HISTORY OF THOUGHT AND ACTIONHISTORY FOR A JOURNEY IN BEING™

TUESDAY, MAY 09, 2023 7:33:30 AM

CONTENTS1 HISTORY: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Reference 11.2 Purposes: History as The ‘Story’ of Thought And

Action 11.3 Periods 11.4 Whitehead’s Concept of History 1

2 HISTORY: A BRIEF OUTLINE 12.1 The Ancient World 12.2 The World: 500 – 1500 72.3 Toward Modernity 132.4 The Age of Revolution 202.5 The Modern World 26

Most Recent Update 32

1 HISTORY: INTRODUCTION1.1 REFERENCEThe outline below is compiled and taken from John A. Garraty and Peter Gay, eds., The Columbia History of the World, 1972; and thus there is no present claim to originality in content or organizationIn purpose, however, there is no explicit dependence on the above or other work; naturally, of course, I absorb and process existing thought, such as may have come to my attention1.2 PURPOSES: HISTORY AS THE ‘STORY’ OF

THOUGHT AND ACTIONTo give a sense of the processes and forces involved with sufficient focus on:

Showing the interplay of ideas and actionAreas of consideration: religion, myth, art and literature; philosophy, humanities, and the study of history; technology, science, and mathematics; economic, exploration, commercial and trade; law, military and political; education, meaning, journey, and commitment

The general and the singular and their interplay in history and power

The general: populations that may be thought of as homogeneous for the purposes of the account, their processes and their interactions; patriarchalismThe singular: individuals and singular events or small focal groups of the same – especially those that are at focal points of history; charisma

Showing the dynamics without having to resort to explicit theory or concept; events and interactions will be selected to show the dynamics and trends as a picture… without requiring or denying any inference of pattern or predictability especially a principle of pattern or predictability that can be generalized to application to all history

An outline for History, a possible future work mentioned aboveA framework for Journey in Being… especially the studies toward Journey in Being – see Design for a Journey in Being… for:

PhilosophyKnowledge; the academic disciplinesInfluence – History, the present document, as a History of InfluenceBeing and its variety; Being and its Journey in Transformation

1.3 PERIODSThere was originally a section that characterized periods of history according to ‘sentiment’ e.g. the time from prehistory till 700 BC may have been labeled ‘myth,’ 700 BC to 300 AD ‘philosophy,’ 300 AD to 1500 AD ‘chaos,’ and 1500 AD till the present ‘exploration and science’The intention was to use a suggestive character as a label. However, the labels are caricatures and the old system is abandoned

1.4 WHITEHEAD’S CONCEPT OF HISTORYThe source for this section is A. N. Whitehead, Adventures of Ideas, 19331.4.1 Relativity and focusWhitehead emphasizes the commonplace acknowledgement of interpretation as relative and theoreticalHe notes that Adventures of Ideas focuses on European History and its sources in Greek and Hebrew culture and civilization; the book is, in part, an attempt to identify the theoretical background of meaning and interpretation for the European tradition1.4.2 History as interplay between ‘force’ and

‘inspiration’[A special case of variation and selection]Force is ‘blind’; inspiration includes ideas and criticism; no novelty is ever entirely novel: even within ‘force’ there is a constructive elementThe history of civilization is the history (adventure) of ideasExamples of force and ideas in European History: barbarians and Christianity; industrial revolution and democracy

Whitehead would put ‘barbarians’ in quotes for this designation is from the European perspective; objectively, for Europe, ‘barbarians’ functioned as ‘force’Whitehead, notes this as an example of relativity of perspective in that the culture and ideas of the barbarians –e.g. the Goths and other invading peoples– were advanced and refreshing

1.4.3 Kinds of influenceSociety, function, change in interaction with ideasModern cosmology or ‘world view’ influences how individuals experience their world1.4.4 Sociological function, change and ideasThe human soul and the humanitarian idealAspects of freedom; from force to persuasionForesight [and understanding which results in foresight] in social function1.4.5 Modern cosmology [metaphysics, world view]

and how individuals experience their worldCosmology. Nature and the laws of nature; four types of cosmology: cosmology is expressed in laws or understanding of the patterns of nature regarding whose character there are four classic kinds of interpretation; these are the schools of immanence, of imposition, of mere description [positivism,] and of conventional interpretation; cosmology, science and faithPhilosophy. Objectivity and subjectivity; Cartesianism; time, coherences; appearance and reality; and philosophic methodCivilization. Truth, beauty, adventure, and peace

2 HISTORY: A BRIEF OUTLINE2.1 THE ANCIENT WORLD2.1.1 Before History2.1.1.1 The UniverseHere, I omit details; the history of the universe may later be covered in Physics, belowThe idea of an initial singularity [big bang] may explain features of the known or visible universe; this does not imply that the history of the entire universe known and unknown is described by such a singularity. The domain of the unknown is, almost without doubt, much larger if not infinitely larger than that of the known. From physical cosmology it is understood that the known universe, almost homogeneous on a large scale, is, perhaps, a mere bubble in a much larger arenaFrom the sections on nothingness and general cosmology in Journey in Being, a foundation of the vast spatio-temporal extent and variety of larger arena, the one universe, may be seen in indeterminism and the void. From the non-spatiotemporal, acausal void arises space-time-actuality and causation and law; and law includes physics but is not restricted to the physics of the known universe and may be much more varied

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2.1.1.2 Geological Evolution of Earth: Geochronology2.1.1.3 Evolution of Life on Earth: Biochronology

ERA PERIOD EPOCH TIME OF BEGINNING[millions of years ago]

GEO- AND BIOLOGICAL EVENTS

ARCHEOZOICPROTEROZOID[primitive and soft life forms]

Precambrian periods

Numerous minor sub-divisions of only local application

4,600 Origin of earth and solar system4,000 [?] Origin of life in a reducing atmosphere leading

later to production of oxygen2,500 [?] Photosynthetic oxygen; permitted first global

oxidation of iron ores1,500 [?] First primitive soft-bodied animals; main types

of invertebrates and some aquatic plants700 Great Eocambrian Ice Age

PALEOZOIC[origin and rise of shelled invertebrates and vertebrates; abundance of fishes and amphibians; first reptiles]

Cambrian 600 Many aquatic, some land plants; trilobites, brachiopods and many other invertebrates; first shell-forming invertebrates – attributed to rising alkalinity of the ocean: shell fossils common

Ordovician 500 Ice Age in AfricaEarliest known chordates; graptolites and corals widespread

Silurian 435 Caledonian mountain buildingClub mosses and other primitive land plants abundant; some arthropods may have invaded land

Devonian 395 Acadian mountain buildingFishes abundant; first amphibians; many land arthropods; first horse-tails, ferns, liverworts

Carboniferous Mississippian 345 Huge forests of primitive plants; great coal age, reduction of carbon dioxide and rise in atmospheric oxygenAge of amphibians

Pennsylvanian 310 Hercynian-Appalachian mountain buildingReptiles appear

Permian 280 Ice age in South America, Africa, Australia, India and AntarcticaExtinction of many Paleozoic organisms such as trilobites; amphibians decrease in influence

MESOZOIC[Age of Reptiles]

Triassic 230 Beginning of major continental drift; world-wide red bedsForests of conifers and cycads; Age of Reptiles begins: reptiles abundant and varied; first mammals

Jurassic 180 Age of Ammonites; mild world climate; first birds

Cretaceous 135 Age of Chalk [planktonic foraminifera;] extinction of dinosaurs and many other Mesozoic organisms; flowering plants appear

CENOZOIC[Age of Mammals]

Tertiary Paleocene 67 Alpine mountain building world-wide and continuing through the Tertiary periodMammals abundant; first primates; flowering plants abundant

Eocene 58Oligocene 36Miocene 25 Evolution of grasses and modern type

mammals and birdsPlioceneEarliest hominids

7 Increasing mountain glaciationFreezing of Antarctic begins 3 – 4 million years ago; 20 to 90 thousand year Milankovitch [Yugoslav scientist who worked out the mathematics of their prediction] cycles of glaciation and mild climate results in buildup of Antarctic ice since less ice melts than was formed each cycle, in drier climate and lower ocean levels

Table 1 Bio-Geochronology of Earth. Compiled from The Columbia History of the World, 1972

CENOZOIC – continued[Age of Mammals]

Tertiary – continued

Pliocene – continuedEarliest hominids

Earliest known human [hominid] fossils 4 million years ago from the Omo River in Ethiopia; for purposes of demarcation, Man is defined as the primate that habitually makes and uses tools. The earliest hominids are collectively known as Australopithecines but there is speculation though no clear evidence that the earliest Australopithecines were associated with tools

Quaternary[Except for the Holocene, the dates are not known to be exact; and there is difficulty with correlation of glacial periods to the north and periods of intense rain in the tropical and subtropical belts]

Pleistocene 2 Great Ice Age, time of Stone Age man; growth of major deserts

Villafranchian or Early PleistoceneEarliest fossil evidence of hominids

2 [2,000,000] The earliest evidence that at least some Australopithecines were human in character comes form Olduvai Gorge in Tanganyika: where fossils dated at 1,750,000 years old are associated with crude stone tools made for chopping. The Australopithecines form two major groups: Australopithecus –smaller and more delicate– and Paranthropus, larger, heavier boned, roughly the size of a gorilla. It has been speculated that Australopithecus was more modern and evolved, and provided the tools to Paranthropus who may have furnished part of Australopithecus’ dietThe advance and retreat of glaciers pushes climate belts toward and away from the equator; drier conditions lead to thinning of sub-tropical belts and desertification; buildup of mountains due less erosion; and successive glaciations scoured deeper and deeper valleys; and consequent saltation along all the great rivers where numerous fossils ranging from ancestral horse to mammoth of the period are foundThe regular use and making of tools provides relative adaptive advantages but also increases importance of adaptation to the behavioral environment especially the flexible thumb and upright posture for the use of tools

Early Middle Pleistocene

0.6 [600,000] Günz [Nebraskan in America] and Mindel [Kansan] Glaciations, First Interglacial periodParanthropus dies out but may have interbred with Australopithecus; thus the latter or both are at the root of Modern ManHominids spread from tropical Africa, north to North Africa and Europe, east across southern Asia as far as China. The earlier fossils belong to the evolutionary stage Pithecanthropus, intermediate between Australopithecus and Paranthropus; they were successful hunters especially of deer, used fire, ate their dead; much is known about their skeletal remains but little about their tools which were primitive choppers and flakes

Late Middle Pleistocene

0.275 [275,000] Second Interglacial and Riss [Illinoian] GlaciationMany human artifacts but few fossils from this period have been found – the Steinhem [Germany] and Swanscombe [England] skulls; brain size was comparable to that of modern man and show a combination of modern and primitive characteristics; use of primitive tools coexist with the Biphase tradition – chipped on both faces, spread throughout Africa, western and southern Europe, southern Asia as far as India, resulting in refinement of hand axes, new tool forms and techniques and an aesthetic element: this later technology required an opposable thumb but this does not mean that the different traditions were those of fundamentally different kinds of menMost uniquely human behavioral patterns were

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probably established by the end of this period if not earlier including: language and transmission of culture, permanent association of males and females in small food-getting and child-rearing units co-evolving with year round availability of the female

Table 2 Bio-Geochronology of Earth – continued. Compiled from The Columbia History of the World, 1972CENOZOIC – continued[Age of Mammals]

Quaternary – continued

Late Pleistocene

0.095 [95,000] Third Interglacial and Würm [Wisconsin] Glaciation; the last melting began hesitantly 17,000 years ago: sea levels rose about 10 feet a century – a likely source of the stories of the great floodNumerous hominid fossils, many belonging to modern man, Homo sapiens alongside “Neanderthal man,” more “primitive” in appearance but possessed of a larger brain than modern man. The most likely view is that the Neanderthal was a racial variant of and interbred with modern man; about 40,000 years ago the Neanderthals began to be replaced by completely modern man; Neanderthals may have lasted until the end of the Late PleistoceneThroughout Europe, North Africa and Southern Asia, the new peoples carried a new kind of culture called Upper Paleolithic characterized by: stone artifacts made on long, narrow flakes called blades, many specialized tools and weapons, use of bone and antlers in artifacts, stone tips for spears, traps, encircling of prey, a lunar calendar to predict movement of game, artificial shelters; burial of the dead and a highly developed art indicating a new richness of spiritual lifeLast great expansion of the human world into Australia and Siberia and from there across the Bering Strait in to the “New World”

Holocene 0.01 [10,000] Recent development of agricultural, industrial, and literate manAbout 10,000 years ago, with the end of the last melting, thermal levels rose, glaciers retreated, sea levels rose, many watered areas began to dry out, the environments of the lower latitude became more diversified and impoverished, many large game animals became extinct. In response Human culture of the Holocene became much more regionally varied, plant and animal husbandry started and made possible: fixed year round settlements, growth of large dense populations, and civilization as we know it: urbanization, stratified, specialized, politically organized societies. Cultivation and domestication of animals began in two areas: from Mesopotamia to China, and America from Mexico to PeruMan’s impact on the environment becomes significant in the Milankovitch cycle and associated events such as desertification

Table 3 Bio-Geochronology of Earth – continued. Compiled from The Columbia History of the World, 1972

2.1.1.4 Human EvolutionFurther details are in the table aboveBC 4M Earliest known hominids

1.75 Stone tools0.6 Pithecanthropus evolves0.2 Possible Homo sapiens; use of fire

95K Homo sapiens; burial of the dead

40K Modern Homo sapiens; Upper Paleolithic culture

30K Art10K Holocene epoch: end of last ice-age

9K Beginnings of animal husbandry – domesticated sheep in the Tigris Valley, agriculture

2.1.2 The Ancient Near East

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2.1.2.1 MesopotamiaBC 10,000 Wooden reaping knives set with flint

blades used in Palestine9000 End of the Ice Age; domesticated sheep

in the North Tigris valley7700 Çatal Huyuk, Turkey; obsidian mined for

tools; fertility cult7000 Pottery6500 Copper3300 Writing, wheel, sailboats, animal plows

in Sumer3100 Hieroglyphic writing in Egypt2350 Sargon I of Agade, first known empire2100 Supremacy of Ur in Lower

Mesopotamia; laws of Ur-Nammu of Ur, first known law book

1800 Assyrian temple for the Sumerian god, Enlil

2.1.2.2 EgyptBC 1550-1200 Wheeled vehicles common, bronze,

bellows and other labor saving tools1375-1358 Amarna age; Ikhnaton’s religious

reforms2.1.2.3 The New Levant: Syria and PalestineBC 2000-500 Establishment of desert religions

1550 Hyskos I expelled from Egypt; new model Egyptian army using chariots and composite bows

1525 Thutmose I claims Syria to the Euphrates

1500 Invention of alphabetic writing in Syria1200 Iron use common1100 Camel use common in North Arabia;

lime plaster used to make watertight cisterns opens up dry areas for settlement

2.1.3 Asian Civilization2.1.3.1 Early India2.1.3.1.1 Prehistoric IndiaBC 3000-1500 Indus Valley Civilization

1500-1200 Aryan invasion; earliest hymns of the Rg-Veda

2.1.3.1.2 Vedic EraBC 1200-900 Composition of Rg-Veda

900-500 Later Vedas, Brahmanas, Early Upanishads

2.1.3.1.3 Rise of Jainism and BuddhismBC c. 550 Birth of Mahavira and Gautama

185-100 Laws of Manu2.1.3.2 Early ChinaBC 1523-1027 Shang dynasty [according to Bamboo

Annals]1027-771 Western Chou dynasty

770-256 Eastern Chou dynasty551-479 Traditional dates of Confucius

c. 500 Beginning of Iron Age in China403-221 Age of Warring States

223 Ch’in annihilates Ch’u221-207 Ch’in dynasty

2.1.3.3 The Chinese Empire: The Formative PeriodBC 214 First expansion of Chinese empire

213 Burning of the Books210 Death of First Emperor206 Destruction of Imperial Library

206-AD 9 Former Han dynastyBC 191 Book Burning edict rescinded

141 Legalists excluded from government careers

124 Imperial Academy established127-101 Second expansion of Chinese empire

87 Regency established51 Peace between China and Hsiung-nu

AD 9-23 Interregnum of Wang Mang25-220 Later Han dynasty

49 Peace between China and Southern Hsiung-nu

65 First Chinese reference to Buddhism89 Regency reintroduced

184 Uprising of Yellow Turbans220-265 China divided265-316 Western Chin dynasty

316 Loss of northern China317-589 China divided

2.1.4 Classical Antiquity: Jews and Greeks2.1.4.1 JewsBC 1250 Israelites invade Palestine

900 King Asa of Jordan bans worship of gods other than Yahweh

2.1.4.2 The Great Divide [omitted]Some elements incorporated below2.1.4.3 The Century of Minor Powers [omitted]2.1.4.4 Persia and AthensBC 780 Alphabet

776 Olympic Games770 First Greek colony, Cumae, on Italian

mainland750-700 Iliad and Odyssey reach their present

forms585 Thales of Miletus, beginnings of natural

philosophy560 Pisistratus becomes tyrant of Athens510 Pisistratus family expelled from Athens540 Xenophanes, philosophic monism;

“Second Isaiah,” nationalistic monotheism

525 Pythagoras, the philosophic life499 Ionian cities, aided by Athens, revolt

from Persia490 Battle of Marathon478 Athens creates the Delian League for

liberation of Greece from Persia475 Parmenides: opposition of reality

[changeless] to appearance [changing]458 Aeschylus’ Oresteia447 Beginning of Parthenon447 Sophist study of argument, rhetoric;

Pindar [lyric poetry,] Sophocles [tragedy,] Herodotus [history,] Phidias [sculpture

431-74 Socrates [moral philosophy,] Hippocrates [rational medicine,]

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Democritus [atomism,] Aristophanes [comedy,] Euripides [tragedy,] Thucydides [history]

431-404 Peloponnesian war: defeat of Athenian fleet

2.1.4.5 The Fourth Century to the Death of AlexanderBC 404-37 Spartan hegemony in Greece

399 Trial and execution of Socrates371-362 Plato teaching in Athens

359 Philip II: King of Macedonia, consequences of specialization in war

338 Aristotle, Diogenes, Demosthenes336-323 Ascent to death, at age 32, of

Alexander: conquest from the Macedonian Empire to Indus Valley

2.1.4.6 The Hellenistic WorldBC 323-276 Wars of Alexander’s successors…

c. 290 The Colossus of Rhodes275-215 Aristarchus, Archimedes, Eratosthenes,

Theocritus, Apollonius Rhodius, Manetho and Berossus

c. 175 The great altar of Pergamum2.1.5 Classical Antiquity: Rome2.1.5.1 The Roman RepublicBC 387 Rome destroyed by the Celts

338 Rome in control of Latium200- Rome defeats Philip of Macedon; Leads

to ascent of Rome, 800 years of stable power with basis in: granting of citizenship to slaves

197 and consequent loyalty to Rome and unification with other cities

67-62 Pompey: suppression of piracy; campaigns

2.1.5.2 Julius CaesarBC 58 Conquest of Gaul [France, Belgium,

parts of Holland, Germany and Switzerland;] flowering of Latin literature: Lucretius, Catullus, Cicero, and Caesar

48 Defeats Pompey at Pharsalus48-47 In Egypt with Cleopatra VII

46 Reform of Roman Calendar44 Assassinated

2.1.5.3 Augustan EmpireBC 31- AD 68 Classic age of Latin literature: Virgil,

Horace, Livy, Ovid, Seneca, PetroniusAD 6 Judea taken over by Romans;

revolutionary “Messianic” movements develop

30 Jesus crucified75-100 Four Gospels written

2.1.5.4 The Later Roman Empire2.1.5.5 Late Roman society and culture [interaction of

power, knowledge and faith]AD 250 Plotinus, Neoplatonism begins

381 Council of Constantinople; Doctrine of the Trinity completed

391 Theodosius I prohibits all pagan worship410 Sack of Rome by Visigoths followed by

Christian Apologetics, notably Augustine’s City of God

431 Council of Ephesus451 Council of Chalcedon496 Conversion of Franks to Christianity534 Completion of Justinian’s law code641 Death of Heraclius; Gospels have been

translated into 10 languages; Christian missionaries working in China

2.2 THE WORLD: 500 – 15002.2.1 The Arabs2.2.1.1 The Arabs and the Rise of Islam2.2.1.2 The Disruption and Decline of the Arab EmpireBC 853 First reference to Arabs in an inscription

of the Assyrian ShalmaneserAD 24 Expedition of Aelius Gallus to South

Arabia530 Christian Abyssinia’s invasion of South

Arabia570 Birth of Muhammad in Mecca622 Hijra [migration] of Muhammad from

Mecca to Medina; beginning of the Islamic era

630 Mecca conquered by Muhammad and becomes the spiritual center of Islam

632 Death of Muhammad; succession of Abu Bakr as the first caliph

632-786 Ascent of Arab Empire786 Accession of Harun al-Rashid; Abbasid

courtly life at its best786-c.1600 Disruption and decline of the Arab

Empire1639 Ottomans seize Iraq from Persia

2.2.1.3 Islamic CivilizationAD 500-622 Pre-Islamic poetry flourishes in Arabia

650 Official version of Koran670 Great Mosque of Qayrawan in Tunisia696 Arab coinage introduced by Abd al-

Malik; Arabic becomes official administrative language of the empire

751 Arabs learn papermaking from captured Chinese prisoners; use of paper spreads westward in the empire

765 School of medicine founded in Baghdad767 Death of Abu Hanifa, founder of Hanifite

School of Law785 Building of Great Mosque of Cordova by

Abd al-Rahman795 Death of Anas ibn Malik, founder of

Malikite School of Law813-833 Translation movement; Arabic science

and learning flourishes; espousal of Mu’tazilism as the official theology

815 Death of Abu Niwas, celebrated poet of Abbasid court

820 Death of Shafi’i, founder of Shafi’ite School of Law

850 Death of Kindi, first Arab philosopher855 Death of Ahmad ibn Hanbal, founder of

Hanbalite School of Law876 Building of ibn Tulun mosque in Cairo877 Death of Hunayn ibn Ishaq, most

prominent translator of Greek works

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922 Execution of Hallaj, Sufi Mystic, for heresy

925 Death of Razi, physician and scientist950 Death of Farabi, philosopher965 Death of Mutanabbi, neoclassical poet970 Mosque-University of al-Azhar built in

Cairo by the Fatimids1010 Firdawsi, Persian poet, completes his

Epic of Kings1030 Death of Biruni, physician, physicist,

astronomer, mathematician, geographer, and historian

1037 Death of ibn Sina [Avicenna,] physician and philosopher

1067 Nizmiyya Madrasa academy established in Baghdad; Ash’arasim established as orthodox theology

1111 Death of Ghazali, mystic and theologian1123 Death of Omar Khayyam, poet and

astronomer1198 Death of ibn Rushd [Averroes,]

Aristotelian philosopher1229 Death of Yaqut, geographer1273 Death of Jalal al-Din al-Rumi, Persian

mystic and poet1325 Ibn Batuta begins his travels1353 Completion of Alhambra in Granada1390 Death of Hafiz, Persian lyric poet1406 Death of ibn Khaldun, Arab historian

2.2.1.4 Jews in the Arab WorldAD 500-550 Compilation of the Babylonian Talmud

c. 650 Beginning of Babylonian Gaonate760-763 Gaonate of Yehudai

c. 760 Anan, religious leaderc. 800 Beginning of Karaite sect

882-942 Saadiah Gaonc.950 Hasdai ibn Shaprut of Cordova,

physician and scholar968-1038 Gaonate of Sherira and Hai992-1055 Samuel ibn Nagrela of Granada

c.1000-1148 Golden Age of Spanish Hebrew Literature

c.1075-1141 Judah ha-Levi, poet1135-1204 Moses Maimonedes1147-1148 Almohade conquest of Spain

2.2.2 Asia and Africa2.2.2.1 Sub-Saharan AfricaAD c. 3-4th cent. Rise of empire of Ghana

4th cent. Rise of Christian Kingdom of Axum [Ethiopia]

c. 800 Founding of kingdom of Kanemc. 1040 Mission of Abdallah to the Goddalac. 1075 Almoravid conquest of Ghanac. 1090 Conversion to Islam of Mai of Kanem

11th-114th cents. Building of “Great Zimbabwe” complexc. 1100 Earliest evidence of stone mosques on

East African coast; founding of Timbuktu

12th-16th cents. Rule of Zagwe dynasty in Ethiopiac. 1200 Rise of sultanate of Kilwa

1203 Sack of Ghana by Sumanguru of Susu1230 Accession of sun Dyata of Mali1235 Battle of Kirina

1324-1325 Pilgrimage to Mecca of Musa I, mansa of Mali

c. 1464 Accession of sonni Ali Ber of Songhai1482 Building of Elmina Castle [São Jorge da

Mina]1488 Doubling of Cape of Good Hope by

Bartholomeu Dias1493 Accession of askiya Muhammad the

Great of Songhai1498 Arrival of Portuguese on East African

coast1590-1591 Moroccan invasion of the western

Sudan2.2.2.2 The Chinese Empire: The Great EraAD 561-618 Sui dynasty

605-610 Grand Canal built612-614 Korean campaigns618-907 T’ang dynasty627-649 Reign of T’ai-tsung

630 Defeat of Eastern Turks656 Defeat of Western Turks

690-705 Reign of Empress Wu713-755 Reign of Hsüan-tsung

751 Battle of Talas River755 Rebellion of An Lu-shan780 Tax reform821 Peace between China and Tibet840 Uighur empire destroyed

841-845 Religious persecutions879 Looting of Canton

907-960 China divided960-1126 Northern Sung dynasty

1004 Peace between China and Liao1024 World’s first paper currency1044 Peace between China and His-hsia

1069-1075 Wang An-shih in power1125 Liao empire destroyed

1127-1279 Southern Sung dynasty1130-1200 Chu Hsi

1135 Lin-an capital of Southern Sung1141 Peace between China and Chin

2.2.2.3 The Chinese Empire: Foreign PowersAD c. 1167-1227 Chinggis Khan

1217 Mongols conquer Tarim Basin1221 Mongols conquer West Turkestan and

Afghanistan1222 Chinggis Khan raids India1227 Mongols conquer His-hsia

1229-1241 Ögödei Great Khan1234 Mongols conquer Chin empire1238 Mongols take Moscow

1251-1259 Möngke Great Khan1252 Mongols conquer Nan-chao and eastern

Tibet1258 Mongols take Baghdad, conquer Korea

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1260-1294 Khubilai Great Khan1274 Mongols raid Kyūshū

1275-1292 Marco Polo in China1279 Mongols conquer Southern Sung

1280-1367 Yüan dynasty1281 Unsuccessful Mongol invasion of Kyūshū1293 Unsuccessful Mongol invasion of Java

1268-1644 Ming dynasty1336-1405 Timur [Tamerlane]

1424 Death of Yung-lo Emperor1405-1433 Voyages of Cheng Ho

1419 Death of Tsong-kha-pa1421 Peking capital of China1428 Annam independent1449 Oirats raid China1514 Coming of the Westerners1522 Tax reform1550 Tatars raid China1557 Portuguese gain possession of Macao1607 Peace between China and Japan1618 Outbreak of fighting between Manchus

and China1644 Suicide of last Ming emperor; Manchus

enter Peking2.2.2.4 Early JapanAD 552 Traditional and approximate date for

the introduction of Buddhism from Korea

710 First permanent capital at Nara794 Capital at Heian-kyō [Kyoto]

1185 Minamoto clan victorious in struggle with Taira

1192 Minamoto Yoritomo receives title of Shogun

1274, 1281 Abortive attempts by Mongols under Khubilai Khan to invade Japan

1333 Overthrow of Kamakura shogunate1338 Establishment of new shogunate

dynasty, the Ashikaga2.2.2.5 IndiaAD 500 Pandyas ruling at Madurai

c. 540 End of Gupta dynastyc. 540 Rise of Chalukyas at Vatapi

c. 606-646 Harsha of Kanauj700-800 Spread of Buddhism to Nepal and Tibet

711 Arab invasion of Sindhc. 750 Rise of imperial Pratiharas; rise of

Rashtrakutas760 Palas in Bengal

c. 846 Rise of Cholas and defeat of Pallavisc. 970 Reemergence of Chalukyan power and

defeat of Rashtrakutas1001 Beginning of raids by Turks under

Mahmud of Ghazni1024 Destruction of Somnath by Mahmud1175 First Indian expedition by Muhammad

Ghuri1192 Defeat at Tarain of Prithvi Raja by the

Turks

1206-1290 Slave dynasty [beginning of Delhi Sultanate]

1290-1320 Khalji Sultans1320-1413 Tughluq Sultans

1336 Founding of Vijayanagar1347 founding of Bahmani Sultanate1398 Invasion of Timur

1414-1451 Sayyid Sultans1451-1426 Lodi Sultans

1498 Arrival of Vasco da Gama2.2.2.6 Southeast AsiaAD c. 657-681 Reign of Jayavarman I [Khmer]

671 Visit to Srivijaya of pilgrim I-tsing732 Accession of Sanjaya [Java]929 Accession of Sindok [Java]

1002-1050 Reign of Suryavarman I [Khmer]1044 Founding of Empire of Pagan [Burma]

c. 1222 Founding of Singosari [Java]1268 Accession of Kertanagara [Java]1287 Mongol conquest of Pagan [Burma]1292 Visit of Marco Polo to Perlak [Sumatra]1293 Mongol invasion of Java; founding of

Empire of Majapahit1330-1364 Rule of Gaja Mada, mapatih of

Majapahit1350 Founding of T’ai kingdom of Ayt’ia

[Siam]c. 1402 Founding of Malacca

1431 Fall of Angkor [Khmer]1448-1488 Reign of Trailok [Siam]

1450 Promulgation of the “Palace Law” of Siam

1511 Portuguese conquest of Malacca2.2.3 Medieval Europe2.2.3.1 Early Middle Ages2.2.3.1.1 Roman and Byzantine EmperorsAD 284-305 Diocletian

306-337 Constantine527-565 Justinian I717-741 Leo I the Isaurian

2.2.3.1.2 Frankish Kings and Western Emperors [Since 800]

416-751 Merovingian house741-928 Carolingian house768-814 Charlemagne813-840 Louis the Pious876-888 Charles III the Fat

2.2.3.1.3 German Kings and Emperors919-1024 Saxon or Ottonian house

910-936 Henry I the Fowler936-972 Otto I

983-1002 Otto III1024-1137 Salian house

2.2.3.1.4 French Kings888/987 ff. Capetian house

2.2.3.1.5 Roman Pontiffs392-496 Gelasius I590-604 Gregory I

9

858-867 Nicholas I1073-1085 Gregory VII1088-1099 Urban II1130-1143 Innocent II

2.2.3.1.6 Ecclesiastical Intellectuals260-340 Lactantius

c. 340-420 Jerome354-430 St. Augustine816-840 Agobard, archbishop of Lyons

c. 810-c. 877 Johannes Scotus Erigena847-882 Hincmar, archbishop of Reims

2.2.3.2 The High Middle Ages2.2.3.2.1 Roman PontiffsAD 1198-1216 Innocent III

1294-1303 Boniface VIII1316-1334 John XXII

2.2.3.2.2 German Emperors1138-1268 Hohenstaufen house1212-1250 Frederick II

1268 Death of Conradin1314-1347 Louis of Bavaria, Wittelsbach

2.2.3.2.3 English and French Princes1154 ff. England’s Angevine house

987-1328 France’s Capetians1285-1314 Philip IV the Fair

12566/1268 ff. Anjou cadet line in Sicily-Naples2.2.3.2.4 Orders of the Church

910 Cluny [reformed Benedictine]1098 Cistercian order

1118/1128 Templars [military order]1120 Premonstratensians [canons-regular]1201 Humiliati [quasi-mendicant]1209 Franciscans [mendicant]1215 Dominicans [mendicant]

2.2.3.2.5 Churchmen and Intellectuals1079-1142 Peter Abelard1090-1153 Bernard of Clairvaux1126-1198 Averroes

c. 1130-1202 Joachim of Fiore1225-1274 Thomas Aquinas

2.2.3.2.6 Church Councils1179 III Lateran1215 IV Lateran1245 I Lyon1274 II Lyon1311 Vienne

2.2.3.3 The Late Middle Ages2.2.3.3.1 Princes and DynastiesAD 1272/

1314/1438 ff. Hapsburg Emperors1328 French Capetians replaced by Valois1485 English Angevins replaced by Tudors

2.2.3.3.2 Soldiers, Magistrates, Artists, and Businessmenc. 1267-1337 Giotto, son of Bondone, of Florence

1313-1354 Cola, son of Rienzi1394 Death of John Hawkwood

c. 1395-1456 Jacques Coeurc.1394-1476 John Fortescue

2.2.3.3.3 Intellectuals1221-1274 Bonaventure

1282 Death of Siger of Brabantc. 1214-1292 Roger Bacon

1274-1208 John Duns Scotusc. 1250-1312 Peter Duboisc. 1240-1313 Arnold of Villanovac.1235-1315 Raymond Lull

1265-1321 Dante Alighieri1328 Death of John of Jandun

c. 1275-1342 Marsiglio of Paduac. 1300-1349 William of Ockham

1304-1374 Francis Petrarchc. 1329-1384 John Wycliffec. 1369-1415 John Hus

1483-1546 Martin Luther2.2.3.4 The Jews in Medieval EuropeAD c. 359 Jewish Calendar committed to writing

by Hillel II425 End of Jewish patriarchate

425-475 Compilation of Palestinian Talmud613-711 Visigothic persecutions of the Jews in

Spain813-840 Reign of Louis the Pious; earliest known

diplomas of privileges to Jews1144 Death of William of Norwich; beginning

of medieval blood accusation1215 Fourth Lateran Council; yellow badge1290 Expulsion of Jews from England1306 Expulsion of Jews from France1348 Black Death persecutions; beginning of

ghettoization in Germany1391 Pogroms in Spain; beginning of

Marranism1481 Inquisition proceedings begin in Spain1492 Expulsion of Jews from Spain1516 Establishment of ghetto in Venice

1648-1658 Chmielnicki uprisings and massacres in Ukraine and Poland

1666 Sabbetai Zevi’s abortive messianic movement collapses

2.2.4 Byzantium2.2.4.1 Early ByzantiumAD 330 Dedication of the city of Constantinople

527-565 Reign of Justinian the Great578 The Slavs reach the Peloponnese610 Accession of Heraclius I636 First Arab defeat of Byzantium;

beginning of the conquest of Syria and Asia Minor

641 Arab conquest of Byzantine Egypt717 Lifting of the last Arab siege of

Constantinople by Leo III717-796 Isaurian dynasty726-730 Beginning of the Iconoclastic

Controversy

10

763 Constantine V’s victory over the Bulgars at Anchialus

787 Restoration of images by the Second Council of Nicaea

796 Coup d’état of Irene800 Coronation of Charlemagne at Rome813 First Bulgar siege of Constantinople815 Beginning of the second period of

iconoclasm820-867 Amorian dynasty

828 Arabs begin the conquest of Byzantine Sicily

838 Arabs take Amorium843 Council of Orthodoxy ends the

Iconoclastic Controversy863 Michael III’s victory over the Arabs at

Poson863-864 Cyrillo-Methodian mission to the Slavs

864 Conversion of Boris-Michael of Bulgaria867 Murder of Michael III; accession of Basil

I the Macedonian2.2.4.2 Later ByzantiumAD 867-1056 Macedonian dynasty

876 Byzantine recapture of the Cicilian gates; beginning of Byzantine reconquest of southern Italy

926 Second Bulgar siege of Constantinople931 Beginning of Byzantine reconquest of

Syria944-959 Reign of Constantine VII of

Porphyrogenitus965 Byzantium retakes Crete and Cyprus975 John I Tzimisces reconquers Syria and

Palestine976-1025 Reign of Basil II

1000 Basil II’s campaign in Transcaucasia1014 Basil II’s annihilation of the First

Bulgarian Empire1041 Start of Norman conquest of southern

Italy1054 Great Schism between Rome and

Constantinople1071 Seljuk defeat of Byzantium at

Manazkert1081-1185 Comnenian dynasty

1082 Grant of commercial privileges to Venice

1097 Arrival of the First Crusade at Constantinople

1143-1180 Reign of Manuel I1159 Manuel I’s entrance into Antioch1176 Byzantine defeat at Myriokephalon1182 Massacre of the Latins at

Constantinople1185-1204 Angeli dynasty

1204 Sack of Constantinople by the Latins1204-1261 Latin Empire of Constantinople;

Lascarid dynasty at Nicaea1205 Defeat of the Latin Empire by the

Bulgars1230 Defeat of Epirus at Klokotnica

1259 Michael VIII’s defeat of the Latins at Pelagonia

1261 Michael VIII retakes Constantinople1261-1453 Paleologue dynasty

1274 Union of Lyons1282 Death of Michael VIII1304 Revolt of the Catalan mercenaries1346 Coronation of Stephen Dušan Czar of

Serbia1365 Ottoman capital shifted to Andrinople in

Thrace1369 Journey of John V Paleologus to the

West1389 Ottoman victory at Kossovo1396 Failure of the Crusade of Nicopolis

1399-1400 Journey of Manuel II Paleologus to the West

1438-1439 Council of Union at Florence1444 Failure of the Crusade at Varna1453 Ottomans capture Constantinople

11

2.2.4.3 The Slavs and Early Russia

SOUTHERN SLAVS WESTERN SLAVS EASTERN SLAVS [RUSSIA]c. 517 Slavic tribes begin to cross the Danube into the Balkans

c. 679 Bulgars cross Danubec. 680-1018 First Bulgarian Empire813 First Bulgar siege of Constantinople

c. 628-658 Principality of Samo in Moravia

7th cent. Scandinavian infiltration of Russia begins

846-864 Reign of Rastislav in Great Moravia

c. 860 Riurik in Novgorod; first Russian raid on Constantinople

864 Baptism of Boris-Michael of Bulgaria 863-864 Cyrillo-Methodian mission to Moravia

906 Magyars Sack Great Moravia

c. 880-912 Rise of Kiev under Oleg

10th cent. Premyszlid dynasty in Bohemia; Piast dynast in Poland

c. 968 End of Khazar empire

992-1025 Reign of Boleslav the Brave in Poland

989 Baptism of Vladimir of Kiev

1035-1054 Zenith of Kiev under Laroslav the Wise; Metropolitan of Kiev created

1102-1138 Boleslav III of Poland 1113-1135 Reign of Vladimir Monmouth at Kiev

1140-1173 Vladimir II hereditary King of Poland

1157-1174 Reign of Andrei Bogolubskii at Suzdal

1168-1196 Stephen Nemanja founds the Serbian Empire

1169 Suzdal sacks Kiev

1176-1212 Vsevolod “Big Net” prince of Suzdal

1197-1207 John Asen [Kalojen] founds the second Bulgarian Empire

1217 Coronation of Stephen I as Czar of Serebia

1198-1205 Zenith of Galici under Roman of Smolensk

1218-1241 Zenith of Second Bulgarian Empire under John II Asen

1223 Mongol defeat of the Russian princes at Kalka

1241 Mongol sack of Second Bulgarian Empire

1241 Mongol sack of Poland 1242 Alexander Nevski’s victory over the Teutonic Knights at Lake Peipus; Golden Horde settles in southern Russia

1253-1258 Zenith of Bohemia under Ottokar the Great

1282 Mongols sack Galicia1300 Wenceslas II of Bohemia king of

Poland1301 Wenceslass III of Bohemia

crowned king of Hungary

1306 Accession of Luxemburg dynasty in Bohemia

1325-1341 Ivan I Kalita founds the Muscovite state

1336-1355 Zenith of Serbia under Stephen IV Dusan

1328 Metropolitan see moves from Kiev to Moscow

1333 Restoration of Poland under Casimir III

1347 Emperor Charles IV king of Bohemia

Table 2 The Slavs and Early Russia. Compiled from The Columbia History of the World, 1972

1371 Ottoman victory over Serbia on the Marica

1380 Dimitri Donskoi’s victory over the Mongols at Kulikovo

1389 Ottoman victory at the first Battle of Kossovo

1386 Marriage of Jadwiga of Poland to Jagiello of Lithuania

1410 Polish defeat of the Teutonic Knights at Tanenberg

1387 Galicia absorbed by Poland

1448 Ottoman victory at the second Battle of Kossovo; Ottoman domination of the Balkans

1447 Union of Poland and Lithuania

1446 Second Peace of Thorn 1480 Ivan III proclaimed Czar and Autocrat of Russia

1526 Ottoman victory at Mohács1547 Hapsburgs become hereditary

kings of Bohemia1572 End of Jagiellonian dynasty in

Poland

1533-1584 Reign of Ivan IV the Terrible

1552-1556 Russians take Kazan and Astrakhan

1598-1605 Boris Godunov Czar of Russia

1604-1613 “Time of Troubles;” Polish intervention in Russia

1613 Accession of Michael I Romanov in Russia

1620 Battle of White Mountain; end of Bohemian independence

Table 2 The Slavs and Early Russia – continued. Compiled from The Columbia History of the World, 1972

2.3 TOWARD MODERNITY2.3.1 The Renaissance and Reformation in Europe2.3.1.1 The State System of the Italian RenaissanceAD 1250 Death of Frederick II and beginning of

the imperial interregnum1380 Removal of the papacy from Rome to

Avignon1321 Death of Dante

c. 1325 Beginning of regular sea traffic between Italy and northern Europe via the open Atlantic

1327 Earliest mention of an artillery piece in the documents

1342 Petrarch’s Italia mia1347 Outbreak of the Black Death1378 Beginning of the Great Schism

1385-1402 Reign of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Duke of Milan

1404-1414 Reign of Ladislas of Durazzo, King of Naples

1414 Opening of the Council of Constance1434 Accession to power in Florence of

Cosimo de’ Medici1450 Francesco Sforza becomes Duke of

Milan1457 Publication of the first surviving dated

printed book1469 Succession to power in Florence of

Lorenzo the Magnificent1494 First French invasion of Italy; fall of the

Medici and reestablishment of the Florentine Republic

1497 Vasco da Gama reaches India by sea1502 The Spanish conquer Naples1513 Machiavelli’s Prince

1530 Fall of the last Florentine Republic; return of the Medici

1535 Charles V occupies Milan as an imperial fief

2.3.1.2 Humanism and SocietyAD 1341 Petrarch crowned poet laureate on the

Capitoline in Rome1353 Boccaccio’s Decameron1375 Coluccio Salutati appointed chancellor

of the Florentine Republic1404 Pier Paolo Vergerio’s Concerning Liberal

Studies, the first humanist treatise on education

1414 Poggio Bracciolini discovers Quintillian’s De institutione oratoria in the library of the monastery of St. Gallen in Switzerland

1429 Leonardo Bruni finishes his History of Florence

1440 Lorenzo Valla’s On the True Good [or On Pleasure]

1450 Pope Nicholas V founds the Vatican Library

1456 Giannozzo Manetti enters the service of King Alfonso of Naples

1462 Establishment of the Platonic Academy in Florence

c. 1469 Marsilio Ficino finishes translating into Latin the dialogues of Plato, the first complete translation into any Western language

1469 Birth of Erasmus1486 Pico della Mirandola, Oration on the

Dignity of Man1505 Erasmus publishes Valla’s Annotations

on the New Testament

1516 Pietro Pomponazzi’s On the Immortality of the Soul

2.3.1.3 Renaissance ArtAD c. 1255-1319 Duccio di Buoninsegna

c. 1276-1337 Giotto1337-1466 Filippo Brunelleschi

c. 1386-1466 Donatello1387-1455 Fra Angelico1401-1428 Masaccio1404-1472 Leon Battista Alberti

c. 1426-1492 Piero della Francescac. 1430-1516 Giovanni Bellini

1431-1506 Andrea Mantegna1444-1510 Botticelli1444-1514 Bramante1452-1519 Leonardo da Vinci1471-1528 Albrecht Dürer1475-1564 Michelangelo1477-1576 Titian

c. 1478-1510 Giorgione1483-1520 Raphael1494-1534 Correggio1511-1574 Giorgio Vasari1518-1590 Andrea Palladio1518-1594 Tintoretto1528-1588 Paolo Veronese

2.3.1.4 The Reformation: DoctrineAD 1505 Martin Luther joins the Augustinian

Order1512 Luther appointed professor of Holy

Scriptures at the University of Wittenberg

1516 First edition of the New Testament in Greek

1517 Luther’s theses against indulgences1518 Zwingli called to be minister at Zurich1520 Luther’s Open Letter to the Christian

Nobility of the German Nation, The Babylonian Captivity of the Church, and On Christian Liberty; Luther’s excommunication

1521 Diet of Worms1524 Erasmus defends the freedom of the

will against Luther1525 Conrad Grebel baptizes Georg Blaurock:

the beginning of Anabaptism; the Reformation established in Zurich

1527 The Schleitheim Confession, first Anabaptist doctrinal statement

1529 Colloquy of Marburg1531 Death of Zwingli at the Battle of Kappel1534 First complete edition of Luther’s

translation of the Bible1546 Death of Martin Luther1564 Death of John Calvin

2.3.1.5 The Reformation: SocietyAD 1509-1547 Reign of Henry VIII of England

1515-1547 Reign of Francis I of France1516 Concordat at Bologna1519 Election of Charles V as Emperor

1521 Diet of Worms: beginning of Hapsburg-Valois wars

1524-1525 Peasant Revolt in Germany1525 Battle of Pavia; Francis I taken prisoner1526 Defeat of Hungarians by the Turks at

the Battle of Mohács1527 Sack of Rome by an imperial army1528 Basel and Berne accept Reformation1530 Diet of Augsburg; German Protestant

princes declare faith in the Augsburg Confession

1534 Day of Placards; Act of Supremacy1538 Geneva accepts the Reformation1540 Society of Jesus approved by the pope1542 Roman Inquisition established1545 Opening of the Council of Trent1546 Death of Martin Luther1547 Battle of Milberg: Charles V defeats the

Protestant Schmalkaldic League1547-1553 Reign of Edward VI of England1547-1559 Reign of Henry II of France1553-1558 Reign of Mary of England

1555 Religious Peace of Augsburg on the principle of cuius regio, eius religio

1556 Abdication of Charles V in Spain and Empire; accession of Phillip II of Spain

1559 Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis: end of Hapsburg-Valois wars

2.3.1.6 The Counter ReformationAD 1528 Founding of the Capuchin order

1536 Commission of Cardinals established by Pope Paul III to reform the papal court

1540 Founding of the Society of Jesus1542 Roman Inquisition established by the

papal bull Licot ab initio1545-1547 First session of the Council of Trent

1548 Publication of the Spiritual Exercises by St. Ignatius of Loyola

1549 Death of Pope Paul III1551-1552 Second session of the Council of Trent

1555 The Peace of Augsburg, religious-political settlement of Germany; Gian Caraffa elected as Pope Paul IV

1558 Diego Laynez elected general of the Society of Jesus

1559 Death of Pope Paul III1560 Carlo Borromeo launches Catholic

model reform as archbishop of Milan1562 Neo-Scholasticism stimulated by

publication of the Loci Theologici of Melchor Cano

1562-1563 Third and final session of the Council of Trent

1564 Revised Index of Prohibited Books promulgated by Pope Pius IV

1568 St. John of the Cross founds the discalced Carmelites

1572 St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in France

1573 Veronese called before the Inquisition to defend the orthodoxy of his painting

1575 St. Philip Neri reforms and extends the Oratory

1582 Death of St. Theresa of Avila1584 Publication of the Jesuit educational

program, the Ratio Studiorum1586 Robert Bellarmine publishes Volume I of

Disputation of the Heretics of Our Times1609 St. Francis of Sales publishes the

Introduction to the Devout Life1629 Edict of Restitution restores much land

to the Roman Church in Germany1648 Peace of Westphalia

2.3.2 Building the Early Modern State2.3.2.1 The Golden Age of SpainAD 1545 Opening of Potosi mines, Bolivia

1556 Abdication of Charles V; his son, Philip II, becomes king of Spain

1557 Bankruptcy of Spanish Crown1568 Outbreak of revolt in Netherlands1571 Victory of Lepanto, against Turks;

repression of revolt of the Moriscos1575 El Greco arrives in Spain1579 Disgrace and arrest of principal

minister, Antonio Pérez1584 Direct Spanish intervention into French

civil wars1587 Sir Francis Drake destroys Spanish fleet

at Cádiz1588 Defeat of the Spanish Armada1591 Revolt of Aragon1597 Bankruptcy of the Spanish Crown1598 Death of Phillip II: Phillip III, his son,

becomes king; Lope de Vega presents Arcadia

1605 Cervantes publishes Part I of Don Quixote

1609 Expulsion of the Meriscos1612 Suárez publishes De Legibus ac Deo

Legislatore1616 Spanish forced to leave Japan1621 Rise to power of Count Duke Olivares1628 Zurbarán, the painting of St. Serapion1630 Velázquez completes painting Vulcan’s

Forge1640 Revolt of Catalans and Portuguese1643 Defeat of Spanish army by French at

Rocroi2.3.2.2 The Rise of the Dutch RepublicAD 1556 Abdication of Charles V of Hapsburg as

Lord of the Netherlands; succession of Philip II of Spain

1559 Philip II leaves Netherlands and returns to Spain, which becomes center of his government; beginning of opposition of higher nobility against government of king’s confidants in the Netherlands

1566-1567 First outbreaks of large-scale revolts as well as iconoclastic movements against the Church; Philip II sends the Duke of Alva to suppress the uprising; William of Orange flees the country

1572 Successful attack of William of Orange, who occupies provinces of Holland and Zeeland

1576 Other provinces join the rebellion [Pacification of Ghent]

1579 Walloon nobility defects from the rebellion [Treaty of Arras]; Alexander of Parma commander of the Spanish troops

1581 Revolutionary Estates General depose Philip II as Lord of the Netherlands

1584 Assassination of William of Orange1585 Parma takes Antwerp; rebels withdraw

behind the great rivers1588-1609 Dutch drive the Spanish out of northern

Netherlands; attempts at liberation of the south fail

1609-1621 Truce between Republic of the United Netherlands and Spain

1625-1648 The Republic joins the anti-Spanish coalition

1648 Peace of Westphalia; de jure recognition of independence of the Republic

2.3.2.3 The Collapse of FranceAD 1559 Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis; death of

Henry II1561 Colloquium of Poissy1562 Outbreak of civil war between

Protestants and royal troops1572 St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre1574 Death of Charles IX; assembly of Millau,

establishes firmer government for French Protestants

1576 Jean Bodin publishes Six Books for the Republic; Estates General of Blois, seeks religious compromise and fails

1578 Duke of Anjou invades Low Countries; founding of the Order of the Holy Spirit

1579 Publication of the Vindiciae contre Tyrannes

1580 Publication of the first edition of the Essays of Montaigne

1587 Battle of Coutras, first pitched battle won by the Protestants

1588 Revolt of Paris against Henry III1589 Assassination of the Guises on Henry

III’s orders; assassination of Henry III1590 Battle of Ivey, victory of Henry IV

against the Catholic League1593 Henry IV abjures Protestantism1595 Henry IV absolved of his heresy by Pope

Clement VIII1597 Siege of Amiens1598 Treaty of Vervins, ends war between

France and Spain; Edict of Nantes2.3.2.4 Elizabethans and PuritansAD 1485 Battle of Bosworth; accession of Henry

VII1509 Death of Henry VII; accession of Henry

VIII1529 Fall of Cardinal Wolsey

1529-1536 Reformation of Parliament

1536-1540 Execution of Thomas Cromwell1547 Death of Henry VIII; accession of

Edward VI1553 Death of Edward VI; accession of Mary I1558 Death of Mary I; accession of Elizabeth I1563 Thirty-Nine Articles; Statute of

Apprentices1570 Elizabeth I excommunicated by Pope

Pius V1587 Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots1588 Defeat of the Spanish Armada1600 East India Company Chartered1603 Death of Elizabeth I; accession of James

I1611 Authorized Version [King James Version]

of the Bible1618 Beginning of Thirty Years’ War1625 Death of James I; accession of Charles I1628 Petition of Right adopted; assassination

of the Duke of Buckingham1629-1640 Period of personal rule: the “Eleven

Years’ Tyranny”1640 Short Parliament [April-May]; Long

Parliament convenes in November1641 Execution of the Earl of Strafford; Irish

Rebellion begins1643 Death of John Pym

1642-1646 First Civil War1645 Execution of William Laud, Archbishop

of Canterbury1648 Second Civil War; Pride’s Purge1649 Execution of Charles I

1653-1658 Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell1658 Death of Oliver Cromwell; succeeded as

Lord Protector by his son Richard1660 Restoration of Charles II1662 Beginning of the “Bartholomew

Ejections” following Act of Uniformity; expulsion of ministers creates English Nonconformity

1670 Secret Treaty of Dover between Charles II and Louis XIV

1678 Popish Plot1679 Habeas Corpus Act

1679-1681 Exclusion crisis1681-1685 Charles II rules without Parliament

1685 Death of Charles II; accession of James II

1688-1689 Glorious Revolution replaces James II with William of Orange and Mary; Bill of Rights; Mutiny Act; Toleration Act

1689-1697 War of the League of Augsburg [King William’s War]

1694 Bank of England chartered; Triennial Act; Death of Queen Mary

1697 Treaty of Ryswick1701 Act of Settlement1702 Death of William III; accession of Queen

Anne1702-1713 War of the Spanish Succession [Queen

Anne’s War]

1707 Act of Union with Scotland1713 Treaty of Utrecht1714 Death of Queen Anne; accession of King

George I1721 Sir Robert Walpole becomes Prime

Minister2.3.2.5 The Thirty Years’ WarAD 1612 Ferdinand II becomes king of Hungary

and Bohemia1618 Defenestration of Prague1620 Battle of White Mountain1621 End of the Spanish-Dutch truce1623 Maximilian of Bavaria receives electoral

vote held previously by Palatinate1624 Richelieu enters and soon dominates

royal council; French-Dutch treaty1626 Defeat pf Danish troops in Brunswick by

Count Tilly1629 Edict of Restitution1630 Electoral Assembly of Regensburg

insists on Wallenstein’s resignation; Gustavus Adolphus lands in northern Germany, is subsidized by France

1631 Capture and massacre of Magdeburg1632 Battle of Lützen, Hapsburg defeat;

death of Gustavus Adolphus1634 Assassination of Wallenstein1635 Treaty of Prague; French declaration of

war against Spain1636 Capture of Corbie by the Spanish1639 Revolt of the Nu-Pieds in France1640 Revolts of the Catalans and the

Portuguese1643 Defeat of the Spanish by the French at

the Battle of Rocroi; war between Denmark and Sweden

1646 Invasion of Bavaria by Swedish and French troops

1648 Peace of Westphalia2.3.2.6 The Rise of Modern Political ThoughtAD 1494 Invasion of Italy by French troops

1513-1521 Niccolò Machiavelli writes The Prince and The Discourses on the First Ten Books of Livy

1517 Martin Luther posts 95 theses on church door at Wittenberg; Reformation usually dated from this moment

1525 Sack of Rome1562-1594 Series of religious wars in France

1572 St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in Paris, slaughter of the Huguenots

1576 Jean Bodin publishes Six Books of the Republic

1594 Henry IV takes Paris1610 Henry IV is assassinated

1618-1648 Thirty Years’ War1642 Civil war begins in England1649 Charles I of England beheaded1651 Thomas Hobbes publishes Leviathan1656 James Harrington publishes The

Commonwealth of Oceana

1658 Oliver Cromwell dies1660 Restoration of the monarchy in

England; Charles II [1660-1685]1661 Louis XIV of France assumes sole rule

after Mazarin1670 Baruch [Benedict de] Spinoza publishes,

anonymously, Tractacus Theologico-Politicus

1685-1688 Reign of James II in England1688-1689 Glorious Revolution; James II dethroned;

William and Mary1690 John Locke publishes Two Treatises of

Civil Government, published ten years before

2.3.3 Toward One World2.3.3.1 The Commercial PowersAD 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas divides overseas

world between Spain and Portugal1570’s First raids by English and Dutch on

Spanish empire in South America; breakdown of Portuguese monopoly in the Indian Ocean

1600 Foundation of the English East India Company

1602 Foundation of the Dutch East India Company

1609 Foundation of the Bank of Amsterdam1619 Foundation of the Bank of Hamburg1621 Foundation of the Dutch West India

Company1624 Dutch drive English out of spice trade in

the East Indies1629 Dutch obtain rights to trade at

Arkhangelsk1635 Foundation of Compagnie française des

îles d’Amerique1639 English establish themselves in Madras1651 Navigation Acts in England, directed

against Dutch trade1652-1674 Period of Anglo-Dutch wars; peace of

1674 results in division of colonial spheres between England and Holland, in which America goes to England and East Indies go to Holland

1689-1713 Period of Anglo-Dutch coalition wars against France of Louis XIV

1713 Peace of Utrecht gives England trading rights in Spanish American empire; decline of the Dutch

2.3.3.2 The Ottoman EmpireAD 1326-1359 Reign of Orkhan I

1359-1389 Reign of Murad I1365 Ottoman capital shifted to Andrinople in

Thrace1371 Ottoman defeat of the Serbs on the

Marica1389 First Battle of Kossovo1402 Defeat of Bajazet I Yilderim by

Tamerlane1444 Ottoman defeat of the Christian

“Crusade” at Varna1448 Second Battle of Kossovo

1451-1481 Reign of Muhammad II the Conqueror

1453 Ottoman capture of Constantinople by Muhammad II the Conqueror

1514 Ottoman defeat of the Safavids at Caldiran

1517 Ottoman capture of Cairo; surrender of Mecxa

1520-1566 Reign of Suleiman I the Magnificent[Kanuni]

1521 Ottoman capture of Belgrade1522 Ottoman capture of Rhodes1526 Ottoman defeat of the Hungarians at

Mohács1529 First Ottoman siege of Vienna;

Ottomans acquire Algerian bases1534 Ottoman capture of Tabriz and Iraq1536 Ottoman alliance with Francis I of

France1547 Larger part of Hungary ceded to the

Ottomans1555 Ottoman-Safavid peace1571 Battle of Lepanto1606 Peace of Sitvartorok1630 Memorandum of Koça Bey

1641-1687 Reign of Muhammad IV; abolition of the devşirme

1656-1676 Ottoman revival under Köprülü viziers1683 Second Ottoman siege of Vienna1696 Capture of Azov by Peter the Great1697 Eugene of Savoy’s defeat of the

Ottomans at Zenta1699 Peace of Karlowitz

1703-1730 Cultural revival under Ahmed III1718 Peace of Passarowitz

1724-1730 Victories of Nadir Shah in Transcaucasia1757-1774 Reign of Mustafa III; Ayans granted

official status1774 Treaty of Kuçuk Kaynarca1783 Russian annexation of the Crimea1792 Treaty of Jassy1793 Selim III proclaims the “New Order”

1798-1799 Napoleon’s campaign in Egypt1801 Russian annexation of Georgia1804 Serbian revolt

1822-1830 Greek war of independence1826 Massacre of the Janissaries; Ottoman

fleet sunk at Navarino1829 Treaty of Andrinople1833 Treaty of Unkiar-skellessi1840 Treaty of London concedes Egypt to

Muhammad Ali1841 Straits Convention

1853-1856 Crimean War1856 Hatt-i Humayun1876 Mihrdat Pasa proclaims the Ottoman

Constitution1877 Ottoman Constitution allowed to lapse1878 Congress of Berlin1883 Creation of Public Debt Control

1908 Formation of the Committee of Union and Progress [Young Turks]; Constitution Restored

1909 Deposition of Abdul-Hamid II2.3.3.3 European Voyages of ExplorationAD 1415 Portuguese capture of Ceuta

1433 Cape Bojador rounded by Gil Eannes1482 Building of Elmina Castle [São Jorge de

Mina]1484 Discovery of Congo estuary by Diogo

Cão1488 Doubling of Cape of Good Hope by

Bartolomeu Dias1492 Discovery of America [Bahama Islands]

by Christopher Columbus1494 Treaty of Tordesillas1497 Voyage to North America by John Cabot

1497-1498 Voyage to Calicut [India] by Vasco da Gama

1500 Discovery of Brazil by Pedro Cabral1510 Portuguese capture of Goa1513 First sighting of the Pacific by Núñez de

Balboa1519-1521 Conquest of Mexico by Hernán Cortéz1519-1522 Circumnavigation of the world: begun

by Ferdinand Magellan, completed by Sebastián del Cano

1529 Treaty of Zaragosa1531-1648 Conquest of Peru by Francisco Pizarro1534-1535 Exploration of Gulf of St. Lawrence by

Jacques Cartier1553 Voyage to Archangel by Richard

Chancellor1576-1578 Search for the Northwest Passage by

Martin Frobisher1585 Planting of first English colony in North

America: Roanoke Island, North Carolina

1596 Voyage of William Barents to Novaya Zemlya

1600 Founding of the English East India Company

1602 Founding of the Netherlands East India Company

1606 Discovery of Australia by Willem Janszoon

1642 Discovery of Tasmania and New Zealand by Abel Tasman

2.3.3.4 India: 1500-1700AD 1510 Portuguese capture of Goa

1526 Defeat of the Lodi Sultan by Babur1526-1530 Reign of Babur1530-1538 Reign of Humayun

1538 Death of Guru Nanak1538-1555 Interregnum under Sur dynasty1555-1556 Humayun restores Mughal authority1556-1605 Reign of Akbar

1565 Fall of Vijayanagar1600 British East India Company receives

charter1605-1627 Reign of Jehangir

1628-1658 Reign of Shah Jahan1634 English begin trading in Bengal1639 Founding of Fort St. George, Madras

1658-1707 Reign of Aurangzeb1674 Shivaji crowned king of Marathas;

French found Pondicherry1690 Founding of Calcutta1708 Death of Guru Govind Singh1739 Nadir Shah raids Delhi1742 Marathas raid Bengal

1744-1748 War between French and British in India2.3.3.5 Japan and ChinaAD 1542 Portuguese merchants first reach Japan

1568 Oda Nobunaga in control of Kyoto1582 Nobunaga assassinated; rise of

Hideyoshi1592, 1597 Abortive Japanese attempts to conquer

Korea1597 First persecution of Christians in Japan1598 Death of Hideyoshi1600 Tokugawa Ieyasu victor at Sekigahara1603 Establishment of Tokugawa shogunate1638 Suppression of Christian rebellion at

Shimabara1640 Seclusion and exclusion policies in

effectEarly 17th cent. Unification of Manchu tribes of China by

Nurhachi1644 Peking captured by Manchus and made

capital of the Ch’ing Dynasty1661-1722 Reign of K’ang-hsi Emperor in China1675-1683 Ch’ing conquest of south China1688-1704 Cultural brilliance during Genroku

calendrical era in Japan1736-1796 Reign of Ch’ien-lung Emperor in China

1793 Mission of Lord Macartney to Peking1853 Perry expedition forces end of Japanese

exclusion policy1867 Abdication of last Tokugawa shogun

2.3.3.6 Aztec and Inca CivilizationsBC 5000 Beginnings of agriculture in Mexico

2000 First Peruvian ceremonial centers900 Chavin unification of Peru800 Olmec unification of Mesoamerica

AD 300-600 Teotihuacan empire600-800 Huari and Tiahuanaco empires

900 Fall of classic Maya civilization1400-1519 Aztec empire1438-1538 Inca empire

2.3.3.7 Spain and Portugal in AmericaAD 1492 Columbus reaches the New World

1500 Cabral lays basis for Portugal’s claim by landing in Brazil on his way to India

1519 Cortéz begins his conquest of New Spain [Mexico]

1524 Council of the Indies established by Spain

1535 Antonio de Mendoza, first viceroy in Spanish America, begins rule in Mexico; Lima, Peru, is founded by Pizarro

1549 Permanent settlement of Brazil begun by Governor Thomé de Souza, and the Jesuits begin missionary labors

1550 Bartolomé de Las Casas and Juan Ginés Sepúlvada debate at Valladolid whether Indians are natural slaves according to Aristotle’s doctrine

1551 University charters granted for universities in Mexico and Peru

1580 Philip II annexes Portugal and her empire, a “captivity” lasting until 1640

1624 Dutch begin their 30-year rule in Pernambuco, Brazil

1680 Publication of the Spanish colonial code: Recopilación de Leyes de las Indias

1759 Jesuits expelled from Brazil1767 Jesuits expelled from Spanish America1780 Unsuccessful rebellion by Tupac Amaru

against Spanish rule in Peru2.3.3.8 The Settlement of North AmericaAD 1497 John Cabot reaches North America

1513 Ponce de Léon establishes Spanish claim to Florida

1524 Giovanni Verrazano explores coast of North America

1534 Jacques Cartier explores St. Lawrence River

1560’s French attempts to settle in Florida thwarted by Spain

1565 Spanish found first permanent settlement north of Mexico at St. Augustine, Florida

1607 First permanent English outpost established at Jamestown, Virginia

1609 Henry Hudson claims part of North America for the United Provinces

1619 First Negroes brought to British America as forced labor; Virginia begins representative assembly

1620 Separatists found Plymouth Colony1630 Great Migration to America begins;

Massachusetts founded1630’s Connecticut, Rhode Island and New

Haven colonies founded1633 Colonization of Maryland begun1636 Harvard College opened1638 A Swedish settlement founded on the

Delaware River1640’s Civil wars in England causes shift in

migration patterns1655 Dutch from New Netherlands conquer

New Sweden1660 Stuart Monarchy restored

1660’s Legal definition of Negro slavery begun in Virginia

1663 Charles II grants Carolinas to eight proprietors

1664 British seize New Netherlands1675-1676 Bacon’s rebellion in Virginia; King

Philip’s War in New England1682 William Penn founds Pennsylvania

1684-1689 Dominion of New England places several colonies under royal authority

1685 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in France spurs Protestant migration to America

1689-1713 King William’s War1691 New Massachusetts’s charter puts

colony under royal authority; Plymouth Colony and Maine included in new Massachusetts boundaries

1693 College of William and Mary founded1696 Parliamentary Act establishes vice-

admiralty courts to try violators; Board of Trade created by the crown

1702-1713 Queen Anne’s War1704 Boston News-Letter begins publication1729 North and South Carolina become

separate, royal colonies1733 Colony of Georgia founded1739 George Whitefield first visits America

1740-1748 King George’s War1749-1752 Benjamin Franklin experiments with

electricity1751 Philadelphia Academy [later University

of Pennsylvania] founded1754 George Washington’s clash with French

soldiers signals start of French and Indian War

1763 Treaty of Paris; French Canada and Spanish Florida ceded to Great Britain

2.3.4 The Enlightenment2.3.4.1 The Scientific RevolutionBC 4th cent. Establishment of the two major

philosophical schools of Greek Antiquity by Plato [427-347 BC] and Aristotle [384-322 BC]

3rd cent. Outstanding developments in mathematics, astronomy and physics, among others by Euclid of Alexandria [330-260 BC,] Aristech’s of Samoa [310-230 BC,] and Apollonius of Perga [c. 220 BC]

AD 2nd cent. The synthesis of Greek astronomical thought, presented in his Almagest, by Claudius Ptolemy of Alexandria [AD 127-151]

8th-12th cents. Development and spread of Arabic science and philosophy; eventually of the transmission of Aristotelian thought to the West by Islamic scholars, in particular by Averroes [1126-1198.] Origin of the base-10 number system in the work of Arabic and Hindu mathematicians of 8th-11th centuries

13th cent. Assimilation of Aristotelian philosophy into Christian doctrine in the epochal writings of St. Thomas Aquinas. Beginning of modern number notation attributed Liber abaci published by Leonardo of Pisa [Fibonacci] in 1202

1543 Publication of De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium by Nicholas Copernicus, Mikolaj Kopernik in Polish [1473-1543,] and also of Concerning the Fabric of the Human Body by Andrea Vesalius, Andries Van Wesel in Flemish [1514-1564]

1600 Publication of Concerning the Magnet [De Magnete, Magneticisque

Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure, “On the Magnet, Magnetic Bodies, and the Great Magnet of the Earth,”] by the English physician William Gilbert [1540-1603]

1603 Founding of the Accademia dei Lincei in Rome

1605 Publication of Advancement of Learning by Francis Bacon [1561-1626]

1609 Publication of Astronomia Nova by Johannes Kepler [1571-1630,] containing his statement of the first two laws of planetary motion

1610 Publication of Sidereal Messenger by Galileo Galilei [1564-1642,] describing his telescopic observations of the heavens

1619 Publication of Kepler’s Harmonia Mundia, announcing his discovery of the third law of planetary motion

1628 Publication of On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals by the English physician William Harvey [1578-1657]

1632 Publication of Galileo’s Two Chief Systems of the World, in which Galileo argued [his conviction] for the Copernican system over the Ptolemaic and which resulted in a case being brought against him by the Inquisition

1637 Publication of the Discourse on Method by René Descartes [1596-1650]

1638 Publication of Galileo’s Discourses and Demonstrations Concerning Two New Sciences, in which he formulated an early and insightful though erroneous theory of solid mechanics [the bending and breaking of beams] and a theory with experiment of motion under uniform acceleration and of the pendulum which though limited to simple motions and dynamically incomplete was an important precursor to the work of Newton

1647 Revival of the ancient Epicurean atomic philosophy by Pierre Gassendi [1592-1655]

1657 Founding of the Accademia del Cimento in Florence

1660 Publication of New Experiments of Physico-Mechanical Touching the Spring of Air by the Anglo-Irish chemist and natural philosopher Robert Boyle [1627-1691]

1662 Founding of the Royal Society of London1666 Founding of the French Academy of

Science1676 Determination of the finite velocity of

light by the Danish astronomer Oleg Roemer [1644-1710]

1677 Discovery with the microscope of the existence of male spermatozoa by Anton von Leeuwenhoek [1632-1695]

1678 A wave theory of light proposed by Christian Huygens [1629-1695,] subsequently developed systematically in his Treatise on Light [1690]

1687 Publication of Principia Mathematica Philosophiae Naturalis by Isaac Newton [1642-1727]

1704 Publication of Newton’s Opticks, some of whose basic ideas had been communicated to the Royal Society in 1672

1789 Publication of Traité Elémentaire de Chimie by Antoine Lavoisier [1743-1794]

2.3.4.2 Society and PoliticsAD 1713-1715 Peace of Utrecht; death of Louis XIV;

Vanbrugh’s Blenheim Palace completed1721 Bach’s Brandenburg Concertos

completed; Montesquieu’s Persian Letters

1724 Fahrenheit’s thermometer devised1734 Voltaire’s Philosophical Letters on the

English1748 Montesquieu’s Esprit des Lois1750 The Encyclopédie begun; the

Diplomatic Revolution1752 Franklin shows that lightning is

electricity1756-1763 Seven Years’ War

1762 Rousseau’s Social Contract1764 The Italian criminologist Beccaria’s On

Crimes and Punishments, a celebrated volume on the reform of criminal justice

1765-1790 Enlightened despots in Austria, Germany, Spain, Portugal, and France

1776 Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations; American Declaration of Independence

1778 Pierre Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais’ “private fleet” mustered I aid of rebelling Americans

1783 Beaumarchais’ Marriage of Figaro1787-1788 Assembly of Notables; censorship lifted;

Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès’ What Is the Third Estate?

1789 Outbreak of revolution in France2.3.4.3 Science versus TheologyAD 1687 Newton’s Principia Mathematica

1690 John Locke’s Essay Concerning Human Understanding

1697 Pierre Bayle’s Dictionnaire historique et critique

1704 Death of John Locke1713 The papal bull Unigenitus condemning

101 theological propositions of the Jansenist writer Pasquier Quesnel contained in the book Réflexions morales; the war against the Jesuits

1733-1734 Alexander Pope’s Essay on Man1736 Joseph Butler’s Analogy of Religion1736 Voltaire’s Mahomet, on toleration,

praised and rewarded by the pope1747 Julien Offroy de La Mettrie’s L'Homme-

machine [Man a Machine – a materialist interpretation of human and psychic phenomena, important in the modern history of materialism]

1748 Hume’s Essay on Miracles; Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle; Montesquieu’s Esprit de Lois

1750 ff. Georges-louis Leclerc De Buffon’s Natural History [evolutionary theory]

1750-1772 Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d’Alembert’s Encyclopédie

1751 Voltaire’s Age of Louis XIV1756 Voltaire’s Essay on the Customs and

Manners of Nations1760 ff. Dictionnaire de Trévoux, Jesuit

response to Encyclopédie1762 Rousseau’s Confession of Faith of a

Priest from Savoy1764-1765 Voltaire’s Candide and Dictionairre

philosophique portative1778 Mesmer and mesmerism; death of

Rousseau1779 Hume’s posthumously published

Dialogues on Natural Religion2.4 THE AGE OF REVOLUTION2.4.1 Europe: The Great Powers2.4.1.1 Forming Nation StatesAD 1581 Proclamation of Dutch independence

from Spain1594 Henry of Navarre crowned Henry IV of

France1603 Union of Scottish and English Crowns

under the Stuart James I1611-1614 Rebellion of the French princes

1624 Richelieu admitted to the Council of State

1625 Hugo Grotius publishes De Jure Belli et Pacis [international law]

1635 Founding of the French Academy, which establishes uniform grammar and usage for French language

1636-1637 Peasant revolts in southern and western France

1639 Nu-Pied, or Barefoot, Revolt in France1640 Revolts of the Catalans, Portuguese,

Irish and Neapolitans1642 Outbreak of civil war in England1648 Peace of Westphalia; sovereignty

granted to the Swiss and Dutch states1648-1652 Civil war in France

1649 Repression of the Irish by Cromwell1652 Anglo-Dutch War1653 Defeat of Brandenburg Estates

1655-1660 Northern War; Brandenburg gains sovereignty of Prussia

1660 Charles II declares the Declaration of Breda

1661 Beginning of the “personal” reign of Louis XIV

1663 Louis XIV occupies the Papal State of Avignon [Comtat Venaissin]

1678 Elector of Brandenburg attempts to suppress Wendish speech

1680-1683 Chambers of Reunion1685 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes

2.4.1.2 The Age of Louis XIVAD 1636 Corneal present Le Cid

1637 The current publishes the Discourse on Method

1638 Birth of Louis XIV1642 Death of Richelieu1643 Death of Louis XIII; Regency of Anne of

Austria for Louis XIV; Battle of Rocroi1648-1652 Civil Wars in France [the Frondes]

1656 Creation of the General Hospital, Paris1660 Marriage of Louis XIV to Maria Theresa

of Spain1661 Death of Cardinal Mazarin, beginning of

the “personal” reign of Louis XIV1663 Le Nôtre designs the gardens of

Versailles1664 Molière presents Tartruffe; the play is

banned1664 Creation of the Compagnie des Indes1665 Bernini visits Paris1667 War of Devolution1670 Promulgation of a reformed criminal

code for France1670 Treaty of Dover1670 War with the Dutch; assassination of

the De Witt brothers1674 Invasion of the Franche Comté1679 First fortress built by Vauban1679 Bossuet publishes the Politique tirée de

l’Ecriture Sainte1679 La Fontaine publishes Books 7-11 of the

Fables1683 Death of Colbert1685 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes1688 War of the League of Augsburg; the

Glorious Revolution in England; death of Frederick William the Great Elector

1691 Racine presents Athalie1697 Bayle publishes Didtionnaire historique

et critique1700 Philip V proclaimed king of Spain1702 Death of William III1704 Battle of Blenheim1713 Peace of Utrecht1715 Death of Louis XIV

2.4.1.3 Europe in the 18th CenturyAD 1709 Battle of Poltava [defeat of the Swedes

by the Russians under Peter the Great]1714 George of Hanover becomes king of

England1720 Collapse of Law’s Mississippi Scheme in

France, and English South Sea Bubble1721 Montesquieu publishes the Persian

Letters1721-1742 Administration of Robert Walpole

1726 Cardinal Fleury becomes prime minister in France

1734 Voltaire publishes Philosophical Letters on the English

1736 John Wesley begins to establish Methodist Societies

1740 Frederick II of Prussia invades Silesia1741 Empress Maria Theresa rallies

Hungarian nobles to fight the Prussians1745 Battle of Fontenoy1747 Richardson publishes Clarissa Harlowe1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle1750 Death of Johann Sebastian Bach;

Voltaire begins his visit at the court of Frederick the Great; Diderot and collaborators publish first volume of the Encyclopédie

1756 Outbreak of the Seven Years’ War1761 Resignation of William Pitt1762 Catherine II becomes ruler of Russia;

Rousseau publishes the Social Contract1771 Parliaments abolished in France by

Louis XV1773 Diderot visits Catherine the Great in

Russia1774 Louis XVI becomes king of France and

recalls the Parlements1778 France intervenes in the War of

American Independence1781 Joseph II promulgates the Edict of

Tolerance1783 Russia annexes the Crimea;

Beaumarchais presents Marriage of Figaro

2.4.2 Revolution in the Western World2.4.2.1 The American RevolutionAD 1763 Treaty of Paris ending Seven Years’

War; Proclamation of 1763, restricting trans-Appalachian settlement; Patrick Henry’s argument in the Parson’s Cause

1764 Passage of the Sugar Act and Currency Acts

1765 Passage of the Stamp Act; Stamp Act Congress meets in New York and adopts Declaration of Rights and Grievances

1766 Repeal of the Stamp Act accompanied by passage of Declaratory Act

1767 Passage of Townshend Acts; revival of nonimportation agreements; publication of first of John Dickinson’s Farmers’ Letters

1768 Massachusetts House of Representatives adopts Circular Letter

1770 Townshend duties repealed in large part except for duties on tea

1772 Burning of the Gaspee; Committees of Correspondence organized by Samuel Adams

1773 Passage of the Tea Act; Boston Tea Party

1774 Passage of the “Intolerable Acts,” including the Quebec Act; First Continental Congress convenes at Philadelphia, defeats Galloway’s Plan of Union; adopts Declaration and Resolves and Continental Association

1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord; Second Continental Congress names Washington commander of the Continental forces; Battle of Bunker Hill

1776 Publication of Common Sense by Thomas Paine; Declaration of Independence; Battles of Long Island and Trenton

1777 Battles of Princeton and Germantown; Burgoyne’s surrender, Saratoga; Congress adopts Articles of Confederation

1778 Franco-American treaties of amity and commerce and of alliance with the United States

1779 Formal entry of Spain into the war against England

1780 Siege of Charleston and fall to the British; treason of Arnold

1781 Ratification of the Articles of confederation; surrender of the British at Yorktown to combined Franco-American forces

1782 Fall of Lord North’s ministry; signing of Preliminary Articles of Peace in Paris

1783 Signing of Definitive Treaty of Peace with Great Britain; British evacuate New York City

2.4.2.2 The French RevolutionAD 1789 Meeting of the Estates General;

conversion of Estates General into National Assembly; fall of the Bastille; Decrees Abolishing the Feudal System

1790 Civil Constitution of the Clergy1791 King forgiven after attempt to flee from

France; Legislative Assembly convenes1792 Beginning of war with Austria and

Prussia; manifesto of the Duke of Brunswick; abolition of the Monarchy and establishment of the Republic

1793 Execution of Louis XVI; arrest of the leaders of the Girondins

1793-1794 The Reign of Terror1794 Elimination of the Hébertists;

elimination of the Dantonists; fall of the Robespierrists

1794-1795 The Thermidorian reaction1795 Constitution establishing the Directory;

dissolution of the Convention1795-1799 The Directory1706-1797 Italian campaign of Napoleon Bonaparte

1799 Overthrow of the Directory and establishment of the Napoleonic Consulate

2.4.3 Reaction and Rebellion2.4.3.1 The Napoleonic EraAD 1768 French take Corsica

1769 Napoleon Bonaparte born at Ajaccio, Corsica

1784 Napoleon enters the École Militaire1789 Meeting of the Estates General;

beginning of the French Revolution1790 Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the

Revolution in France published1791-1792 Legislative Assembly1792-1795 Convention

1793 Execution of Luis XIV; English evacuation of Toulon; Napoleon becomes brigadier general

1794 Fall of Robespierre1795-1799 Directory

1796 Napoleon assumes command of the army of Italy

1797 Treaty of Campo Formio1798 Napoleon sails from Toulon to begin

Egyptian campaign; Battle of the Nile1799-1804 Consulate

1800 Battle of Marengo; Battle of Hohenlinden

1801 Treaty of Lunéville; Alexander I becomes czar of Russia; French concordat with papacy

1802 Treaty of Amiens; Napoleon becomes life consul

1803 Bank of France founded1804 Napoleon proclaimed emperor;

Napoleonic Code promulgated1805 Battle of Trafalgar; Battle of Austerlitz;

Treaty of Pressburg1806 Death of William Pitt; Battle of Jena;

Berlin Decree, establishing the “Continental System”

1807 Great Britain abolishes the slave trade; Napoleon forces Ferdinand VII of Spain to abdicate and installs his brother Joseph as king of Spain; Battle of Friedland; Treaty of Tilsit; Milan Decree

1807-1808 J. G. Fichte delivers his Address to the German Nation

1809 Battle of Wagram; Treaty of Schönbrunn

1810 Napoleon marries Marie Louise of Austria

1811-1813 Luddite risings in Great Britain1812 Napoleonic invasion of Russia1813 Battle of Leipzig [Battle of the Nations]1814 Napoleon abdicates; Treaties of

Chaumont, establishing the Quadruple Alliance; First Treaty of Paris

1815 The Hundred Days; Conclusion of the Congress of Vienna; abdication of Napoleon; the Holy Alliance; Second Treaty of Paris

1821 Napoleon dies at St. Helena2.4.3.2 The United States: 1789-1823AD 1786 Annapolis Convention

1787 Philadelphia Convention1789 George Washington inaugurated1791 First Bank of the United States

established1795 Jay Treaty ratified1796 Washington’s Farewell Address1797 John Adams inaugurated1798 Alien and Sedition acts; first Kentucky

and Virginia Resolutions1799 Second Kentucky resolution; undeclared

naval war with France1801 Thomas Jefferson inaugurated1803 Louisiana Purchase

1804 Alexander Hamilton killed1807 Embargo1808 African slave trade ends1809 Nonintercourse Act; James Madison

inaugurated1811 First Bank of the United States expires1812 War of 18121814 Hartford Convention; Treaty of Ghent

ends War of 18121816 Second Bank of the United States

established1817 James Monroe inaugurated1820 Missouri Compromise1823 Monroe Doctrine

2.4.3.3 Liberation Movements in EuropeAD 1814-1815 Congress of Vienna

1820-1821 Revolution in Naples; rising in Piedmont1821-1830 Greek War of Independence

1823 The Monroe Doctrine proclaimed1830 Greece recognized by the Powers; Otto

of Bavaria king; revolution in Paris; Louis Philippe “king of the French;” rising in Brussels; proclamation of Belgian independence

1830-1831 Belgium recognized by the Powers; Leopold of Saxe-Coburg king

1831 Revolution in Warsaw; risings in central Italy

1819-1844 German Zollverein1836 Palacký’s History of Bohemia1837 Rebellion in Upper and Lower Canada1839 Durham Report on the organization of

Canada1840 Union of Canada

1847-1848 Irish famine; Young Ireland1848 Communist Manifesto; revolution in

Paris; Second French Republic; revolutions in central Europe; Austro-Sardinian War; Piedmontese Statuto; Frankfurt Parliament; counterrevolution in France and in central Europe; Louis Napoleon elected President of the Republic

1849 Roman Republic; Austro-Sardinian War; Frankfurt constitution; Russian intervention in Hungary; the French in Rome

1867 British North America Act creates Dominion of Canada

2.4.3.4 Liberation Movements in Latin AmericaAD 1804 Haiti declares its independence

1808 Portuguese Court flees to Brazil1810 Autonomous governments set up in

Argentina, Chile, Colombia, and Venezuela

1815 Brazil declared a kingdom1816 Bolívar issues a decree against slavery1817 José de San Martin crosses the Andes to

defeat Spaniards at Battle of Chacabuco

1821 Victory of Bolívar at Carabobo, last major engagement of war in Venezuela; Mexico wins its independence, followed

by short-lived [1822-1823] rule of Emperor Agustín Iturbide

1822 Brazilian Empire declared independent under Pedro I

1824 Battle of Ayacucho, last major engagement in South America

1826 Congress of Panama, convoked by Bolívar

1830 Death of Bolívar2.4.3.5 The Near EastAD 1774 Russo-Ottoman Treaty of Kuchuk

Kainarji1792-1793 Nizam-I Jedid; New Regulations

reorganizing Ottoman military and civilian institutions

1794 Founding of Qajar dynasty in Iran1804 Servian revolt against Ottoman rule

1804-1812 Russo-Persian war, ended by Treaty of Bulistan in 1813

1805 Muhammad Ali becomes governor of Egypt and founds dynasty

1807-1808 Revolt of Janissaries, murder of Selim III, succeeded by Mahmud II as Ottoman Sultan

1811 Muhammad Ali massacres Mamelukes and consolidates his rule

1820-1822 Muhammad Ali conquers Sudan1821-1830 Greek war of independence1825-1828 Russo-Persian war, ended by Treaty of

Turkmanchai, 18281826 Mahmud II massacres Janissaries and

reorganizes Ottoman army1832-1833

& 1839-1840 Ottoman-Egyptian wars1837-1838 Persian-Afghan war

1839 Hatt-I Sherif of Gulhane: reforms guaranteeing liberties of Ottoman subjects; British occupy Aden

1854-1856 Crimean War1856 Hatt-I Humayun: extend rights grant by

Hatt-I Sherif; Anglo-Persian war1860-1861 Communal conflicts in Lebanon and

Syria1868-1876 Ottoman Civil Code

1869 Opening of Suez Canal1875-1878 Balkan and Russo-Turkish wars

1876 Proclamation of Ottoman Constitution, accession of Abdul Hamid II

1881-1882 Arab revolt in Egypt, followed by British occupation

1883-1885 Mahdist revolt in Sudan ending Egyptian rule

1896 Assassination of Nasirudding Shah of Iran

1896-1898 Anglo-Egyptian reconquest of Sudan1901 Oil concession granted to W. K. D’Arcy

in Iran1905-1909 Constitutional Revolution in Iran1908-1909 Young Turk revolt restores constitution

in Turkey; deposition of Abdul Hamid in 1909

1912-1913 Balkan wars

1914 Turkey enters war on side of Central Powers; Egypt becomes British protectorate

1916 Arab revolt against Turkey1917 Balfour Declaration, promising Jewish

national home in Palestine1912-1922 Turkish war of liberation against Greek

and Allied forces1923 Treaty of Lausanne between Turkey and

Allied Powers; deposition of sultan; Turkey proclaimed republic

1920 League of Nations assigns mandates to France over Lebanon and Syria and to Britain over Iraq, Palestine, and Transjordan

1921-1925 Riza Khan establishes control over Iran, deposes Ahmed Shah and founds Pahlavi dynasty

1922 Britain declares Egypt independent1924 Ibn Saud conquers Hijaz and establishes

rule over most of Arabian Peninsula1932 Iraq granted independence

2.4.4 The Industrial Revolution2.4.4.1 The Industrial Revolution in EnglandAD 1694 Founding of the Bank of England

1733 James Kay invents the flying shuttle1769 Josiah Wedgwood opens pottery factory

at Etruria, near Stoke-upon-Trent; James Watt patents the steam engine after years of experimentation; Richard Arkwright invents the water-powered spinning frame

1770 James Hargreaves patents the spinning Jenny

1776 Adam Smith publishes The Wealth of Nations, the classic of classical political economy

1784 James Watt patents a locomotive, two years after Oliver Evans patents a similar device

1785 Edmund Cartwright patents the power loom

1793 Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin1798 Eli Whitney builds a factory for the

mass production of firearms near New Haven

1811 Pittsburgh’s first rolling mill opens1821 Great Britain adopts the gold standard1822 First textile mills in Lowell,

Massachusetts1824-1825 Repeal of the Combination Acts in Great

Britain, permitting trade unions to burgeon

1829 George Stephenson perfects the steam locomotive

1830 Railroad is put to first serious uses in the United States

1846 Great Britain repeals the Corn Laws1849 Great Britain repeals the Navigation

Acts1858 Henry Bessemer (later Sir Henry) builds

Bessemer Steel Works at Sheffield, using a new process that makes large-scale production possible

1869 Transcontinental railway across the United States is completed

2.4.4.2 The Spread of IndustrializationAD 1793 Alexander Hamilton, “Report on

Manufactures”1859 Value added by manufacturing exceeds

value of agricultural products sold1901 US Steel Corporation, first business

capitalized at more than a billion dollars, formed

2.4.4.3 A World EconomyAD 1807 Robert Fulton sails from New York to

Albany in steamboat Clermont1816 Regular transatlantic service, in sailing

ships, between Liverpool and New York1819 Savannah crosses Atlantic, mostly

under steam1821 Adoption of gold standard in England1825 Opening of Stockton and Darlington

railroad, in England1844 Electric telegraph opens between

Washington and Baltimore1846 Repeal of Corn Laws1866 Laying of first transatlantic cable1869 Opening of the Union and Pacific’s

transcontinental railway; opening of Suez Canal

1876 Invention of telephone1884 Invention of compound turbine in steam

navigation1887 Daimler’s internal combustion

automobile1901 Marconi’s first translantic

radiotelegraphy message1902 First transpacific cable1903 Completion of trans-Siberian railway;

airplane flight by Wright Brothers1909 First cross-Channel flight by Louis

Blériot1914 Opening of Panama Canal1919 First transatlantic flight by John Alcock

and Arthur Brown1924 First flight around the world by United

States Army planes1936 First television broadcast

2.4.5 New Forces, New Ideas2.4.5.1 Romanticism and AfterAD 1761-1762 Rousseau’s Émile and Nouvelle Héloϊse

1767-1769 Lessing’s Hamburgishce Dramaturgie1774 Goethe’s Sorrows of Young Werther1790 Goethe’s Faust: A fragment1796 Erasmus Darwin’s Zoonomia

(evolutionary theory)1798 Wordsworth’s and Coleridge’s Lyrical

Ballads1803 Death of Herder; birth of Berlioz1804 Beethoven’s Eroica Symphony1807 Hegel’s Phenomenology of Mind1814 George Stephenson’s first locomotive

1820-1830 Rediscovery of Diderot’s Rameau’s Nephew, The Memoirs of Benvenuto

Cellini, the poems of François Villon, and the philosophy of Spinoza

1822 Stendhal’s Racine et Shakespeare1824 Death of Byron in Greece; Delacroix’s

first modern painting1827 Victor Hugo’s Preface to his play

Cromwell; death of Beethoven1830 Berlioz’s Symphonie Fantastique;

Revolution in Paris, Belgium, Italy, and the German Rhineland

1830-1842 Comte’s Positivist philosophy1833-1839 Invention of photography

1835 David Strauss’s Life of Jesus; Tocqueville’s Democracy in America

1837 Pugin’s Contrasts; deaths of Leopardi and Pushkin

1839 Turner’s painting The Fighting Téméraire

1845 Alexander von Humboldt’s Cosmos1848 Revolutions on the Continent; Chartism

threatening in England1850 Death of Wordsworth

2.4.5.2 From Liberalism to DemocracyAD 1815 Waterloo; Peace by Congress of Vienna

1819 Carlsbad Decrees against liberal youth and intellectuals

1829-1830 The Carbonari revolutionists in France and Italy

1821 Death of Napoleon1822-1823 Congress of Verona and Spanish

revolution put down by the French1823 Monroe Doctrine1824 Death of Byron at Missolonghi1828 Jacksonian democracy in power in the

United States1829 The Greek Revolution succeeds and is

ratified by the powers1830 Revolutions in France, Belgium, the

Rhineland, Italy, and Brazil1832 The English Reform Bill passed after a

near-revolution1831-1834 Revolutions in Poland, Spain, and Italy

1840 Napoleon’s ashes brought to Paris1840-1848 Socialism: Louis Blanc; Chartism and

Parliamentary rule1848 Revolutions in France, Germany,

Austria, and Italy1851 The Great Exhibition in London1852 The Second French Empire: democracy,

the welfare state, and dictatorship2.4.5.3 The Rise of SocialismAD 1795-1796 Babeuf leads the proto-communist

“Conspiracy of Equals” in France1813 Richard Owens publishes A New View of

Society1817 Ricardo’s Principle’s of Political

Economy and Taxation published, the definitive statement of classical political economy

1818 Karl Marx born at Trier in the Rhineland1832 Death of G. W. F. Hegel1840 Proudhon publishes What is Property?

1844 Marx meets Friedrich Engels1845 Engels publishes The Condition of the

Working Class in England in 18441848 Marx and Engels publish the Communist

Manifesto; European revolutions1849 Marx settles in England1864 Ferdinand Lassalle killed in a duel;

International Working Men’s Association (First International) founded in London

1867 Marx publishes first volume of Capital1871 Commune established in Paris following

French defeat in Franco-Prussian War1872-1876 Torn by internal divisions, the First

International gradually disintegrates1875 Social Democratic Party founded in

Germany1883 Fabian Society founded in London; Marx

dies1889 Second International founded; Eduard

Bernstein proposes his “revisionist” departure from orthodox Marxism

1893 Independent Labour party founded in England

1900 Labour Representation Committee founded in England, leading to formation of the Labour party in 1906

1905 Russian Revolution1908 Georges Sorel publishes Reflections on

Violence1914 Divisions in socialist parties on the

question of the war result in general support of the war and collapse of Second International

2.4.5.4 The Antislavery Impulse in AmericaAD 1777 Vermont ends slavery

1804 New Jersey ends slavery1808 Slave trade ends1817 American Colonization Society

established1820 Missouri Compromise1822 Denmark Vessey Conspiracy1829 David Walker Appeal published1831 The Liberator begins publication; Nat

Turner rebellion1833 Britain ends slavery1836 Gag Rule1840 Liberty party formed1843 Repeal of Gag Rule1845 Texas annexed; Methodist Church splits

along sectional lines1846 Mexican War; Wilmot Proviso1848 Mexican War ends; Free Soil party

organized1850 Compromise of 18501854 Kansas-Nebraska Act1857 Dred Scott decision1860 Abraham Lincoln elected; South

Carolina secedes1861 Civil War begins1863 Emancipation Proclamation1865 End of Civil War, 13th Amendment

ratified

2.4.5.5 Unification MovementsAD 1792-1815 The French Revolution and Napoleon;

political rearrangements in central Europe; wars of liberation

1815 Settlement of Vienna1815-1848 Italian Risorgimento; Metternichian

system1819-1844 German Zollverein

1846 Pius IX pope1848 Piedmontese Statuto

1848-1849 Failure of revolutions in central Europe; Austro-Sardinian wars

1852 The Danish Duchies; London Protocol; Cavour prime minister of Sardinia

1854-1856 Congress of Paris1858 Plombières agreement between

Napoleon III and Cavour; Franco-Sardinian alliance

1859 War between Austria and France and Sardinia; Armistice of Villafranca

1860 Collapse of the Italian Structure; Garibaldi’s expedition

1860-1861 Insurrection in Syria; French expedition; Statute of the Lebanon

1861 Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy1862 Bismarck minister president of Prussia;

union of Moldavia and Wallachia under Alexander Cuza

1863 Polish insurrection; Alvensleben Convention

1864 War of Prussia and Austria against Denmark; cession of Schleswig and Holstein by Denmark

1865 Gastein Convention between Austria and Prussia; Biarritz meeting of Napoleon III and Bismarck

1866 Austro-Prussian war; Treaty of Prague; Italy acquires Venetia

1866-1868 Cretan revolt1867 North German Confederation; Austro-

Hungarian Ausgleich1868-1870 Hohenzollern candidacy to the Spanish

throne1870-1871 Ems dispatch; Franco-Prussian war

1871 Proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles; Treaty of Frankfurt; annexation of Alsace-Lorraine

2.5 THE MODERN WORLD2.5.1 Toward Disintegration2.5.1.1 Imperialism in AfricaAD 1805 Accession of Muhammad Ali, pasha of

Egypt1820 Egyptian conquest of Sudan1830 French occupation of Algiers1833 Abolition of slavery in the British Empire

1836-1837 Great Trek in South Africa1859-1860 Spanish-Moroccan war

1861 British annexation of Lagos1869 Opening of Suez Canal1872 Internal self-government in South Africa

1873-1874 Anglo-Ashanti war

1876 Founding of International African Association; European control assumed over Egyptian finances

1882 British occupation of Egypt; Makoko Treaty (Congo)

1884-1885 Declaration of German African protectorates; Berlin West Africa Conference

1885 Founding of the Congo Independent State; fall of Khartoum and death of General Charles Gordon

1886 Discovery of Gold on the Witwatersrand; Anglo-German East African boundary agreement; grant of charter to Royal Niger Company

1889 Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of Wichale; grant of charter to British South Africa Company

1890 Anglo-German African boundaries agreement; British protectorate over Zanzibar and Pemba; “Pioneer Column” to Rhodesia

1893 ff. French conquest of Dahomey1894 British protectorate over Uganda;

French occupation of Timbuktu1894 ff. French conquest of Madagascar

1895 Jameson raid in the Transvaal; British protectorate over East Africa (Kenya)

1896 Battle of Aduwa; British occupation of Ashanti

1896-1897 Revolts in Matabeleland and Mashonaland

1898 French defeat of Samori Tourè; Battle of Omdurman and “Fashoda Incident”

1899-1902 South African (Boer) war1900-1903 British occupation of Northern Nigeria1905-1907 Maji-Maji Rising (German East Africa)

1912 French Protectorate over Morocco2.5.1.2 American ImperialismAD 1867 Alaska purchased

1887 Pearl Harbor acquired1898 U.S.S. Maine destroyed; McKinley’s war

message; Battle of Manila Bay; Battles of El Caney and San Juan Hill; Spanish fleet destroyed; Hawaii annexed; Treaty of Paris (ratified 1899), ending war with Spain; Puerto Rico, Guam and Philippine Islands acquired

1902 End of Philippine insurrection1904 Panama Canal Zone acquired on lease1917 Danish West Indies purchased

(renamed Virgin Islands)2.5.1.3 China Under the Impact of the WestAD 1839-1842 Opium War

1850-1873 Taiping and other rebellions1860’s-1870’s Self-Strengthening movement

1894-1895 First Sino-Japanese War1898 Hundred Days of Reform, under K’ang

Yu-Wei1900 Boxer Rebellion1910 Annexation of Korea by Japan1911 Revolution of 1911

2.5.1.4 India Under British RuleAD 1757 Battle of Plassey; sack of Delhi by

Afghans1761 Marathas defeated at Panipat by

Afghans and Mughals1765 Grant of diwani to East India Company

by Mughal Emperor1784 Pitt’s India Act

1786-1793 Lord Cornwallis governor general1792 Ranjit Singh comes to power1793 Permanent settlement in Bengal

1798-1805 Lord Wellesley governor general1799 Defeat of Tippu Sultan of Mysore

1817-1819 Final war against Marathas1828-1835 Lord William Bentinck governor general

1835 Resolution on use of English for higher education

1839 Death of Ranjit Singh1839-1842 First Afghan War

1843 Annexation of Sindh1849 Annexation of Punjab1853 First railway line opened

1857-1858 Rebellions and army mutinies1858 Power transferred from East India

Company to Crown1880-1884 Lord Ripon governor general

1885 Organization of Indian National Congress

1892 India Councils Act1899-1905 Lord Curzon governor general

2.5.1.5 Darwin and FreudAD 1796 T. R. Malthus publishes An Essay on the

Principles of Population1801 Lamarck publishes Système des

animaux sans vertèbres1809 Charles Darwin is born1820 Herbert Spencer is born

1830-1833 Charles Lyell publishes Principles of Geology

1848 Darwin’s theories are fully developed in unpublished papers

1856 Sigmund Freud is born1859 Darwin publishes The Origin of the

Species1862 Spencer publishes First Principles1871 Darwin publishes Descent of Man1882 Darwin dies1897 Freud discovers essential principles of

psychoanalysis; undertakes his self-analysis

1899 Freud publishes The Interpretation of Dreams

1905 Freud publishes Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality

1909 Freud, in the company of Jung, visits the United States to lecture at Clark University

1910 Founding of the International Psychoanalytical Society; Jung president

1911-1913 Falling out of Freud with Jung and Adler, mainly on the issue of infantile sexuality

1923 ff. Freud publishes The Ego and the Id; period of the last works, including The Future of an Illusion, and Civilization and Its Discontents

1939 Freud dies2.5.1.6 The Great Powers to the Verge of WarAD 1867 Second Reform Act in Great Britain

1871 Proclamation of William I as Emperor of Germany; Russia denounces the Black Sea clauses of the Treaty of Paris (1856)

1871-1875 Gradual emergence of Third Republic in France

1873 Onset of agricultural depression in western Europe

1876 “Bulgarian atrocities” committed by Turks in suppressing a revolt

1877 Russo-Turk war begins1878 Treaty of San Stefano; Congress of

Berlin1879 Alliance of Germany and Austria1881 Czar Alexander II assassinated1882 Germany, Austria, and Italy form Triple

Alliance; British invade and occupy Egypt

1884 Third Reform Act in Great Britain1884-1885 Berlin Conference (On Africa)

1886 Introduction of First Home Rule Bill in British Parliament; its defeat followed by splitting of Liberal party

1887 Reinsurance Treaty between Germany and Russia

1888 Death of William I; accession of Frederick III; death of Frederick III; accession of William III

1890 Bismarck dismissed1893-1894 Franco-Russian Alliance

1898 Fashoda Crisis; first Germany Navy Law begins naval race with Great Britain

1899 First Hague Peace Conference; Boer War between Great Britain and Transvaal begins

1902 Anglo-Japanese Alliance; Treaty of Vereeniging ends Boer War

1904 Anglo-French Entente concluded1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War

1905 First Moroccan Crisis1905-1906 Russian Revolution

1906 Algeciras Conference1907 Second Hague Peace Conference;

conclusion of Anglo-Russian Entente1908 Austrian annexation of Bosnia and

Herzegovina1911 Second Moroccan Crisis

1912-1913 First Balkan War1913 Second Balkan War1914 Assassination of Archduke Francis

Ferdinand at Sarajevo; Austrian ultimatum to Serbia; Russian mobilization; German and French

mobilization; Germany declares war on Russia; Germany declares war on France; following German invasion of Belgium, Great Britain declares war on Germany

1915 Italy enters the war on the Allied side2.5.2 The Great War: 1914–19452.5.2.1 World War IAD 1914 German declaration of war on Russia;

German declaration of war on France; British declaration of war on Germany; Battle of the Marne

1915 Lusitania sunk by German submarine, 139 Americans lost; Italy enters war on Allied side; Dardanelles operation

1916 British Parliament passes conscription; Battle of Verdun; Hindenburg appointed chief of staff with Ludendorff as quartermaster general; Lloyd George becomes prime minister of Great Britain

1917 Germany notifies U.S. that unrestricted submarine warfare will begin the next day; provisional Russian government established under Prince Lvov; Nicholas II abdicates; U.S. declares war on Germany; mutinies in French army; beginning of ill-fated Brusilov offensive; German Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg forced to resign and succeeded by Dr. Michaelis; real power in hands of Hindenburg and Ludendorff; beginning of Italian disaster at Caporetto; Bolshevik revolution; Clemenceau become prime minister in France; Bolshevik Russia concludes armistice with Central Powers

1918 Russia signs Brest Litovsk Treaty, ceding Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine, etc.; Germans begin great spring offensive in the west; Foch named commander in chief of Allied forces in France; first major, successful American engagement at Château-Thierry; Second Battle of the Marne; successful Allied counteroffensive in the west; Bulgaria receives armistice; new German government of Prince Max von Baden asks President Wilson for armistice based on Fourteen Points; armistice with Turkey; Allies sign armistice with Austria-Hungary; Germany accepts armistice and hostilities end everywhere

2.5.2.2 The Russian Revolution and the Stalin EraAD 1904 Outbreak of Russo-Japanese War

1905 “Bloody Sunday,” beginning of 1905 Revolution

1914 Outbreak of First World War1916 Murder of Rasputin1917 March 8-15, “February Revolution”;

April 16, Lenin returns to Russia; July 16-17, “July Days”; Sept. 9-14, Kornilov Affair; Nov. 7, Bolshevik seizure of power: “October Revolution”

1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany1918-1920 Civil war and foreign intervention

1921 Kronstadt mutiny; beginning of New Economic Policy

1922 Stalin named Secretary General of Communist Party

1924 Death of Lenin1926 Zinoviev, Trotsky, and Kamenev

removed from Politburo1928 Adoption of First Five-Year Plan1929 Bukharin ousted from Politburo1934 Assassination of Kirov; beginning of

Great Purges1936 Stalin Constitution approved1939 Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact1941 German invasion of U.S.S.R.1953 Death of Stalin

2.5.2.3 The United States: Prosperity and DepressionAD 1918 End of World War I

1919 U.S. Senate rejects League of Nations treaty; Red Scare; 18th Amendment (Prohibition) ratified

1920 19th Amendment (Women’s Suffrage) ratified; Republicans returned to power; census reveals U.S. predominantly urban

1922 Nine-Power Treaty1928 The Big Bull Market; Kellogg-Briand Pact1929 Wall Street Crash1932 Election of Franklin D. Roosevelt:

Democrats new majority party1933 Bank crisis; beginning of New Deal; the

Hundred Days; recognition of U.S.S.R.1935 Second Hundred Days; Social Security

Act and welfare state; first neutrality legislation

1937 Sitdown strikes; Constitutional crisis; recession

1938 End of New Deal reforms1939 Outbreak of World War II in Europe

2.5.2.4 Modern ChinaAD 1912-1916 Yüan Shih-k’ai first president of the

Republic of China1919 May Fourth Movement1924 Reorganization of the Kuomintang

1926-1928 Northern Expedition, and reunification of China under the Kuomintang

1934-1935 Chinese Communists’ Long March1937-1945 Second Sino-Japanese War

2.5.2.5 Modernizing JapanAD 1868 New imperial government established

at Edo, renamed Tokyo1871-1876 Basic policies of centralization and

liquidation of caste privilege1873 Universal military conscription; dispute

over Korean invasion resolved in favor of peace faction

1877 Satsuma Rebellion1881 Date set on constitution and parliament1889 Promulgation of Meiji Constitution1890 First session of Imperial Diet

1894-1895 First Sino-Japanese War1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War

1915 Japanese attempt to assert political and military dominance over China (Twenty-one Demands)

1918 Cabinet of Prime Minister Hara, first to be headed by a member of the House of Representatives

1930 World depression reaches Japan1931 Mukden Incident, leading to Japanese

conquest of Manchuria1932 Abandonment of party cabinets1936 Abortive “February Mutiny”1937 Incident at Marco Polo Bridge brings all-

out war with China1941-1945 Japan at war with Western Allies

2.5.2.6 Nationalism in IndiaAD 1905 Partition of Bengal

1906 Founding of Muslim League1909 Morley-Minto Reforms1912 Delhi made capital of India1917 Announcement by British Parliament of

responsible government as Goal for India

1919 Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms1920 M. K. Gandhi becomes leader of Indian

National Congress1921 First Noncooperation Movement1927 Simon Commission1930 Civil Disobedience Movement1935 Government of India Act1937 Inauguration of provincial autonomy1939 Congress ministries resign on war issue1942 Last civil disobedience movement;

August uprisings1946 Negotiations for transfer of power1947 Lord Mountbatten governor general;

partition and independence2.5.2.7 Europe Between the WarsAD 1919 Treaty of Versailles signed; Treaty of St.

Germain with Austria; Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria

1920 U.S. Senate rejects League of Nations; Treaty of Trianon with Hungary; Treaty of Sèvres with Turkey

1921 New Economic Policy inaugurated in U.S.S.R.

1922 Mussolini’s March on Rome; Fascists take power

1922-1923 Washington Naval Conference1923 French occupation of the Ruhr; Treaty

of Lausanne with Turkey; Adolf Hitler stages Beer Hall Putsch in Munich

1924 Lenin’s death1925 Locarno Treaties1926 General Strike in Great Britain; Stalin

establishes control in U.S.S.R.; Imperial Conference defines nature of British Commonwealth Nations

1928 Pact of Paris, Kellogg-Briand Pact, “outlawing war”

1929 Lateran Treaties between Italy and the papacy; stock market crashes in New York, ushering in world-wide depression

1930 Reichstag election marks emergence of Nazis as major party

1931 Incident at Mukden provides pretext for beginning of Japanese occupation of Manchuria; defeat of Labour party in general elections followed by formation of a National Government (a coalition) in Great Britain

1932 Japanese occupation of Shanghai; Reichstag elections, from which Nazis emerge as largest party but without a majority

1934 Purge of Nazi party1935 Italy invades Ethiopia1936 Germany reoccupies the Rhineland;

Spanish Civil War begins1938 Germany takes over Austria; Munich

Conference1939 End of Civil War in Spain;

nonaggression pact between Russia and Germany; Germany invades Poland; Great Britain and France declare war on Germany

2.5.2.8 World War IIAD 1939 Nazi-Soviet Pact; Germany invades

Poland; Britain and France declare war on Germany; partition of Poland between Germany and Russia

1939-1940 The “phony” war; first Russo-Finnish War

1940 Denmark and Norway overrun by Germany; Germany launches attack in the West; Churchill succeeds Chamberlain as prime minister; Battle and collapse of France; Dunkirk evacuation; French armistice; Vichy regime; De Gaulle launches Free French movement; Italy enters the war; Battle of Britain; destroyer-bases deal between U.S. and Britain; FDR elected for third term

1941 Central and eastern European arrangements; Lend-Lease legislation; Yugoslavia and Greece overrun; Hitler attacks Russia; Atlantic Charter; Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor

1941-1942 Germans reach Caucasus; Japanese spread over Southeast Asia, Indonesia and the Pacific

1942 Battle of the Coral Sea; Battle of Stalingrad; El Alamein; all France occupied; North African landings

1943 Russia withdraws recognition from Polish government in exile; French Committee of National Liberation in Algiers; invasion of Sicily; Italian armistice; collapse of Fascist regime, meeting of Allied foreign ministers in Moscow; Teheran conference of the Big Three; Cairo declaration re China

1944 Normandy landings; FCNL becomes provisional French government; Rome entered; Warsaw rising; liberation of Paris; Battle of the Bulge

1945 Yalta Conference of the Big Three; death of FDR; Harry S. Truman president; Germany surrenders; Hitler commits suicide; Potsdam Conference;

first atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima; Japan surrenders

2.5.3 The Brooding Present2.5.3.1 Europe Since World War IIAD 1945 Surrender of Germany; San Francisco

Conference; The United Nations; Potsdam Conference; Labour in office in Britain; surrender of Japan

1946 Fourth French Republic; Italy becomes a republic; Churchill’s “iron curtain” speech in Fulton, Missouri; De Gaulle “withdraws”

1947 Communists out of government in France and in Italy; Truman Doctrine; beginning of the Cold War; India and Pakistan emerge to independence; UN establishes state of Israel

1948 Communist coup in Prague; Marshall Plan and OEEC; Yugoslavia-Soviet break

1948-1949 The Berlin Blockade1949 Signature of NATO Treaty; emergence

of the West German Federal Republic; the German Democratic Republic

1950 The Korean War; Indonesian independence

1952 Elizabeth II Queen of the United Kingdom

1953 Death of Stalin; Eisenhower President of the U.S.; East Berlin rising; ECSC launched

1954 Geneva conference and agreement re French Indochina; EDC proposal defeated in French parliament

1955 Bandung meeting; Treaty of Peace with Austria; Warsaw Pact; emergence of Nikita Khrushchev in control

1956 Twentieth Party Congress of U.S.S.R.; independence of Tunisia and Morocco; Hungarian rising crushed by Soviet Intervention; Israeli attack on Egypt; Anglo-French intervention at Suez

1957 Sputnik1958 Treaty of Rome launches the Common

Market (EEC); De Gaulle called back to power; the Fifth French Republic; the Eisenhower Doctrine re the Middle East

1960 Abortive summit meeting in Paris; independence of the Belgian Congo; independence of French Black Africa; beginning of Sino-Soviet conflict

1962 Independence of Algeria; Cuban missile crisis

1963 France vetoes British application to Common Market

1964 Ouster of Khrushchev1967 The Six-Day war between Israel and the

Arab countries1968 Student agitation strikes in France;

Warsaw pact countries occupy Czechoslovakia

1969 De Gaulle quits office; Pompidou president; American moon landing

1970-1971 Issue of Britain’s adherence to the Common Market; Sino-American relations; problems of the American and world economies

2.5.3.2 The Cold WarAD 1939 German-Soviet nonaggression treaty

1941 Germany invades Soviet Union; Pearl Harbor

1943 Discovery of Katyn massacre; U.S.S.R. rupture with Polish government in exile; Teheran Conference

1944 Normandy landing; pro-Soviet Polish National Committee created; Warsaw uprising; Churchill-Stalin agreement in Moscow; civil conflict in Greece

1945 Yalta Conference; pro-Soviet Groza formed in Rumania; Potsdam Conference; first atomic bomb dropped, on Hiroshima; Moscow Conference

1946 Churchill’s “iron curtain” speech at Fulton, Missouri

1947 Announcement of “Truman Doctrine” for aid to Greece and Turkey; Marshall Plan launched; creation of Cominform

1948 Communist coup in Prague; Tito’s Yugoslavia expelled from Cominform; beginning of Berlin blockade

1949 North Atlantic Treaty signed; Chinese People’s Republic proclaimed

1950 North Korean invasion of South Korea; Atlantic Council agrees on measures of West German rearmament

1953 Death of Stalin1956 Khrushchev denunciation of Stalin;

Gomulka becomes First Secretary of Polish Communist party; abortive Hungarian uprising

1957 Khrushchev defeats “anti-Party group”; launching of first Soviet Sputnik

1959 Fidel Castro victory in Cuba1960 Revelation of Sino-Soviet rift1961 Abortive Bay of Pigs invasion in Cuba;

erection of Berlin wall1962 Cuban missile crisis

2.5.3.3 Latin America in FermentAD 1898 Spanish-American War

1910 Revolution begins in Mexico1912 Universal compulsory male suffrage law

passed in Argentina1916 First popularly elected president in

Argentina, Hipólito Iriyogen1918 Student movement begins in Córdoba,

Argentina1930 Getúlio Vargas begins 15-year rule in

Brazil; the depression comes to Latin America

1934-1940 Làzaro Càrdenas stabilizes Mexico, implements the revolution, expropriates foreign oil properties (1938)

1943-1955 Perón dominates Argentina1952 Bolivian Revolution1959 Fidel Castro triumphs in Cuba1961 Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba fails;

Trujillo assassinated, ending 31-year dictatorship in the Dominican Republic

1962 Missile crisis between Russia and the United States

1965 First Pan-American Assembly on Population meets in Colombia; President Lyndon Johnson sends Marines to the Dominican Republic

1970 Salvador Allende elected president of Chile

2.5.3.4 The Middle East Since 1940AD 1941 Anglo-Soviet troops occupy Iran; Riza

Shah deposed and replaced by son1945 Formation of Arab League

1945-1947 Azerbaijan crisis1946 French troops evacuate Lebanon and

Syria; Britain recognizes independence of Transjordan (Jordan)

1947 Truman Doctrine promising support to Greece and Turkey; United Nations partition of Palestine, evacuation of British Troops

1948 Proclamation of State of Israel1948-1949 Arab-Israeli war

1949 First of seri3s of military revolts in Syria1951 Nationalization of oil industry in Iran1952 Military revolution in Egypt overthrows

monarchy and establishes republic1954 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty providing for

evacuation of British troops1955 Baghdad Pact1958 Military revolt in Iraq ends monarchy1962 Civil War in Yemen, overthrow of

monarchy1967 Arab-Israeli war1968 Independence of Southern Yemen

2.5.3.5 Africa since 1945AD 1944 Brazzavillle Conference of French Union

1945 Fifth Pan-African Conference, Manchester

1948 Nationalist Party comes to power in Union of South Africa

1952 Overthrow of King Farouk in Egypt; Mau Mau emergency proclaimed in Kenya

1954 Algerian war of independence begins1955 Bandung conference1956 Independence of Sudan, Tunisia,

Morocco1957 Independence of Ghana1958 Referendum in French Africa;

conference of Independent African States, Accra; All-African People’s Conference, Accra; independence of Guinea

1960 Year of Africa (independence of 17 states); Congo crisis breaks out; Katanga secession

1961 Creation of Casablanca and Monrovia groups; Angola rebellion begins (first in Portuguese Africa)

1962 Algeria gains independence; end of Katanga secession

1963 Creation of Organization of African Unity

1965 Unilateral Declaration of Independence by Southern Rhodesia

1966 Coups in Nigeria (death of Balewa) and Ghana (fall of Nkrumah)

1967 Secession of Biafra1970 End of Biafra secession

2.5.3.6 The New AsiaAD 1945 Dropping of first atomic bombs; Soviet

entry in the Pacific war; Japanese surrender and end of World War II in Asia

1946 Unsuccessful U.S. attempt to mediate Nationalist-Communist conflict in China and renewal of Chinese civil war; independence of the Philippines

1947 Independence of India and Pakistan1948 Independence of Burma; outbreak of

Communist-led rebellions in Burma and several other Southeast Asian countries; assassination of Gandhi in India

1949 Communist victory over Chiang Kai-shek’s regime in China and establishment of the People’s Republic of China under Mao Tse-tung; independence of Indonesia under Sukarno

1950 Sino-Soviet alliance; outbreak of Korean War

1951 Japanese peace treaty and U.S.-Japan security treaty; start of Korean peace negotiations at Panmunjom; India’s first Five-Year Plan

1953 Truce in Korea; China’s first Five-Year Plan; election of Magsaysay as president of the Philippines

1954 Geneva Conference and French withdrawal from Indochina; establishment of SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization)

1955 Bandung conference of Asian-African leaders; start of U.S.-China Geneva-Warsaw talks

1957 Malayan independence; Sukarno’s introduction of “guided democracy” in Indonesia; revolt in Sumatra and outer islands of Indonesia

1958 “Great Leap Forward” in China; “offshore islands” crisis on China coast

1959 Tibetan revolt; Chinese-Indian border incidents

1960 Open debate in Sino-Soviet relations; renewed conflict in Vietnam; revision of the U.S.-Japan security treaty

1962 China-India border conflict; Geneva Conference on Laos; Ne Win coup d’état in Burma

1964 China’s first nuclear test; death of Nehru; Indonesian “confrontation” with Malaysia

1965 Attempted communist coup in Indonesia, resulting in military control under Suharto; major U.S. intervention in Vietnam; India-Pakistan conflict over Kashmir

1966 “Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution” and purge of Liu Shao-chi in China; opening of Asian Development Bank;

founding of ASPAC (Asian and Pacific Council)

1967 Founding of ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations)

1968 Cessation of U.S. bombing of North Vietnam and start of Paris negotiations on Vietnam

1969 Sino-Soviet border conflict; Nixon’s “Guam Doctrine”; U.S. agreement with Sato government on return of Okinawa to Japan; death of Ho Chi Minh in North Vietnam; growth of Japanese gross national product makes Japan third-largest economy in the world

1970 Overthrow of Sihanouk and U.S. military intervention in Cambodia

1971 Announcement of planned Nixon trip to Peking

2.5.3.7 The United States Since Word War IIAD 1946 Employment Act creates Council of

Economic Advisors1947 Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan1949 North Atlantic Treaty Organization

approved1950 Outbreak of Korean War

1950-1960 Sale of television sets averages over 7 million a year by 1960, 88 per cent of all households have television

1954 Supreme Court declares racially segregated schools unconstitutional

1956 Martin Luther King, Jr., organizes Montgomery, Alabama, bus boycott

1958 First commercial jet airplanes in service1962 Cuban missile crisis1963 Assassination of President John F.

Kennedy1964 Student riots at the University of

California, Berkeley1965 President Lyndon B. Johnson

“escalates” the Vietnamese War; Education Act provides first comprehensive aid to education; race riot in Watts district, Los Angeles, California

1968 Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.1969 Astronauts land on the moon

2.5.3.8 The State of Culture TodayAD 1870 Education Acts passed in most

countries of western Europe: free compulsory education; beginnings of industrial literacy

1871 End of Franco-Prussian War; beginning of armed diplomacy leading to 1914

1889 Paris World’s Fair: the Eiffel Tower and the triumph of machinery; London dockers’ strike

1890-1905 The new Romanticism: Symbolism; Art for Art’s sake; Decadence; Post-impressionism

1890-1910 Invention or discovery of: the automobile; serum therapy; Diesel engine; Kodak roll film; motion pictures; heavier-than-air flying machine; finger-printing; striptease; tuberculin; appendectomy; plastic surgery; color photography; wireless; artificial

diamonds; spinal anesthesia; psychoanalysis; Mendelian genetics; histidine; radioactivity; vacuum tube; artificial insemination; organ transplant; quantum theory; relativity; Salvarsan for syphilis; anaphylaxis; artificial materials from resins and cellulose

1894-1906 The Dreyfus Affair; the intellectuals a new political force

1895-1917 The emergence of Marxism and Syndicalism; Reflections on Violence (1908); the suffragettes; the coming “century of the child”

1900 “The Yellow Peril”; Western envoys besieged in Peking and relieved by a European army under a German general

1900-1911 The century turns; Art Nouveau and the new democratic life – penny press; peace crusades, Balkan Wars, international crises

1905-1915 The Cubist Decade – innovation in all the arts, notably architecture

1914-1918 The Four Years War, ultimately the First World War, shatters European power

1919-1939 “Between Wars” – unrest and indifference under the sway of diminished intelligence; culture imitative, regressive and derisive of itself; second youth movement and yearning for peace

1929-1939 World-wide economic depression1939-1945 The Second World War; military

application of scientific power, culminating in atomic explosion at Hiroshima

1945 ff. The Age of Anxiety; the Cold War in a divided world; local wars linked with decolonization and universal shrinkage of power; the race to reach the moon; ostentation and propaganda

1964 The cellular revolution: internal and external disorder, the third youth movement, and the second women’s liberation; decay and stasis of institutions; art against society; anti-art against the culture and the self; the absurd and the obscene in the effort at destruction or recovery; the drug experience and the experience of dissolution

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