History teaching and

Intergroup relations: The case of Cyprus

Charis PsaltisAssistant Professor of Social & Developmental PsychologyDepartment of PsychologyUniversity of Cypruscpsaltis@ucy.ac.cy

Knowledge and Communication in a globalised world of plurality and diversity

• An understanding of processes of communication between knowledge systems is imperatave in the 21st century (Jovchelovitch, 2007)

• Knowledge is a plastic and plural phenomenon originating in subjective, intersubjective and objective worlds which it seeks to represent

• Communication with and representation of OTHER crucial importance for any form of knowledge construction whether it concerns the present, the future or the past (hence history).

Group A Group B

•Stereotypes

•Prejudice

•Competition

•Outgroup homogeneity

•Accentuation of differences

Post-conflict societies as a specific context for understanding alterity

Two ways to approach teaching and learning of history

• David Lowenthal (1998). The heritage crusades and the spoils of history

Heritage vs History

Heritage vs History• deliberately omits aspects of the

past • thrives on ignorance and error • its nurturing virtue is bias • its essential purpose prejudiced

pride • transmits exclusive myths of

origin and continuity • endows a select group with

prestige and common purpose • is held as ‘a dogma of roots and

origins • must be accepted on faith • the past is used as a weapon

• is disinterested and universal • Bias is a vice that history

struggles to eliminate • History conforms to accepted

tenets of evidence • is subject to debate • it is always altered by time and

hindsight • learning how to question a

historical account • to become aware of the

evidentiary base upon which it rests

• assess it in relation to contrasting accounts

“If historians, curriculum experts, textbook writers and school authorities make all the decisions about the right version of the past, then the students only job is to absorb it. What started out as contentious, debate-ridden investigation about truth, right and meaning in the past and present ends up before the students as a catechism to be memorised…historical knowledge appears as something fixed by authority rather than subject to investigation, debate and its own system of warrants”.

Seixas (2000, p. 23)

Important questions• What is teaching? It implies a social relation between a

pupil and another person either physically or symbolically present and it is thus a form of social influence.

• It is first of all a form of social interaction, contact, communication between an adult and a child or children between them constrained by a series of social psychological factors

• What forms can this social relation and communication take?

• How are different forms of social relations and communication related to heritage and history?

Two forms of social relations (Piaget, 1932)Relations of

constraint vs cooperation

• one participant holds more power than the other

• asymmetrical relationship • unilateral respect• children’s thinking is limited by

a dominant influence • social transmission• Transmission of

belief/dogma/myth• Supression of cognitive and

ethical development

• power is more evenly distributed

• symmetrical relationship • mutual respect• each partner has the freedom

to project their own thoughts, consider the positions of others, and defend their own point of view (real dialogue)

• Norm of reciprocity• Construction of knowledge• Promotion of cognitive and

ethical development

Theoretical Framework:

Social Education Approaches

(Shemilt in Shemilt & Perikleous, 2011, p.87)

Social Representations: Avoiding the reification of culture

• Social Representations furnish varying positions of identity (Duveen,2007; Psaltis & Duveen, 2006,2007; Psaltis,2011,2012,in press).

• Narratives as organising principles of:• Past-Present-Future transition

– Past-Collective Memory– Present-Quality of Intergroup relations (Trust, forgiveness,

perspective taking, attitudes)– Future- Ideal solution of the Cyprus issue

Attitudes towards others

The iceberg mataphor (Duveen & Lloyd, 1990)

Structure/Logic•Distrust•Prejudice•Absence of forgiveness•Lack of perspective taking•Realistic, Symbolic, Group esteem threats•IG anxiety•Forms of identification•Representations of history/past

Research across the divideAssociation for Historical Dialogue and Research

Funded by the UNDP-ACT1. perceptions of the

current history curriculum and

textbooks

2. methods of teaching used

3. epistemology towards history

4. contact and attitudes towards

members of the out-group

5. Representations of the recent history of Cyprus

and attributions of blame

6. qualifications and training needs

MethodologyQuestionnaire survey:

• We sampled a total of 400 Greek Cypriot and 119 Turkish Cypriot primary and secondary school history teachers.

• The study comprises of a quantitative questionnaire survey in which face-to-face questionnaire administration covers a nationally representative sample of history educators.

• Questionnaire prepared by group of GC and TC educators, researchers and academics

• Translated and back translated Greek/Turkish/English• Interviews conducted in the mothertoungue of educators, by

professional interviewees

Scale Items GC alpha

TC alpha

Curriculum for reconciliation

•I believe that in a united Cyprus there should be a common history curriculum for Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot students•One of the main objectives of the history curriculum should be to enhance a common identity which will include Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots•One of the main objectives of the history curriculum should be to promote peace among people

0.71 0.75

Curriculum for historical thinking

•One of the main objectives of the history curriculum should be to enhance critical thinking•One of the main objectives of history curriculum should be to develop a multi-perspective approach to history•One of the main aims of the history curriculum should be the development of historical thought (concepts and skills related to how we learn about the past)

0.60 0.80

Current textbooks pluralistic

•History textbooks use a satisfactory amount of sources•History textbooks are ethnocentric (reversed)•History textbooks provide the necessary material and activities for the development of historical thought (concepts and skills related to how we learn about the past)•History textbooks set constrains to the way I teach history (reversed)•History textbooks present a monoperspectival narrative (reversed)•Women are presented adequately in history textbooks•Children are adequately presented in history textbooks •Other socio-cultural groups are presented adequately in history textbooks.

0.68 0.74

Reported emphasis on historical thinking

•In my teaching I use activities which aim to develop the historical thought of my students (concepts and skills related to how we learn about the past)•I encourage my students to pay attention to the historical context when reading a source• I always ask my students to support their reasoning with evidence

0.60 0.61

Scale Items GC alpha

TC alpha

Relativism •Historical truth is essentially a matter of opinion•It is not possible to argue that one specific interpretation of History is more valid than another since they are always subjective•Since there is no way to know what really happened in the past, people can believe in whatever story they choose

0.63 0.56

Constructivism •In studying historical texts it is important to ask questions about validity of author’s arguments•It is possible for one interpretation to be more valid than another •Historical knowledge is open to review as it is subjected to new findings and new evidence

0.67 0.66

Quantity of contact

How much contact do you actually have with members of the other community under the following conditions (not just seeing them but actually talking to them)?1) At work, 2) In bi-communal meetings, 3) In the neighbourhood where you live, 4) in the South, 5) in the North

0.80 0.86

Quality of contact

When you meet with members of the other community how do you find the contact?1) In cooperative spirit, 2) Positive, 3) Based on mutual respect

0.94 0.86

Attitude towards out-group(single item)

The following questions concern your feelings towards different groups in general. Please rate each group on a thermometer that that runs from zero (0) to one hundred (100) degrees. How do you feel towards Greek/Turkish Cypriots in general? 0 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90° 100°Very cold or Very hot or negative positive

Scale Items GC alpha

TC alpha

Turco- centrism / Helleno-centrism

•I am characterized by the Turkish/Greek cultural origin•Islam/Orthodoxy is an indispensable part of our national self•I consider Turkey/Greece as the Motherland

0.71 0.76

Criticise Turkey and foreign powers for Cyprus problem

•In 1974 Turkey invaded Cyprus to achieve partition of the island•In 1974 Turkey invaded Cyprus in order to protect the Turkish Cypriots (reversed)•The Cyprus problem is one created by the application of NATO plots in Cypriot issues•The establishment in the north of the ‘TRNC’ impeded the solution of the Cyprus problem•TMT arose out of the need of Turkish Cypriots to protect themselves (reversed)•The British colonial policy of divide and rule led to the first seeds of hostility between the two communities of Cyprus

0.65 0.66

Communal Identification

•In general, I’m happy to be a GC/TC•I am proud to be a GC/TC•Being a GC/TC is an important part of how I see myself•Being a GC/TC is the most important part of who I am •I often wish that I wasn’t a GC/TC (reversed)•Being a GC/TC is not an important part of my identity (reversed)

0.82 0.89

Continuity •The traditions of TCs/GCs have passed on from generation to generation•Important moments in Cypriot history are closely interconnected with each other•TCs/GCs will always be characterized by specific traditions and beliefs•TCs/GCs have preserved their values throughout the centuries

0.66 0.78

Findings

• TC educators (of both levels of education) were more supportive of a curriculum that would promote reconciliation between the two communities). They also had more contact and of better quality with GCs. More favourable in-group norms on relating with other community compared to GCs.

• On pedagogically related questions: Interaction effects of level of education x community. A usual pattern: TCs of secodnary scored higher than GCs of both levels. TC of primary lower scores compared to the other 3 groups.

Significant Variation within each community

GC-C1: Pro-TCs & Reconciliation/ Highly for Historical Thinking(42.2% of sample)

GC-C2: Ambivalent to TCs & History for Reconciliation/Moderately for Historical thinking(27.8% of sample)

GC-C3: Ambivalent and isolated from TCs Ambivalent towards History for Reconciliation/ Hellenocentric/ Highly for Historical Thinking(30.0% of sample)

Positive attitude towards TCs b (7.04/10)Quantity of Contact c (1.80/5)Communal Identification as GC

a (3.63/5)Helleno-centrism a (3.66/5)Criticising Turkey and Foreign powers vs GCs b (3.93/5) Essentialised continuity of groupa (3.92)

Positive attitude towards TCs a (5.04/10)Quantity of Contact b (1.34/5)Communal Identification as GC b (3.91/5)Helleno-centrism b (4.01/5) Criticising Turkey and Foreign powers vs GCsa (3.79/5) Essentialised continuity of groupa (3.92)

Positive attitude towards TCs a (4.93/10)Quantity of Contact a (1.14/5)Communal Identification as GC c (4.55/5)Helleno-centrism c (4.63/5) Criticising Turkey and Foreign powers vs GCs c (4.16/5)Essentialised continuity of group b

(4,32)

Curriculum for Reconciliationb (4.22/5)Curriculum for Historical Thinking b (4.87/5)Textbooks Pluralistic a (2.55/5)Self-reported use of historical thinking methods b (4.46/5)

Curriculum for Reconciliationa (3.45/5)Curriculum for Historical Thinking a (4.27/5)Textbooks Pluralistic b (2.86/5)Self-reported use of historical thinking methods a (4.04/5)

Curriculum for Reconciliationa (3.47/5)Curriculum for Historical Thinking b (4.83/5)Textbooks Pluralistic a (2.67/5)Self-reported use of historical thinking methods c (4.60/5)

Relativism b (3.26/5)Constructivism b (4.19/5)

Relativism a (2.72/5)Constructivism a (3.71/5)

Relativism b (3.15/5)Constructivism c (4.44/5)

TC-C1: Pro-GC/Cypriocentric/Highly for historical Thinking(39.5% of sample)

TC-C2: Ambivalent to negative towards GCs/ /Ambivalent to History for reconciliation/Turkocentric/Moderate to high for historical thinking(60.5% of sample)

Positive attitude towards GCsb (6.87/10)Quantity of Contacta (2.14/5)Communal Identification as TCa (3.75/5)Turko-centrisma (2.37/5) Criticising Turkey and foreign powers vs GCsb (2.99/5)Essentialised continuity of groupb (3,73)

Positive attitude towards GCsa (4.46/10)Quantity of Contacta (2.34/5)Communal Identification as TCb (4.18/5)Turko-centrismb (3.56/5) Criticising Turkey and foreign powers vs GCsa (2.65/5)Essentialised continuity of groupa (3,47)

Curriculum for Reconciliationb (4.63/5)Curriculum for Historical Skillsb (4.87/5)Textbooks Pluralistica (2.35/5)Self-reported use of historical thinking methods

b (4.26/5)

Curriculum for Reconciliationa (3.56/5)Curriculum for Historical Skillsa (4.29/5)Textbooks Pluralisticb (3.07/5)Self-reported use of historical thinking methods

a (3.89/5)

Relativisma (3.53/5)Constructivismb (4.59/5)

Relativisma (3.27/5)Constructivisma (4.04/5)

Stance on the use of contradictory sources in history teaching

• GC-C2: Less agreement with “The use of contradictory sources helps students learn

how to work with conflicting evidence”Compared to GC-C1 and GC-C2• TC-C2: Less agreement with “The use of contradictory sources helps students learn

how to work with conflicting evidence” compared to TC-C1

Can Intergroup Contact help the cultivation of critical thinking and history teaching

skills?• Inter-group contact: crucial role for the

promotion of tolerance, reduction of prejudice and reconciliation

• How can it be used to promote critical thinking and historical skills also?

• What is Critical thinking anyway?

What teaching methods can be used to promote the epistemology and historical skills and how do we turn diversity in our

classroom into a resource?

1. Inter-group Contact2. Cooperative methods

1. Summary of findings of contact projectStudy Age N Predictors Mediators Outcomes Moderators

Survey Representative sample (Q)2007

18-65 1656 Contact (D,E)

Threats (S, R)

Attitudes (TCs)Open Check.

GCs/TCsCypriocentr./Hellenocentr.Age

Pyla Repr.S (Q)2008

18+ 238 Contact (Vill./Shops/Friends)

AttitudesTrustOp.Checkp.

Perc. Status asymm.(p,soc,economic)

El.& High School(Q) Longit. 2007

10-15 GC171

Friendships Stereotypes

Uni. Students (Q) 2006

18-25 GC390

Friendship IG Anxiety (p)-LH

Attitudes -TCs /Immigr.

Cypriocent./Hellenocentrism

Uni. Students (Q) 2009

18-25 GC300

Q. Contact N.Stereot. Attitudes-TCs

Teachers(Q) 2009

23+ GC165

Q. Contact N.Stereot. AttitudesTCs/T/Imm.

Students(Exp.) 2008-2009

18-28 GC52

Contact(D*,E)

Attitudes TCs/T/Imm

Att.StrengthIG AnxietySelf Discl.

Summary of findings of contact projectAHDR-Oxford Centre for the Study of Intergroup Conflict

Study Age N Predictors Mediators Outcomes Moderators

3-wave longitudinal research2010-2011

18+ 2000 Contact

Representations of history

Threats (S, R)Intergroup Anxiety

AttitudesTrustAction tendencies

GCs/TCsCypriocentr./Hellenocentr.Age

Former Inhabitants of Mixed Villages2010

42+ 2000 Contact (Vill./Shops/Friends)

Representations of history

Threats (S, R)Intergroup Anxiety

AttitudesTrustOp.Checkp.

Perc. Status asymm.(p,soc,economic)

Educators2010

22+ 519 Contact

Representations of History

Threats (S, R)Intergroup Anxiety

AttitudesTrustAction tendencies

GCs/TCsCypriocentr./Hellenocentr

2. Crucial Role of Forms of communication/Conversation types in the teaching process

Psaltis & Duveen (2006,2007)

1. No-Resistance: Novice does not resist even once the expert’s arguments nor s/he gives an argument in favour of his/her non-expert position.

2. Resistance : The novice at least once resists the expert’s argument or provides a support for his or her argument.

3. Explicit recognition: The novice verbalises an indication that s/he understood the arguments provided by the conserver by expressions like Agh!!! I see!!!, I understand!!!, or even giving an expert argument him/herself thus reversing the original roles

Discussion

• Productive forms of dialogue (that allow the expression of different points of view and recognition as autonomous thinking subjects) get internalised as an apearing as progress in post-tests. Depending on the depth/form of dialogue we can talk of internalisation (superficial) or interiorisation (more depth) (Psaltis, Duveen & Perret-Clermont, 2009).

• Need to explore the social and relational conditions that constrain or facilitate the establishment of each type. Forms of asymmetry: knowledge, Language, Gender, Social Class, Popularity, Academic reputation.

• Participation is key-How various sources of asymmetry converge or diverge on one pupil is crucial.

Thank you