008

2008

Large Hadron ColliderA huge scientific machinebegan operating beneath

the French-Swiss border. Itwas built to re-create theconditions just after the

Big Bang, giving scientistsa better idea of how the

Universe first formed.

Obama electedHistory was made as the US

elected its first African-AmericanPresident, Barack Obama.Representing the Democratic

Party, the former lawyer defeatedthe Republican John McCain in

a closely fought contest.

2006

Terror in MumbaiMore than 200 people were killed in Indiawhen seven bombs went off on trains onMumbai’s railroad network. Terror came

to the city again two years later whenmore than 150 people died in shooting

and bomb attacks that shocked the nation.In 2011, another three bombs killed 26and left 130 injured. All of the attacks

were blamed on Islamic extremists.

Large Hadron Collider

President Obama

Police try to

control the

riots in Greece.



FAST FORWARD

2012

2010

20122011

Deepwater HorizonA major ecological disaster took place off

the US coast when an oil rig, Deepwater Horizon, exploded and sank. Four million

barrels of oil poured into the sea,severely damaging the environment.

Space jumpIn October, Austrian daredevil

Felix Baumgartner (above) ascendedin a balloon to a height of 24 miles

(39 km)—a world record. He then

leaped from the balloon to performthe highest ever skydive. Travelingat 844 mph (1,358 km/h), he also

became the first human to break thesound barrier without a vehicle.

Japanese tsunamiA huge earthquake, measuring

9 on the Richter scale, just off Japan’s northeast coast sent an

enormous tsunami crashing

onto the mainland, where morethan 16,000 people died. Thewaves also damaged one of

Japan’s nuclear power plants,which had to be shut down,

heightening the crisis.

2011

Arab Spring

A wave of protests and rebellions, known as the Arab Spring, sweptacross the Arab world in 2011, with people calling for democracyand greater human rights. The protests started in Tunisia, wherethe government fell, and soon spread to other countries. Protestsand uprisings occurred in Bahrain, Egypt, Kuwait, and Morocco.A civil war erupted in Syria that cost tens of thousands of lives.

2010Haiti earthquake

The Haiti earthquake measured only 7 on theRichter scale, but due to the weak standards

of buildings in Haiti—one of the world’spoorest countries—it caused widespread

devastation and more than 230,000 deaths.

2010

2010

Aung San Suu Kyi released Burma’s military leadership released the

pro-democracy campaigner Aung San SuuKyi, who had been kept under house arrest

for nearly 20 years. After her release, shewas elected to the Burmese parliament.

Chilean miners freed

When a roof collapsed in a gold andcopper mine in Chile, 33 miners weretrapped. They remained underground for69 days before a rescue mission brought

them all back safely to the surface.

Aung San Suu

Kyi speaks at a

political rally.

Haiti’s presidential

palace lies in ruins.

Protesters

camp out

in Tahrir

Square in

Cairo, Egypt.





TIMELINE OF NORTH AMERICA

311

PresidentGeorge Washington John AdamsThomas Jefferson James Madison James Monroe John Quincy AdamsAndrew JacksonMartin Van BurenWilliam H. Harrison John Tyler James K. PolkZachary TaylorMillard FillmoreFranklin Pierce James Buchanan

Abraham LincolnAndrew JohnsonUlysses S. GrantRutherford B. Hayes James GarfieldChester A. ArthurGrover ClevelandBenjamin HarrisonGrover ClevelandWilliam McKinley Theodore RooseveltWilliam Howard TaftWoodrow WilsonWarren HardingCalvin CoolidgeHerbert Hoover

Franklin D. RooseveltHarry S. TrumanDwight Eisenhower John F. Kennedy Lyndon B. JohnsonRichard M. NixonGerald R. Ford James (Jimmy) CarterRonald ReaganGeorge H.W. BushWilliam J. ClintonGeorge W. BushBarack Obama

In Office1789–17971797–18011801–18091809–18171817–18251825–18291829–18371837–184118411841–18451845–18491849–18501850–18531853–18571857–1861

1861–18651865–18691869–18771877–188118811881–18851885–18891889–18931893–18971897–19011901–19091909–19131913–19211921–19231923–19291929–1933

1933–19451945–19531953–19611961–19631963–19691969–19741974–19771977–19811981–19891989–19931993–20012001–20092009–

PartyFederalistFederalistDemocratic-RepublicanDemocratic-RepublicanDemocratic-RepublicanDemocratic-RepublicanDemocraticDemocraticWhigWhigDemocraticWhigWhigDemocraticDemocratic

RepublicanDemocratic/UnionRepublicanRepublicanRepublicanRepublicanDemocraticRepublicanDemocraticRepublicanRepublicanRepublicanDemocraticRepublicanRepublicanRepublican

DemocraticDemocraticRepublicanDemocraticDemocraticRepublicanRepublicanDemocraticRepublicanRepublicanDemocraticRepublicanDemocratic

THE PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES

1865 13th Amendment abolishesslavery; the Confederates surrender;President Lincoln is assassinated.

1867 Reconstruction Act sets termsfor the readmission of Southern statesinto the Union.

1868 14th Amendment grantscitizenship to African-Americans.

1869 Transcontinental railroad,

crossing the western half of theUnited States, is completed.

1870 15th Amendment givesAfrican-Americans the right to vote.

1871 The city of Chicago, almostentirely built of wood, burns down ina huge fire; the city is rebuilt in stoneand steel and the world’s firstskyscrapers are built.

1879 American inventor ThomasEdison makes the first successfulelectric light bulb.

1882 Chinese Exclusion Act bansChinese immigration.

1886 Workers in Chicago go on strikedemanding an eight-hour workday; neHaymarket Square, a rally in support othe workers ends in a riot after a bombis thrown at the police.

1890 Census shows that the Westhad officially been settled; massacre ofAmerican Indians at Wounded Knee.

1898 United States acquires thePhilippines, Puerto Rico, and Hawaii.

1903 First airplane flight, by Wrightbrothers at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina

1905 More than 1 million immigrantsenter the US in a year. By 1910, theUS population rises to 92 million.

1913 In his Highland Park automobilefactory, Henry Ford introduces theworld’s first moving assembly line.

1915 German U-boat (submarine)sinks US liner, the Lusitania.

1916 Child Labor Act, an attempt toend the employment of children infactories and mines, is passed.1917 United States enters World War

1918 End of World War I.

1919 18th Amendment proclaimsProhibition, the banning of thesale of alcohol.

1920 19th Amendment giveswomen the right to vote.

1927 Charles Lindbergh makes firstflight across Atlantic; the first talkingfilm is released.

1929 New York stock marketcollapses, leading to the GreatDepression worldwide.

1933 President Roosevelt launchesthe New Deal, using governmentspending to combat unemployment.

1939 Germany invades Czechoslovakand Poland; Great Britain and Francedeclare war on Germany.

December 7, 1941 Pearl Harbor, aUS naval base in Hawaii, is attacked bythe Japanese; US enters World War II.

The Statue of Liberty

in New York Harbor

was a welcome sight

to immigrants arriving

in America.

The Wright

brothers made

and flew the

first airplane.



312

THE FIFTY STATES OF THE UNION

1942 US victory over the Japaneseat the Battle of Midway.

May 8, 1945 Germany surrenders.

August 15, 1945 Following thedropping of US atomic bombs onHiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki(August 9), Japan surrenders.

1947 President Truman announces theTruman Doctrine, a pledge to containSoviet expansion, beginning the ColdWar between the US and USSR.

1948 Marshall Plan is enacted,providing US support to rebuildEuropean economies.

1950–3 Korean War: United Statesand allies fight against a Communisttakeover of Korea.

1954 Supreme Court rules thatseparate schooling for black andwhite students is unconstitutional.

1955 Montgomery bus boycott: aprotest against racial segregationon public transportation.

1958 First American satellite goesinto orbit.

1961 Bay of Pigs invasion, a failedUS-backed attempt to overthrow theCommunist Cuban government.

1962 The discovery of Soviet missilebases in Cuba leads the US and SovietUnion to the brink of war.

1963 Martin Luther King, Jr., delivershis “I have a dream” speech.

November 22, 1963 PresidentKennedy is assassinated.

1965 US troops sent to help SouthVietnam fight the Communist North.

April 4, 1968 Martin Luther King, Jr.,

is assassinated.1969 Neil Armstrong, of Apollo 11,is the first man on the Moon.

1972 Watergate, the Democraticheadquarters in Washington, isburglarized by men working on behalfof President Nixon.

1974 Following the exposure ofthe Watergate scandal and cover-up,President Nixon resigns.

1975 South Vietnam surrenders.

1979 Iranian pro-government studentsseize the US embassy in Tehran, holding52 Americans hostage for 444 days.

1985 Relations with the Soviet Unionimprove as President Reagan andMikhail Gorbachev meet.

1986 Space shuttle Challenger explodeskilling all seven crew members.

1989 Fall of the Berlin Wall signals theend of Communism in Eastern Europe.

1991 Operation Desert Storm: the firstwar against Saddam Hussein of Iraq.

1995 Oklahoma bombed by right-wingactivist Timothy McVeigh.

September 11, 2001 Two planeshijacked by al-Qaeda, an Islamistterrorist group, destroy New York’sWorld Trade Center towers; a thirdplane hits the Pentagon; a fourthcrashes in Pennsylvania.

2001 US and Britain bombAfghanistan, where there are al-Qaedabases, resulting in the collapse of theTaliban government.

2003 US and British forces invadeIraq, toppling the government ofSaddam Hussein.

2005 Hurricane Katrina devastatesNew Orleans.

2008 World financial crisis, beginningwith the US banking system.

2009 Barack Obama is inaugurated asthe first African-American president.

2011 US troops leave Iraq.

StateDelawarePennsylvaniaNew Jersey GeorgiaConnecticut

MassachusettsMarylandSouth CarolinaNew HampshireVirginiaNew YorkNorth CarolinaRhode IslandVermontKentucky TennesseeOhioLouisianaIndianaMississippiIllinois

AlabamaMaineMissouriArkansas

Admission17871787178717881788

1788178817881788178817881789179017911792179618031812181618171818

1819182018211836

CapitalDoverHarrisburgTrentonAtlantaHartford

BostonAnnapolisColumbiaConcordRichmondAlbany RaleighProvidenceMontpelierFrankfortNashvilleColumbusBaton RougeIndianapolis JacksonSpringfield

Montgomery Augusta Jefferson City Little Rock

StateMichiganFloridaTexasIowaWisconsin

CaliforniaMinnesotaOregonKansasWest VirginiaNevadaNebraskaColoradoNorth DakotaSouth DakotaMontanaWashingtonIdahoWyomingUtahOklahoma

New MexicoArizonaAlaskaHawaii

Admission18371845184518461848

1850185818591861186318641867187618891889188918891890189018961907

1912191219591959

CapitalLansingTallahasseeAustinDes MoinesMadison

SacramentoSt. PaulSalemTopekaCharlestonCarson City LincolnDenverBismarckPierreHelenaOlympiaBoiseCheyenneSalt Lake City Oklahoma City

Santa FePhoenix JuneauHonolulu

Neil Armstrong

and Buzz Aldrin

were the first

men to walk

on the Moon.



313

The history of CanadaThousands of years ago, Canada was home to different groups of native peoples.In the northwest, tribes carved beautiful totem poles; in the south, people livedby hunting buffalo; and in the Arctic, the Inuit fished and hunted sea animals. During the16th century, French and English explorers arrived, finding a land rich in natural resources,and early exploration was driven by fur traders. Over the centuries, native, French, andBritish cultures have combined to create a distinct Canadian identity.

c. 1000 CE Newfoundland is brieflysettled by Vikings from Greenland.

1497 John Cabot, on an English voyageof exploration, reaches Newfoundland.

1534–35 Jacques Cartier explores theSt. Lawrence River, and claims theregion for France.

1608 Samuel de Champlain foundsQuebec City, later the capital ofNew France.

1610 Henry Hudson, the Englishnavigator, explores Hudson Bay.

1634–40 The Native AmericanHuron Nation is reduced by halfby European diseases.

1670 Hudson’s Bay Company, formedby English merchants, is given rightsto trade along the rivers draining intoHudson’s Bay.

1763 French and Indian War ends withthe Treaty of Paris, which leaves NewFrance under British rule.

1774 Quebec Act recognizes the rightof French Canadians to keep theirRoman Catholic religion.

1783 Following British defeat inthe American Revolution, thousandsof loyalists, who had supported theBritish Crown, emigrate to Canada.

1784 Scottish fur traders in Montrealset up the North West Company, whichwill found trading posts across northand western Canada.

1791 Colony of Quebec is dividedinto French-speaking Lower Canada(present-day southern Quebec) andEnglish-speaking Upper Canada(present-day southern Ontario).

1793 Alexander Mackenzie, of the

North West Company, reaches thePacific, completing the first overlandcrossing of Canada.

1821 The Hudson’s Bay Companyabsorbs the North West Company.

1847 Arrival of almost 100,000immigrants, fleeing famine in Ireland.

1867 Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia,and New Brunswick are united in thenew Canadian Confederation.

1869–70 Unsuccessful rebellion bythe Métis people (descendants ofFrench fur traders and natives).

1870 Manitoba and the NorthwestTerritories join the Confederation.

1871 British Columbia joinsthe Confederation.

1873 Prince Edward Island joinsthe Confederation.

1885 Canada’s transcontinentalrailroad, linking Montreal with thePacific, is completed.

1896–8 Gold rush attracts 100,000prospectors to the Yukon innorthwest Canada.

1898 Yukon joins the Confederation.

1905 Alberta and Saskatchewan jointhe Confederation.

1914–18 World War I, in whichCanadians fight alongside British troops.

1929–39 The Great Depression.

1939–45 World War II, in whichCanada is again an ally of Britain.

1949 Newfoundland joins

the Confederation.1962 Trans-Canada Highwayofficially opens.

1965 New Canadian flag adopted,replacing one incorporating theBritish flag.

1966 Medical Care Act is introducedto provide Canada-wide medical care.

1968 The Parti Québécois is formed,campaigning for independencefor Quebec.

1960 Official Languages Act givesEnglish and French equal statusin Canada.

1970 The October Crisis, triggeredby the kidnapping of two governmentofficials by the FLQ, a Quebecnationalist group; Prime MinisterTrudeau uses the War Measures Act todeal with the terrorists, allowing morethan 400 arrests without warrants.

1980 In a referendum, the people ofQuebec vote against independence;“O Canada” is adopted as the officialnational anthem.

1982 Canada adopts a newconstitution and a Charter of Rightsand Freedoms.

1994 North American Free TradeAgreement (NAFTA) comes into effect,facilitating free trade between Canada,the United States, and Mexico.

1995 In another referendum, Quebecagain votes to stay in Canada.

1999 Canadian territory of Nunavutestablished, with Inuktitut, InuinnaqtuEnglish, and French as its

official languages.

2005 Civil Marriage Act legalizessame-sex marriage across Canada.

Sir John A. Macdonald (1867–1873)Alexander Mackenzie (1873–1878)

Sir John A. Macdonald (1878–1891)Sir John Abbott (1891–1892)Sir John Thompson (1892–1894)Sir Mackenzie Bowell (1894–1896)Sir Charles Tupper (1896)Sir Wilfrid Laurier (1896–1911)Sir Robert Borden (1911–1920)Arthur Meighen (1920–1921)Sir William Lyon Mackenzie King(1921–1926)Arthur Meighen (1926)Sir William Lyon Mackenzie King(1926–1930)Richard B. Bennett (1930–1935)Sir William Lyon Mackenzie King(1935–1948)

Louis St. Laurent (1948–1957) John Diefenbaker (1957–1963)Lester Pearson (1963–1968)Pierre Trudeau (1968–1979) Joseph Clark (1979–1980)Pierre Trudeau (1980–1984) John Turner (1984)Brian Mulroney (1984–1993)Kim Campbell (1993) Jean Chrétien (1993–2003)Paul Martin (2003–2006)Stephen Harper (2006–)

The Canadian

maple leaf

flag was

adopted

in 1965.

PRIME MINISTERS



314

Terms defined elsewhere in

the glossary are in italics .

abolition

The act of doing away with

something completely.

abdicate

To formally hand over power

or responsibility to another.

ally

A person or country who unites

with another person or country

against a common enemy.

apartheid

In South Africa, a government

policy of racial segregation.

apprentice

A person who works for anagreed period of time, in

exchange for being taught

a trade or craft.

armistice

An agreement between warring

parties to end a conflict.

assassination

The murder of a key figure by

surprise attack, carried out for

political or religious reasons.

barbarian

The name given by theRomans to tribes outside

the Roman Empire.

blockade

The isolation of an area

so as to prevent supplies

from entering or leaving.

Byzantine Empire

The mainly Greek-speaking

Christian continuation of the

Eastern Roman Empire, which

lasted for 1,000 years.

caliph

The title of the religious and

political leader of Islam (the

Islamic world).

Calvinism

A strict form of Protestantism

named after 16th-century

religious reformer John Calvin.

capitalism

An economic system based

on the private ownership of

property and free competitive

conditions for business.

city-stateA self-governing, independent

state consisting of a city and

the surrounding area.

civil war

A war between opposing groups

of people in the same country.

classical

Relating to the ancient Greek

or ancient Roman world.

Cold War

The period of hostility between

the West and the Communist countries dominated by the

USSR . It lasted from shortly

after World War II until 1989.

colonization

The act of sending settlers

to establish a colony in another

country, sometimes involving

taking political control over the

people already living there.

colony

An area under the political

control of another state, or

the group of people whohas settled there.

Communism

The political belief in a society

in which ownership of property

and wealth is shared.

conquistador

One of the Spanish conquerors

of Native American civilizations.

Counter-Reformation

The period of change in the

Catholic church after the

Protestant Reformation, which

included internal reform and

opposition to Protestantism.

coup

The sudden violent or

illegal seizure of power

by a small group.

Cro-Magnon man

The first modern humans to

settle in Europe, around

40,000 years ago.

crusader

A Christian knight who went onone of the Crusades—military

expeditions of the 11th, 12th,

and 13th centuries to seize back

Jerusalem from the Muslims.

daimyo

A Japanese lord.

democracy

A form of government

based on rule by the people,

usually through elected

representatives.

depressionIn history, a period of drastic

decline in economic activity,

marked by widespread

unemployment and hardship.

dictator

A leader who rules a country

alone with no restrictions on

the extent of their power.

domestication

The taming of wild animals to

make them useful to humans.

dynastyA royal family ruling a country

for successive generations.

emir

A Muslim prince or military

commander. The territory

he rules over is known as

an emirate.

empire

A group of lands or peoples

brought under the rule of one

government or person (emperor).

Enlightenment, the

The period of European history,

in the 1700s, when radical

thinkers tried to reach a new

understanding of society,

government, and humanity,

and then to reform them.

exile

Forced absence from a person’s

home or country.

fascism

An ideology stressing

dictatorship and nationalism,

which places the strength

of the state above individual

citizens’ welfare.

feudalism

A political system in Europe

from the 700s onward, under

which lords granted land to

other nobles in return for

loyalty, military assistance,

and services.

genocide

The systematic murder

of an entire people.

glasnost

The Russian word for

“openness.” Used by MikhailGorbachev to describe his

policies in the USSR in the 1980s.

guerrilla warfare

A type of warfare in which

small groups of fighters make

surprise attacks.

guild

Organization in 11th- to

14th-century Europe formed by

skilled workers or merchants

of the same craft or trade to

protect its members and

control business.

heresy

Beliefs, held by a member

of a religious group, that

are considered to be in

conflict with that group’s

established beliefs.

Holy Roman Empire

An empire set up in Western

Europe in 800 CE, centerd

on modern-day Germany. The

emperor received his title from

the Pope and was the senior

monarch in the Catholic world.

hominin

A member of the biological

group that includes humans

and their extinct ancestors

and relatives.

jihad

Arabic word meaning

“holy war.”

Glossary





316

British Empire 179, 248, 290–291 African colonies 224, 225, 228,

230–231, 272, 273, 290 American colonies 150, 153,

180, 186, 188–189 Australian colonies 191, 236 Canadian provinces 221 India 219, 240, 245, 248, 266bronze 17, 33, 34, 35, 57, 77Bronze Age 33, 34, 37Brunel, Isambard Kingdom 183, 209Brunelleschi, Filippo 132, 133Buddhism 50, 60, 87, 93, 98,

99, 106

Bulgaria 35, 99, 225Burgundy, duchy of 134burial customs 23, 32–33, 46–47,

82, 91Burma 106, 309Byzantine Empire 83, 86, 90,

91, 95, 103, 114

CCabot, John 136–137Cabral, Pedro Alvares 136–137, 138Caesar, Julius 57, 67calendars 66, 150, 178Calvin, John 145, 148Cambodia 98, 108, 272, 286Camp David Accords 285Canada 43, 101, 179, 136, 221

history of 313 Newfoundland 101, 106, 136canals 87, 183, 205, 221, 241cannons 120, 149Carthage 51, 61, 64, 68, 69Cartier, Jacques 136–137Castro, Fidel 273Catalhöyük, Turkey 16cathedrals 114–115, 141Catherine de Médicis 149Catherine II “the Great” 180, 171cave paintings 10, 13, 14–15Celts 50, 55, 56–57, 66Challenger 288, 292Charge of the Light Brigade 218Charlemagne, Emperor 95, 98Charles I, King 159Charles II, King 162Charles V, Emperor 138, 139, 140,

144, 148Charles Edward Stuart, Prince 173Chaucer, Geoffrey 121Chavin culture 43, 58Chechnya 299, 305chemistry 178, 180Chernobyl disaster 292chess 97, 101children apprentices 116–117 career at sea 174–175 immigrants to US 232–233 monks 104–105 rescued from Nazis 262–263 Roman 78–79 South African 300–301 Spartan 48–49 working 183, 184–185, 208,

212, 233Chile 202, 283, 309China, ancient and medieval 18,

19, 22, 50, 55, 65, 70, 87, 124,144, 167

burials 32–33, 62–63 conflicts 54, 58, 61, 65, 70, 75,

80, 103 dynasties 29, 33, 37, 65, 76, 80,

87, 90, 92–93, 103, 108, 121,135, 159

emperors 61, 62, 65, 70, 87, 90,91, 92

golden age 92–93

Great Wall 135 inventions 93, 98, 107 metalwork 17, 33, 34, 35, 37 writing and paper 31, 74China, modern 144, 159, 165,

166–167, 172, 180, 236, 240,248, 302

Communist era 267, 273, 278,282, 286

Tiananmen Square 293,294–295

wars 209, 212, 218, 234, 254chocolate 150Christianity 67, 70–71, 80, 81, 87,

99, 103, 156, 157, 159, 171 Protestants and Catholics138–139, 141, 145, 148–149

Vikings and 101, 102, 103Churchill, Winston 257, 268circuses 180cities, early 17, 28Civil Rights Movement 273, 275,

276–277, 279Claudius, Emperor 57, 70Cleopatra 67clocks 93, 107cloning 303Cnut, King 106coal mining 183, 203, 212, 289coffee 97, 162coins 35, 47, 68, 83, 164, 169Cold War 268–269, 274, 275, 296Colosseum, Rome 71, 75

Colossus of Rhodes 60Columbus, Christopher 135,136–137, 174

comets 178Commonwealth of Nations 248Communism 221, 244, 246, 267,

269, 271, 279, 286, 296–297compass, magnetic 93computers 283, 286, 292, 302Confucius 50, 65Congo Free State 231conquistadors 126, 127, 136Constantine the Great 80, 81Constantinople 80, 83, 86–87, 91,

99, 110, 111, 114, 142, 143 fall of 130Constitution, US 190Cook, James 181, 187Copernicus, Nicholas 141, 152

copper 17, 32, 34, 35, 65Cortès, Hernán 136, 139cotton mills 184–185, 186Counter-Reformation 141, 148Crete 28–29, 30, 32, 33, 163Crimean War 207, 218Cro-Magnons 13Cromwell, Oliver 159, 162Crusades 108, 110–111, 114Cuba 235, 273, 279 missile crisis 269, 274, 275Cultural Revolution 278, 286cuneiform 17, 30Curie, Marie 240Cyprus 283Cyrus the Great 50–51, 52Czechoslovakia 254, 262, 269,

279, 296

DD-Day 260da Gama, Vasco 135, 136–137Damascus, Syria 71, 90, 142Dante Alighieri 121Darius I, King 50, 51, 52Darwin, Charles 219Davy, Humphrey 203Dayton peace accords 302de Gaulle, Charles 257, 274Declaration of Independence 188decolonization 290–291

AAbbasids 94–95, 96, 97Afghanistan 59, 64, 74, 225,

269, 286–287, 302, 304, 306Africa 8, 9, 83, 131, 136, 275, 304 colonization 224, 225, 228,

230–231 independence movements 272,273, 274, 287, 290

African-Americans 223, 254, 273,275, 276–277, 279, 298

African National Congress 275,293, 299, 300

AIDS and HIV 288–289aircraft 236, 238–239, 243, 245,

248–249, 255, 258–259, 278airships 236, 248, 249Akbar the Great 144, 160Akhenaten 36Akkadian Empire 28Alaska 172, 173Alcock and Brown 245Alexander the Great 58, 59Alfred the Great 99, 100Algeria 274–275

Ali, Muhammad 261alphabets 31, 43, 99, 125, 205Al-Qaeda 304, 306–307America, discovery of 136–137American Civil War 220, 222–223American Revolution 186, 188–189Americas, ancient 13, 18, 19, 208Amin, Idi 282ancestor worship 19, 33anesthetics 206, 207Anglo-Saxons 81, 82, 87, 90–91Angola 291, 304animals, domestic 10, 18, 19, 137Antarctica 204, 240–241antibiotics 247 Apollo missions 278, 280–281apprentices 116–117Arab conquests 90–91, 92, 96Arab-Israeli conflict 284–285

Arab Spring 309Arabic numerals 97Arafat, Yasser 285, 298Archimedes 61architecture 70, 114–115, 133,

143, 159, 160–161, 162Argentina 202, 203, 288Arkwright, Richard 182, 186art 132–133, 142, 144, 157, 171,

199, 221Aryans 37Asante people 224, 231Assyrian Empire 42, 46astronomy 97, 141, 152, 155

178, 190,Athens, Greece 47, 51, 52, 53,

54, 55, 58Attila the Hun 82–83Augsburg, Peace of 144, 148

Augustine, Saint 87Augustus, Emperor 67, 69, 70Aurangzeb 161, 162, 168Aurelius, Marcus 75Australia 13, 159, 181, 191, 204,

236, 244, 290–291Australopithecines 8, 283Austria 221, 226, 227, 241, 242,

244, 254, 262, 263automobiles 228, 236–237axes 9, 16, 17, 34, 81Aztecs 89, 125, 126–127, 136, 139

BBabur, Emperor 140, 160, 161Babylonian Empire 32, 42, 46, 50Bactria 64Baghdad, Iraq 95, 97, 119Baird, John Logie 247

balloons, hot-air 190Bangladesh 266, 282banks 165, 299barbarian tribes 81, 82–83baseball 237battery 194battles Agincourt 122–123, 124 Alamo 209 Britain 255 Culloden 173 Dan-no-Oura 112–113 El Alamein 257, 260 Gettysburg 222, 223 Hastings 107 the Ice 114 Kosovo 121, 142 Lepanto 145 Little Bighorn 225

Marathon 53 Stalingrad 256, 257, 260 Tannenberg 124 Thermopylae 53 Tours 94 Trafalgar 199 Waterloo 195 White Mountain 148–149 Wounded Knee 234Bayeux Tapestry 107Beatles, the 274Becket, Thomas 109Bede 94, 105Beethoven, Ludwig van 199Belgium 208, 231, 241, 290–291Bell, Alexander Graham 225Bering, Vitus 172Berlin, Germany 257, 261, 268,

270–271

Berlin Wall 269, 271, 274 fall of 293, 296, 297bicycles 203Bin Laden, Osama 304, 306, 307Bismarck, Otto von 224, 226Black Hole of Calcutta 179Blitz 260Blue Mosque, Istanbul 143Boer War, Second 231, 235Bolívar, Simón 202Bolivia 94, 141, 202books 99, 104, 134, 167 see also literatureBorobudur 98Bosnian War 298, 302, 304Boston Tea Party 186, 188Boudicca, Queen 57Boxer Rebellion 236braille 205

Brazil 136, 138, 152, 201, 202,204, 289, 299Britain Anglo-Saxon 82, 99 medieval 109, 114, 120, 123,

124–125 Roman 70, 74, 82 17th century 159, 162, 165 Tudor 134, 140, 144, 150, 151 Viking 95, 98, 99, 100–101,

103, 106 see also United Kingdom

Index



317

Deepwater Horizon 309Denmark 103, 106, 150, 290–291Depression, Great 247, 248, 249,

250–253Descartes, René 158Diana, Princess of Wales 302Disney, Walt 247, 255DNA 272, 304dodo 164dogs 10dolmens 17Dome of the Rock 96–97 Don Quixote 152Draco 47

Dracula 130druids 56Dust Bowl 249, 251Dutch colonies 158, 159, 162, 290–291Dutch Revolt 145, 148, 149, 151

EEarhart, Amelia 248earthquakes 144, 178, 237,

304, 309East India Company 152, 190,

203, 219East Timor 303Easter Island 64, 102, 169eclipses, predicting 50economic crises 292, 304, 308Edison, Thomas 206, 228

Edward VIII, King 254Egypt, ancient 17, 18, 21, 22, 23,29, 33, 34, 37, 38–41, 67

hieroglyphs 17, 30, 40, 194 pharaohs 22, 29, 30, 33, 36, 37,

38–39, 47, 59, 246 religion 26–27, 29, 36Egypt, modern 221, 228, 230–231,

257, 260, 283, 288, 290, 309Eiffel Tower 229Einstein, Albert 237electricity 178, 191, 194, 204, 228elephants 59, 161Elizabeth I, Queen 144, 150, 151Elizabeth II, Queen 272Ellis Island 232–233, 234encyclopedia, first 187Enigma machine 257Enlightenment, the 187, 199

Erasmus, Desiderius 133Erie Canal 205Ethiopia 81, 115, 231, 235, 249,

283, 288–289Etruscans 46European Union 298, 304, 308evolution, theory of 219explorers 115, 124, 125, 135,

136–137, 138, 139, 159, 169,172, 181, 198, 204, 231,240–241

FFahrenheit, Daniel Gabriel 169fairy tales 202, 209, 255Falklands War 288famines 213, 249, 288Faraday, Michael 204farming 16, 18–19, 21, 100, 127 collectivization 248 innovations 168, 173, 205,

210–211Fawkes, Guy 152Ferdinand and Isabella 131, 134films 235, 247, 251, 255fire, discovery of 9Fleming, Alexander 247Florence, Italy 131, 133, 135Florida 204flu, Spanish 245flying shuttle 172, 185

food 11, 19, 137, 180, 202, 234Forbidden City, Beijing 124Ford, Model T 236–237forts, hill 66fossils 8, 144, 283France 14–15, 114, 121, 134, 162,

182, 186, 208, 213, 279colonies 230, 231, 272, 274,

290–291 religious conflict 145, 148, 149,

151, 164 Roman (Gaul) 66, 67, 68, 83 wars 120, 122–123, 124–125,

165, 179, 189, 199, 224, 226,

227, 241, 242–244, 255, 256, 257 see also French RevolutionFranco, Francisco 254Frank, Anne 261 Frankenstein 203Franklin, Benjamin 178Franks 81, 86, 94, 95, 101, 102Frederick II “the Great” 173, 179French Revolution 191, 192–193,

194, 195, 196–197, 229

GGaddafi, Muammar al- 279Gagarin, Yuri 274Galápagos Islands 219Galileo Galilei 152, 154–155Gallipoli, Turkey 242, 244games 23, 58, 79, 93, 101, 127

Gandhi, Indira 289Gandhi, Mohandas 248, 266Garibaldi, Giuseppe 227Gaul 66, 67, 68, 83Gaza Strip 285, 292Genghis Khan 114, 118–119George V, King 240Germany 221, 226–227, 230 Depression 251, 252–253 divided 268, 270–271 Holocaust 261–263 Nazis 245, 249, 254–263, 266 religious conflict 148–149 reunified 293, 296, 297 wars 241, 242–245, 255–263Ghana 224, 273, 290gladiators 71, 72–73gods, ancient 26–27, 29, 36, 56,

69, 76, 89, 101

gold 34, 35, 91, 127, 137, 140gold rush, California 213Gorbachev, Mikhail 269, 296–297Goths 81gravity 164Great Exhibition 218Great Leap Forward 273, 286Great Western, SS 209Greece, ancient 33, 34, 35, 37, 43,

47, 50, 51, 54, 56, 58, 59, 64 Sparta 46, 48–49, 53, 55, 58 wars 52–53, 54–55, 60Greece, modern 208, 308Greenland 100, 101, 103Guevara, Ernesto “Che” 279guillotine 193, 196–197Gulf War 293gunpowder 98, 120guns 223, 230Gustavus II Adolphus 149, 158Gutenberg, Johannes 130

HHadrian’s Wall 74Haiti 194, 299, 309Halley, Edmond 178Hammurabi, King 32Hannibal 61, 69Harold II, King 107Harry Potter books 302Harvey, William 158

Henry V, King 123, 124Henry VIII, King 140Henry the Navigator 136Herschel, William 190hieroglyphs 17, 30, 40, 194Hinduism 37, 108, 130Hirohito, Emperor 258Hiroshima, Japan 259Hitler, Adolf 249, 250, 251, 254,

255, 256, 257, 261Hittites 33, 36, 37Holy Roman Empire 103, 139, 144,

148–149, 199Homer 43

hominins 8–9 Homo erectus 7, 9, 13 Homo sapiens 7, 9, 13Hong Kong 212, 302–303, 308Hooke, Robert 163horses 17, 65, 180, 183Hubble Space Telescope 293Huguenots 145, 164, 165Human Genome Project 304Hundred Years’ War 120, 122–123,

124–125Hungary 269, 273Huns 81, 82–83hunter-gatherers 10–15, 16Hurricane Katrina 305

IIce Age 10, 12

Iceland 101, 102, 190Incas 125, 126–127, 131, 140incense 27India 37, 59, 60, 80, 90, 109, 130,

163, 179, 190, 219, 240, 245,248, 289, 303, 304, 308

independence 266 Mughals 140, 144, 160–161,

168, 172 religions 37, 50, 60, 135, 144Indonesia 98, 290, 303, 305, 307volcanoes 203, 228Indus civilization 28, 30, 31Industrial Revolution 177, 181,

182–185, 186Inquisition 134, 154–155Intifada 284, 285, 292inventors 97, 165, 169, 181, 183,

186, 190, 194, 198, 203, 205,

211, 212, 219, 225, 228, 229,235, 247Iran 50, 76, 138, 151, 287Iraq 138, 287, 293, 305, 307Ireland 17, 100, 198, 213, 246, 313 see also Northern Irelandiron 33, 34, 35, 183Islam (Muslims) 87, 90, 96–97 Crusades 108, 110–111 mosques 102, 143, 151 rulers 94–95, 102, 108, 109,

143, 144 scholarship 95, 97, 120 in Spain 94, 95, 97, 102, 114, 134Israel 267, 283, 288, 292, 298 Arab-Israeli conflict 284–285Italy 81, 83, 107, 224, 227, 234,246, 290–291 Renaissance 131, 132–133, 138 wars 227, 231, 235, 249, 255,

256, 257, 261Ivan IV “the Terrible” 141

J Jackson, Michael 289 Jamaica 291 James I, King (VI of Scotland) 152 Japan 13, 46–47, 77, 82, 87, 98,

109, 112–113, 145, 236, 248,254, 290–291, 309

Edo period 156–157

emergence 218–219, 221 nuclear attack on 259, 261 shoguns 109, 113, 152,

156–157, 159 wars 131, 151, 156, 157, 234,

236, 248, 254, 258–259, 261 Jenner, Edward 194, 206, 207 Jerusalem 42, 50, 64, 90, 96–97,

108, 110–111 Jesus Christ 67, 70–71 Jews 134, 142, 228, 249, 254 ancient 42, 50, 64, 71, 284 Holocaust 261–263 Joan of Arc 125

Johnson, Amy 248 Jones, John Paul 174, 189 Justinian, Emperor 86

Kkamikaze pilots 259Karnak, Temple of 26–27, 33Kennedy, John F. 268, 274, 275Kennedy, Robert 276, 279Kenya 272Kepler, Johannes 152Khmer Empire 98, 108 Kindertransport 262–263King, Martin Luther, Jr. 275,

276–277, 279knights 110, 114, 124Korea 67, 91, 125, 234Korean War 267, 269

Kosovo War 303Kushan Empire 74

LLarge Hadron Collider 308League of Nations 246Lebanon 47, 286, 288Leif Ericson 101, 106Lenin, Vladimir 244, 246Leonardo da Vinci 132Lewis and Clark 198Liberia 213, 230Libya 279, 293light bulb 228Lincoln, Abraham 222, 223Lindisfarne Gospels 94Linnaeus, Carl 172, 187Lister, Joseph 207

literature 43, 106, 121, 150, 152,202, 203, 209, 302Livingstone, David 231Lockerbie bombing 293London, England 66, 117, 163,

218, 220, 260, 307Louis XIV, King 162, 164, 165Louis XVI, King 186, 192–193,

194, 196–197Louis Philippe I, King 208Louisiana Purchase 198Luddites 202Lumière brothers 235Luther, Martin 138–139, 148

MMaastricht Treaty 298Machiavelli, Niccolò 133Magellan, Ferdinand 136–137, 139Magna Carta 114Mali 83, 120, 131mammoth, woolly 12Manchuria 166, 236, 248, 254Mandela, Nelson 275, 293,

299, 300Mao Zedong 267, 273, 278,

282, 286maps 145, 146–147marathon 53Marcomanni 68, 75Marconi, Guglielmo 235



318

Marie Antoinette, Queen 186, 193Marius, Gaius 65Marshall Plan 267Marx, Karl 221Mary, Queen of Scots 150mathematics 97, 164, 165Maya 31, 75, 80, 88–89, 91, 99 Mayflower (pilgrims’ ship) 153Mecca and Medina 90medical science 158, 194, 203,

206–207, 218, 223, 231, 247Medici family 131, 133, 149Meiji, Emperor 221Mercator, Gerard 146–147

Mesopotamia 17, 18, 21, 23,24–25, 27, 28, 29, 32, 46, 64metalwork 21, 34–35, 37, 57Mexico 36, 54, 71, 76–77, 88, 89,

91, 202, 209, 219, 220, 225, 240 see also AztecsMichelangelo 132–133, 138microscopes 163, 207Milosevic, Slobodan 298, 303Ming Dynasty 121, 135, 159, 166Minoans 28–29, 30, 32, 33Mithridates I, King 64Moche people 74, 77Mohenjo-daro 28monks 86, 94, 99, 104–105Mongols 65, 93, 114, 118–119, 134Mont Blanc 190Montgolfier brothers 190Mormons 213

Morse Code 212, 235Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus 180Mugabe, Robert 287Mughals 140, 144, 160–161,

168, 172Muhammad 87, 90, 94, 96Mumbai bombings 308mummies 23, 60Munich Agreement 254music 26, 169, 180, 199, 213, 255 pop 274, 279, 286, 289 rock and roll 255, 266–267, 272Mussolini, Benito 246, 256, 261Mycenae 33, 37

NNantes, Edict of 151, 164Napoleon Bonaparte 193, 195,

198, 199, 202, 204Napoleon III 224, 225, 227Native Americans 65, 106, 109,

135, 153, 208, 224–225, 234NATO 268–269, 273, 298, 303natural history 172, 181, 187, 219Nazca lines 83Nazis 245, 249, 254–263, 266Neanderthals 12, 13Nelson, Horatio 199Neolithic Age 16, 18–19Nero, Emperor 71, 73Netherlands (the Dutch) 152, 156,

158, 159, 162, 290–291 see also Dutch RevoltNew York 158, 248, 251, 308 Ellis Island 232–233, 234 terrorist attack 304, 306–307New Zealand 159, 181, 234, 241Newton, Isaac 164Nicaragua 287Nicholas II, Tsar 237, 244Nightingale, Florence 207, 218Nixon, Richard 278–279, 282, 283Noh theater 157Normandy 102, 123, 260Normans 107Norte Chico civilization 23, 28Northern Ireland 282, 303, 313Nubia 50nuclear weapons 259, 267, 268,

269, 272, 274, 303

OObama, Barack 277, 308oil spills 293, 309Oklahoma bombing 299Olmecs 36, 89Olympic Games 43, 235, 254, 282Opium Wars 209, 212Oregon Trail 212Oslo accords 285, 298Ostrogoths 81, 83, 86Ottoman Empire 121, 124, 138,

140, 142–143, 145, 163, 164,225, 237, 240, 242, 246

Ötzi the Iceman 16–17, 299Owens, Jesse 254

P, QPacific Ocean 64, 159, 181,

258–259pagodas 93, 106Pakistan 28, 266, 282,

303, 307Palestine and Palestinians 37, 267,

282, 284–285, 286, 288, 292, 298Panama Canal 241paper 40, 74Paraguay 220Paris, France 101, 109, 145, 229Paris, Treaties of 179, 189parliaments 102, 114Parthians 64, 67, 68, 75, 76

Pasteur, Louis 207Paul, Saint 71Pearl Harbor 258–259, 260Peloponnesian War 55Peninsular War 199Persian Empire 50–51, 59, 76, 90Persian Wars 52–53, 54–55Peru 23, 28, 32, 43, 58, 60, 74, 77,

83, 108 see also IncasPeter the Great 168, 170, 171Philip II, King 145, 150, 151philosophers 50, 58, 75, 97,

158, 187Phoenicians 31, 37, 43, 47, 51photography 205, 209, 229pirates 169Pizarro, Francisco 140plague 55, 86, 120, 163

Pocahontas 153Poland 124, 173, 255, 256,287, 296

police 205Polo, Marco 115Polynesia 64, 102, 169Pompeii, Italy 71, 72–73, 78–79Popes 114, 121, 132, 141, 150, 288Portugal 125, 135, 136–137, 138,

150, 202, 204, 290–291postage stamps 212potatoes 19, 213pottery 13, 19, 22, 32, 88, 143 fine porcelain 93, 157, 168Presley, Elvis 255, 272Priestley, Joseph 180, 187printing 93, 99, 130Prohibition 246Prussia 165, 173, 179, 221,

224, 226pyramids 22, 71, 76, 88Qing Dynasty 159, 166–167, 180Qur’an 90, 96

Rrailroads 183, 198, 205, 209, 220,

221, 223, 234, 307Rameses II “the Great” 36Reagan, Ronald 269, 288reaper, mechanical 210–211Red Cross 227

Reform Act, Great 208Reformation 138–139, 148–149Relativity, theory of 237Renaissance 131, 132–133, 138Rhodes, Cecil 231Richard I, King 111Richard III, King 134Robert the Bruce 120Robespierre, Maximilien 193, 196 Rocket (locomotive) 205Roman Empire 66–75, 76, 77,

78–79, 80, 81 early Rome 43, 47, 51, 54, 56, 68 fall of 81, 82–83

wars 57, 58, 60, 61, 64, 66, 67,68, 69, 75, 77Romania 130, 225, 297Romanov Dynasty 153Romantic Movement 199Rome, modern 132, 140, 227, 261 art and architecture 138, 159Rome, Treaty of 273Roosevelt, Franklin D. 248, 250,

251, 258, 260Rosetta Stone 194–195rubber 172, 187Russia 103, 134, 153, 165, 168,

170–171, 173, 180, 220, 234,237, 244, 297

after 1991 299, 305 tsars 141, 220, 228, 237, 244 Vikings in 99, 100 wars 218, 225, 236, 244

see also Soviet UnionRussian Revolution 244Rwanda 299

SSaddam Hussein 293, 305, 307Safavid Dynasty 138, 142, 151Saladin 108, 111Salem witch trials 165Salt March 248samurai 112–113, 131, 156Sasanian Dynasty 76, 77satellites 273, 274Saudi Arabia 236Savonarola, Girolamo 135saxophone 213schools 40–41, 79, 104, 301, 305science 133, 141, 163, 164, 178,

180, 187, 194, 203, 204–205,206–207, 237, 240, 247, 272,303, 308

Scotland 101, 120, 173, 312Scott, Robert 240–241scurvy 194Scythians 46–47Sea Peoples 37seed drill 168, 205Seljuk Turks 97, 107, 111September 11 attacks 304,

306–307Serbia 121, 225, 241, 242, 298, 303Seven Years’ War 173, 179Shah Jahan 161, 162Shakespeare, William 150ships and boats 13, 64, 69, 99,

100–101, 124, 125, 139, 145, 153,181, 201, 227, 240, 243, 256

steam-powered 183, 209, 219 young crew 174–175Sikhs 135, 289silk 87Silk Road 65, 74, 92silver 35, 141, 167Singapore 203skyscrapers 248, 283, 302–303slaves and slave trade 137, 152,

168, 194, 200–201, 222, 231 abolition 199, 200, 201, 223 ancient 46, 48, 66, 69, 87, 89 freed slaves 69, 191, 213

Slavs 99Socrates 58soccer 229, 299Solomon, King 42, 115Song Dynasty 92–93, 103, 108Songhai Empire 131South Africa 11, 40, 162, 209,

225, 231, 235, 290 apartheid 272, 275, 293, 299,

300–301South America 136–137, 202, 220South Pole 240–241Soviet Union 246, 248, 249, 267,

268–269, 273, 274, 275, 278,

279, 286–287 end of 296–297, 298 in World War II 256, 257, 260, 261 see also Russiaspace exploration 273, 274, 278,

280–281, 288, 292Spain 131, 134, 145, 168, 199,

202, 204, 307 colonies 126, 127, 135,

136–137, 139, 140, 152, 168,235, 290–291

Muslims in 94, 95, 97, 102,114, 134

Spanish Armada 151Spanish Civil War 254Sparta 46, 48–49, 53, 55, 58spices 135 Sputnik 273, 278Sri Lanka 289

Stalin, Joseph 246, 248, 257,261, 268steam power 165, 181, 182, 183,

186, 190, 198, 205, 209Stephenson, George 205Stepped Reckoner 165stethoscope 203, 206Stonehenge 22–23Stradivari, Antonio 169strikes 279, 289submarines 187, 244, 256Sudan 50, 228, 305Suez Canal 221suffragettes 241Suleiman I “the Magnificent” 140Sumerians 17, 26, 30Sutton Hoo treasure 91Suu Kyi, Aung San 309Sweden 149, 158, 162, 168

Syria 77, 90, 110, 283, 309

TTaj Mahal 160–161Taliban 287, 302, 306Tang Dynasty 90, 92–93, 103tanks 243, 256, 294–295Tasman, Abel 159telegraph 212, 219, 223, 235telephone 225telescopes 152, 164, 190, 293television 247temples 26–27, 33, 36, 42, 55, 98,

108, 130, 135tennis 225Tenochtitlán 126, 139Teotihuacán 71, 76–77, 89, 91Terracotta Warriors 62–63terrorism 282, 285, 293, 299, 304,

305, 306–307, 308Texas 168, 209, 298textile industry 161, 184–185,

186, 190, 202Thailand 190Thanksgiving 153theater 54, 150, 157Theodosius I, Emperor 81thermometers 169, 206Thirty Years’ War 148–149, 153,

158, 159Tikál 75, 80, 88, 89, 99



319

Timbuktu, Mali 120, 131Timur the Lame 124tin cans 202Titanic , RMS 240Tiwanaku 94tobacco 152Toltecs 89, 102tomb builders 17tools 9, 11, 12, 16, 17, 34, 35Tordesillas, Treaty of 135towns, early 16, 19, 21, 22, 23, 83Trevithick, Richard 183, 198Troy, siege of 37tsunamis 178, 305, 309

Tudors 134, 140, 144, 150, 151Tull, Jethro 168, 205Tunisia 120, 230, 309Turkey 16, 47, 51, 107, 237, 244,

246, 283 see also Constantinople;

Ottoman EmpireTutankhamun 38–39, 246

UUkraine 46, 249, 292Umayyads 94, 96, 97United Nations 266United Kingdom 152, 198, 208,

209, 212, 254, 272, 289, 310 wars 202, 209, 212, 242–244,

255–263 see also Britain; British Empire

United States of America 190,198, 204, 246, 267, 290–291

attacks on 299, 304, 306–307 Cold War 268–269, 274, 275 early colonies 150, 153, 158,

168, 180, 186, 188–189 farming 210–211, 249 Great Depression 247, 248, 249,

250–251 history of 310 immigration 232–233, 234 pioneers 198, 212–213, 214–215 presidents 191, 223, 250, 275,

277, 283, 288, 308

railroads 209, 221, 223 space program 278,280–281, 288, 292

states 173, 198, 204, 209 wars 186, 188–9, 202, 220,

222–223, 225, 235, 243, 244,258–259, 260, 278–279, 299,305, 306, 307

see also African-Americans;Native Americans

universities 109Ur 23, 24–25, 27, 29

Vvaccinations 194, 206, 207Vandals 81, 86Vercingetorix 67Versailles, Treaty of 245

Vespucci, Amerigo 137Victor Emmanuel II 224, 227Victoria, Queen 209Vienna, Congress of 202, 208Vienna, siege of 164Vietnam 75, 272Vietnam War 269, 278–279, 286Vikings 95, 98, 99, 100–101, 102, 103Vinland 101, 106Visigoths 81, 86volcanoes 33, 71, 190, 203, 228Volta, Alessandro 194Voortrekkers 209

WWaco (Texas) siege 298, 299Wall Street Crash 247, 250warfare, early 24–25, 65Wars of Religion 148–149, 153Warsaw Pact 268–269, 273,

296, 297Washington, George 189, 191Watergate scandal 283Watt, James 181, 183, 186weapons 120, 149, 223, 230, 231,

242, 243, 244, 257 early 10–11, 17, 35, 48, 52, 58,

81, 82 medieval 91, 108, 118, 120,

125, 131 nuclear 259, 267, 268, 269, 272,

274, 303

Weapons of Mass Destruction 307Wellington, Duke of 195, 199Westphalia, Peace of 149, 159Whittington, Dick 117Wilberforce, William 199, 200, 20William and Mary 165William the Conqueror 107Wolfe, James 179women, rights of 194, 212, 234,

241, 243, 275World War I 241, 242–244, 252World War II 251, 255–263, 290World Wide Web 302Wright brothers 236, 238–239

writing 17, 30–31, 40–41, 43, 74,88, 104

X, Y, ZX-rays 235, 240Xerxes, King 53, 54–55Yellowstone National Park 225Yom Kippur War 283, 284Yugoslavia 297, 298Zapotecs 54, 89Zenobia, Queen 77zeppelins 236, 243ziggurats 27, 29Zimbabwe 115, 231, 287Zulus 225, 231

CreditsDorling Kindersley would like to thank: John Searcy for Americanization; Jackie Brind for the index; Hazel Beynon for proofreading;Helen Abramson, Carron Brown, Matilda Gollon, Victoria Pyke, Jenny Sich, and Samira Sood for editorial assistance; Paul Drislane and Mik Gatesfor design assistance; Merrit Cartographic for maps; Peter Bull and Caroline Church for illustrations. Nityanand Kumar for DTP assistance.

The publisher would like to thank the following for their kind permission to reproduce their photographs:(Key: a-above; b-below/bottom; c-centre; f-far; l-left; r-right; t-top)

3 Dorling Kindersley: Dave King / Courtesy of The Science Museum, London (cla/microscope). 6 Dorling Kindersley: Dave King / Courtesy of the University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Cambridge (c/carving); Gary OmbleCourtesy of the Oxford Museum of Natural History (bc); Dave King / Courtesy of the Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford (cr/bow). Getty Images: DEA / G. Dagli Orti (c/pot). 7 Dorling Kindersley: Dave King / Courtesy of The Museuof London (c/flint cutting edge). 8 Alamy Images: Anton Rothwell Scenic / Alamy (tc). 9 Dorling Kindersley: Dave King / Courtesy of the Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford (br); Gary Ombler / Courtesy of the Oxford Museum of NatHistory (ca). Science Photo Library: Natural History Museum, London (cb). 10 Corbis: Kazuyoshi Nomachi (c). Dorling Kindersley: Dave King / Courtesy of the University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Cambridge (tl). 11 Alam

Images: John Warburton-Lee Photography (c). Dorling Kindersley: Dave King / Courtesy of The Museum of London (tr/fishing spear, tr/harpoon point, ca); Dave King / Courtesy of the Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford (fcl/bow). 1

Dorling Kindersley: Dave King / Courtesy of the Natural History Museum, London (br); Andrew Nelmerm / Courtesy of the Royal British Columbia Museum, Victoria, Canada (tl); Dave King / Courtesy of the Pitt Rivers Museum, University Oxford (fbr). 13 Getty Images: AFP (tl); DEA / G. Dagli Orti (br). 14-15 Corbis: Jean-Daniel Sudres / Hemis (c). 16 The Trustees of the British Museum: (bc). 17 Alamy Images: The Art Archive (br). The Art Archive: Musée du Louvre PaGianni Dagli Ort (cra). The Bridgeman Art Library: Wolfgang Neeb (bl). Getty Images: Robert Mettifogo (tl). 18 Corbis: Burstein Collection (cr). Dorling Kindersley: Dave King / Courtesy of The Museum of London (fcl). 19 Dorling

Kindersley: Alan Hills and Barbara Winter / The Trustees of the British Museum (cra). 20 Alamy Images: Peter Horree (c). Corbis: Philip de BayCredit / Historical Picture Archive (cr). Dorling Kindersley: Peter Hayman / Trustees of TheBritish Museum (bc); Demetrio Carrasco / CONACULTA-INAH-MEX. Authorized reproduction by the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (bl). 21 Corbis: (cr); Sandro Vannini (cl). Dorling Kindersley: Peter Hayman / Trustees of TBritish Museum (c); Dave King / Courtesy of the University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Cambridge (clb). 22 Corbis: David Nunuk / All Canada Photos (tl). 23 Alamy Images: Robert Harding Picture Library Ltd (bc); The A rtArchive (crb). Corbis: Paulo Aguilar / epa (cb). Dorling Kindersley: Peter Hayman / Trustees of The British Museum (tr). 24-25 Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler / The British Museum (ca). 26 Dorling Kindersley: Peter Hayman / Trusof The British Museum (cla). 27 Alamy Images: Peter Horree (cr). The Bridgeman Art Library: Universal History Archive / UIG (cra). Dorling Kindersley: Dave King / Courtesy of the Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford (cla). 28-29Corbis: Gianni Dagli Orti (bc). 28 The Bridgeman Art Library: De Agostini Picture Library (bc). Corbis: Ursula Gahwiler / Robert Harding World Imagery (cr). 29 Alamy Images: nik wheeler (tl). Dorling Kindersley:Peter Hayman / The

Trustees of the British Museum (cra). 30 Dorling Kindersley: Nick Nichols and Peter Hayman / The Trustees of the British Museum (tl, ftl/stylus). 31 Dorling Kindersley: By permission of The British Library (tc); University Museum ofArchaeology and Anthropology, Cambridge (tl); Michel Zabe / CONACULTA-INAH-MEX. Authorized reproduction by the Instituto Nacional de A ntropología e Historia (clb). 32 Corbis: (cla). Getty Images: Universal Images Group (bc). 33 The Bridgeman Art Library: De Agostini Picture Library / G. Nimatallah (cb). Corbis: Sandro Vannini (bc). Dorling Kindersley: Dave King / Courtesy of the University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Cambridge (tc). 34 akimages: Erich Lessing (tr). Alamy Images: Ancient Art and Architecture Collection Ltd (cr). Dorling Kindersley: Dave King / Courtesy of the University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Cambridge (cl, cb); Harry Taylor / Courof the Natural History Museum, London (br). 35 Dorling Kindersley: Nigel Hicks / Courtesy of Museo Tumbas Reales de Sipan (cra); Dave King / Courtesy of The Museum of London (cla); Dave King / Courtesy of the University Museum Archaeology and Anthropology, Cambridge (bl, br); Nick Nicholls / The British Museum (clb). 36 Corbis: Jose Fuste Raga (br); Sandro Vannini (cra). Dorling Kindersley: Demetrio Carrasco / CONACULTA-INAH-MEX / CONACULTA-INAHMEX. Authorized reproduction by the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (tl). Mary Evans Picture Library: (bl). 37 Corbis: Philip de BayCredit / Historical Picture Archive (cra). Dorling Kindersley: Joe Cornish / ARF / TAP(Archaeological Receipts Fund) (cb). Getty Images: Werner Forman / Universal Images Group (bl). 38 Corbis: Sandro Vannini (c). 40 The Trustees of the British Museum: (tl). Dorling Kindersley: Peter Hayman / Trustees of TheBritish Museum (bc/geese, bl). 41 Dorling Kindersley: Peter Hayman / Trustees of The British Museum (c). 42 Alamy Images: BibleLandPictures.com (bc). Corbis: Alfredo Dagli Orti / The Art Archive (tl). 43 Corbis: (tc). DorlingKindersley: Ivor Kerslake / The British Museum (cla); Nick Nicholls / The British Museum (bc). 44 Alamy Images: The Art Archive (clb). Dorling Kindersley: Michel Zabe (c) CONACULTA-INAH-MEX (cr). Getty Images: (ca). PanosPictures: (tl). 45 Alamy Images: Gianni Dagli Orti / The Art Archive (cla/knife coin). Corbis: Werner Forman (tl). Dorling Kindersley: Dave King / Courtesy of The Museum of London (cr/helmet). 46 Alamy Images: BibleLandPicturcom (cla); The Art Archive (bc). Corbis: Heritage Images (ca). Dorling Kindersley: Rob Reichenfeld / National War Museum, Athens (bl). 47 Alamy Images: BibleLandPictures.com (tc); The Art Archive (bl). 48-49 Dorling KindersleyNick Nicholls / The British Museum (bc). 48 akg-images: North Wind Picture Archives (tl). The Trustees of the British Museum: (bl). 49 akg-images: Erich Lessing (c). 50 The Trustees of the British Museum: (bc). Panos Pictu(cra). 51 Corbis: The Gallery Collection (tc). Dorling Kindersley: Nick Nicholls / The British Museum (bc). 52 The Art Archive: Musée Archéologique Naples / Gianni Dagli Orti (cl). Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler / Courtesy of4hoplites (fcl). Getty Images: De Agostini (cr). 53 akg-images: (cb). Alamy Images: Peter Horree (fcla). Corbis: Michael Nicholson (cla). Getty Images: De Agostini (tc). 54 Corbis: Ruggero Vanni (bl). Dorling Kindersley: Dave KinCourtesy of the University Museum of Archaeology and A nthropology, Cambridge (tl). 54-55 akg-images: Joseph Martin (tc). 55 Alamy Images: Gianni Dagli Orti / The Art Archive (fbl). Ancient Art & Architecture Collection: R. Kaw(bl/spade coins). Corbis: Bettmann (br). 56 Alamy Images: (clb). Getty Images: De Agostini (cra). Mary Evans Picture Library: Edwin Mullan Collection (cb). 57 Dorling Kindersley: Dave King / Courtesy of The Museum of Londo(tc); Dave King / Courtesy of the University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Cambridge (fcl, clb). Mary Evans Picture Library: (cr). SuperStock: David Lyons / age fotostock (crb). 58 Corbis: Heritage Images (clb). DorlingKindersley: Nick Nicholls / The British Museum (br). TopFoto.co.uk: HIP (tl). 58-59 Dorling Kindersley: Nick Nicholls / The British Museum (bc). 59 akg-images: (tr); ullstein bild (cb). Corbis: (cl). 60 The Bridgeman Art Library:Stapleton Collection (br). Getty Images: DEA / G. Dagli Orti / De Agostini (bl). 61 Corbis: Heritage Images (tr). Getty Images: DEA / G. Dagli Orti / De Agostini (br). SuperStock: Art Archive, The (cla). 63 Corbis: Wolfgang Kaehler (c64 Alamy Images: The Bridgeman Art Library (tl). Getty Images: The Bridgeman Art Library (cla). 65 Corbis: Werner Forman (tl). Dorling Kindersley: Karl Shone / Courtesy of the Ermine Street Guard (cr). Getty Images: TheBridgeman Art Library (bl). 66 The Bridgeman Art Library: Look & Learn (cl); The Stapleton Collection (bl). Dorling Kindersley: Christi Graham and Nick Nicholls / The British Library (cra); Alan Hills / The British Museum (br). 67Corbis: Bettmann (bc); The Gallery Collection (br). Getty Images: The Bridgeman Art Library (tr). 68-69 Corbis: Sylvain Sonnet (cb). 68 Dorling Kindersley: Alan Hills and Barbara Winter / The British Museum (ca). 69 The Bridgem Art Library: Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen, Denmark (cla). Corbis: The Gallery Collection (crb). Getty Images: De Agostini (tl). 70 Getty Images: (cla); De Agostini Picture Library (clb). 71 The Bridgeman Art Library: JohnMitchell Fine Paintings (bl). Corbis: Nathan Benn / Ottochrome (tl). Getty Images: Jean-Pierre Lescourret (cra). 72 akg-images: Erich Lessing (c). 74 akg-images: RIA Nowosti (cra); Collection Archiv fuer Kunst & Geschichte (cb). DorKindersley: Demetrio Carrasco / Courtesy of Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino (tc); Joe Cornish / Courtesy of English Heritage (cla). 75 Alamy Images: Ben Oliver (cb). Corbis: Stapleton Collection (ca). 76 The Art Archive: Musé

Cernuschi Paris / Gianni Dagli Ort (cla). Corbis: (tl); Angelo Hornak (bl). 76-77 Dorling Kindersley: Michel Zabe (c) CONACULTA-INAH-MEX (bc). 77 Alamy Images: Interfoto (tl); Mo Peerbacus (cr). The Bridgeman Art Library: PhoPeter Nahum at The Leicester Galleries, London (bc). Dorling Kindersley: Nigel Hicks / Courtesy of Museo Tumbas Reales de Sipan (tc). 78 The Bridgeman Art Library: Giraudon (c). 79 akg-images: De Agostini Pic.Lib. (br); MPortfoElecta (tr). 80 Alamy Images: Lebrecht Music and Arts Photo Library (cla). Corbis: (br). Getty Images: The Bridgeman Art Library (cb). 81 akg-images: (bc); De Agostini Pic.Lib. (tl). Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler / Courtesy of theBoard of Trustees of the Royal Armouries (bl); Christi Graham and Nick Nicholls / The British Library (tc). 82 akg-images: (bl). Mary Evans Picture Library: Interfoto Agentur (cra). SuperStock: DeAgostini (br). 83 akg-images: (tl). GImages: Bjorn Holland (bl). TopFoto.co.uk: The Granger Collection (tr). 84 Alamy Images: Peter Horree (fcl); The Art Archive (cr). The Bridgeman Art Library: Germanishches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg, Germany (cl). DorlingKindersley: Image Gap (c) Alamy (br). 85 Alamy Images: Peter Horree (fcl). The Bridgeman Art Library: British Library Board. All Rights Reserved (cla); Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, France (cr). Dorling Kindersley: Tim Parmenter The British Museum, Courtesy of the British Museum (fcr). Getty Images: SSPL (cl). 86 The Bridgeman Art Library: Musee Conde, Chantilly, France (tl); Giraudon / San Vitale, Ravenna, Itally (ca); Germanishches Nationalmuseum,Nuremberg, Germany (tr); Czartoryski Museum, Cracow, Poland (bl). 87 Alamy Images: Peter Horree (tr); The Art Archive (bl). The Bridgeman Art Library: Giraudon / Musee des Arts Decoratifs, Paris, France (tl). 88 Alamy Images:Diana Bier (cla). Dorling Kindersley: Michel Zabe © CONACULTA-INAH-MEX (cr); Linda Whitwam © CONACULTA-INAH-MEX (tl). Getty Images: Pola Damonte (cl). 89 Dorling Kindersley: Michel Zabe © CONACULTA-INAH-MEX (br);Parmenter / Courtesy of the British Museum (tl). 90 akg-images: R. u. S. Michaud (tr). The Bridgeman Art Library: Fitzwilliam Museum, University of Cambridge, UK (bc). TopFoto.co.uk: The Granger Collection (bl). 91 Alamy ImagThe Art Archive (br). The Bridgeman Art Library: Archives Charmet / Musee Guimet, Paris, France (cr). W erner Forman Archive: San Francisco Museum of Asiatic Art. Location: 01 (clb). 92 akg-images: British Library (cla). GettyImages: UIG (cr). 93 Getty Images: TAO Images Limited (cl). 94 akg-images: Album / Prisma (bc); British Library (cla); IAM (cra). 95 Alamy Images: Robert Harding World Imagery (tl). The Bridgeman Art Library: (bl); R0ger-ViolleParis (br); The Stapleton Collection (cra). 97 The Bridgeman Art Library: De Agostini Picture Library / G. Dagli Orti (crb). Corbis: Gianni Dagli Orti (tr). Dorling Kindersley: Andy Crawford / Courtesy of the Royal Museum of Scotland,Edinburgh (tl). 98 akg-images: Album / Prisma (ca). Getty Images: TeeJe (bl). 99 The Bridgeman Art Library: (bl); Archives Charmet / Veliko Tarnovo Museum, Bulgaria (tl); The Stapleton Collection (cra); Tyne & Wear Archives &Museums (crb). Dorling Kindersley: Geoff Dann / Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (br). 100 Alamy Images: The Bridgeman Art Library (cl). 100-101 Dorling Kindersley: James Stevenson / Courtesy of the National Maritime Museum,London (c). 101 Alamy Images: All Canada Photos (cr). Dorling Kindersley: Peter Anderson / Courtesy of the Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm (tl); Helena Smith / The National Museum of Scotland (br). 102 Corbis: Atlantide



Documents

History Year by Year