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History & Research
Research Methods
Unit 1 / Learning Goal 2
III. Research Methods
“What was the last big purchase that you made?”
1) Did you shop around?
2) Did you talk to other people who had bought something similar?
3) Did you go with a “trusted” brand?
PurposeThese opening questions serve a
purpose grounded in research
Once you have your research question (i.e., in the class example you are making a big purchase)
Research Begins!
Researchyou seek out more information
(i.e., shopping around)
you review previous research and engage in peer discussions (i.e., talking with others who have bought something similar)
use appropriate scientific methods, like correlations, experimental designs, case studies (i.e., using the trusted brands).
Researchcontinued
Great Work, but hold up
We should discuss:
Statistical Significance
Statistical statement of how likely it is that a study’s result occurred merely by
chance
Statistics are affected by:
Population
In research, a population is the set of objects to be studied.
Statistics are also affected by:
SampleA sample is a subset of a population
selected to represent and draw inferences about that population.
It is a research technique widely used in the social sciences as a way to gather information about a population without having to measure the entire population.
Now, back to Statistics
2 main types
Descriptive vs. Inferential Statistics
Descriptive Descriptive statistics includes statistical
procedures that we use to describe the population we are studying
The data could be collected from either a sample or a population, but the results help us organize and describe data
Descriptive
Descriptive statistics can only be used to describe the group that is being studying.
That is, the results cannot be generalized to any larger group.
Inferential
Inferential statistics is concerned with making predictions or inferences about a population from observations and analyses of a sample.
That is, we can take the results of an analysis using a sample and can generalize it to the larger population that the sample represents.
Inferential
In order to do this, however, it is imperative that the sample is representative of the group to which it is being generalized.
Standard Deviation We’ll get back to this
First, lets go over the steps of Research
1. Logic2. Experience3. Revision of another theory4. Accidental finding
Scientific MethodA. TheoryAn organized set of principles that describes, predicts and explains behavior; based on
B. Generate Hypothesis “testable predictions”1. Operational definitions2. Conditions:
a) SETTING OF OBSERVATIONS Lab research: laboratory observation;
experiment; has elements of control, i.e., precision of measurement, uniform conditions
Field research (naturalistic observation); has much less control
b) Way the variable is measured
Self report: distortion in a favorable light: hidden motivations; faulty memories
Behavioral observations: pressing bar, smiling, eye movements, heartbeat, hitting, choosing a career path, declaring a major, moving eyes
Archival records: academic records, medical records, literacy rates, absenteeism at work, sports statistics
c) Time over which data is collected
Cross-sectional researchers studying developmental
psychology might select groups of people who are remarkably similar in most areas, but differ only in age. By doing this, any differences between groups can presumably be attributed to age differences rather than to other variables.
Longitudinal
type of research method used to discover relationships between variables that are not related to various background variables. This observational research technique involves studying the same group of individuals over an extended period of time.
In some cases, longitudinal studies can last several decades.
d) Types of conclusions drawn (Methods)
II) Research Designs:Methods: the types of conclusions drawn are limited by the method used
A. Descriptive Research1. Case Studies
a) Tests, interviews, first-hand observations, biographical material
b) Assumption: in-depth material on one person reveals something about all people
c) Problem: time-consuming and limited in generalizability
a) Phineas Gage
2) Surveysa) Describe sample of a population
Phone book Internet Driver Registration
b) Responses to a question/wording (framing) of question
Assisting poor vs. welfare
c) Media Used
3) Naturalistic Observation
B) Correlational Studies:“What is the connection between variables?”
1. Statistical measure of the extent to which 2 factors are associated
2. Scatterplot; direction & Strength
3. Predictor and Criterion variables
4. Intervening variables (underlying)
simply a summary of the relationships observed between independent and dependent variables
For example, hunger is a hypothetical internal state which has been used to explain the relationships between independent variables such as length of time without food, or amount of food consumed, and dependent variables which are measures of eating
C) Experiments: determine cause and effect
1. Variables: Independent and dependent
2. Control: vary one factor, keep all other aspects constant, measure effect
1. Random Assignment2. Experimenter effects: single and double
blind replication: consistent result that stands the test of time
D) Ability to Generalize1. Interpretive review of the literature
Make comparisons, discern patterns, note strengths and weaknesses of each study
2. Statistical Meta-analysis: statistical combination of
data and results of multiple studies
III) EthicsA. Concerns: investigators are responsible
for the well-being of those who participate in research
Right to privacy Harm or discomfort caused by procedures Use of deception
B) APA Guidelines
1. Informed concent
2. Freedom to withdraw
3. Minimized harm and discomfort
4. Confidentiality of data
5. Debrief if deception is necessary