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John Wesley
John Wesley was born in Epworth, Lincolnshire, on June 17, 1703. He was the
fifteenth of the 19 children of Samuel Wesley, an Anglican minister who took
his pastoral duties seriously and instilled this idea in his son. John's mother, a
woman of great spiritual intensity, disciplined her children through a code of
strict and uncompromising Christian morality, instilling in John a firm
conception of religious piety, concern, and duty.
In 1714 Wesley entered Charterhouse School, and in 1720 he became astudent at Christ Church, Oxford. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree in
1724, and then in 1725 he was ordained a deacon in the Church of England
and was elected a fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford, in 1726. He became
curate to his father in the following year and was ordained a priest in 1728.
Returning to Oxford in 1729, Wesley, in addition to the duties of his
fellowship at Lincoln, became active in a religious club to which his younger
brother Charles belonged. The Holy Club, nicknamed "Methodists" by its
critics, met frequently for discussion and study. Its members engaged in
prayer, attended church services, visited prisoners, and gave donations tothe needy. The Holy Club was one of Wesley's formative influences, and he
soon became its acknowledged leader.
In 1735, John, sustained by his years at Oxford and keen of putting the
principles of the Holy Club to work elsewhere, accepted the invitation of
James Oglethorpe to become a minister in the recently founded colony of
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From the beginning Wesley viewed his movement as one within the Church
of England and not in opposition to it. As he gained converts around England,
however, these men and women grouped themselves together in societies
that Wesley envisioned as playing the same role in Anglicanism as the
monastic orders do in the Roman Catholic Church. He took a continual and
rather authoritarian part in the life of these societies, visiting them
periodically, settling disputes, and expelling the unruly. Yearly conferences of
the whole movement presented him with the opportunity to establish policy.
Under his leadership each society was broken down into a "class, which
dealt with matters of finance, and a "band, which set standards of personal
morality. In addition, Wesley wrote numerous theological works and edited 35
volumes of Christian literature for the edification of the societies. A tireless
and consummate organizer, he kept his movement prospering despite a
variety of defections.
Yet the continual opposition of the Anglican bishops, together with their
refusal to ordain Methodist clergy, forced Wesley to move closer to actual
separation toward the end of his life. In 1784 he took out a deed of
declaration, which secured the legal standing of the Methodist Society after
his death. In the same year he reluctantly ordained two men to serve as
"superintendents" for Methodists in North America. He continued the practice
to provide clergymen for England but very sparingly and with great
hesitation. Wesley always maintained that he personally adhered to the
Church of England.
Methodism had a significant impact on English society. It brought religion to
masses of people who, through the shifts of population brought about by the
industrial revolution, were not being reached by the Anglican Church. In
addition, it had a beneficial effect on many within both the Church of England
and rebellious congregations. By emphasizing morality, self-discipline, and
thrift to the deprived classes, Wesley has been credited by some historians
as being a major force in keeping England free of revolution and widespread
social unrest during his day. He himself was politically conservative, a critic
of democracy, and a foe of both the American and French revolutions.
Throughout his life Wesley's closest confidant was his brother and co-worker
Charles, the composer of a number of well-known hymns. Wesley, always
extraordinarily healthy, remained active to the end, preaching his final
sermon at an open-air meeting just 4 months before his death on March 2,
1791, in London. The 18th century found the Church of England out of touch
with both the religious and social problems of the day. Its leadership was
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constituted largely by political appointees, its clergy were riddled with
ignorance, and churchmen of genuine concern were rare. The influence of
rationalism and deism even among dedicated clergymen caused the
Anglican Church to be unaware of the spiritual needs of the masses. John
Wesley's great achievement was to recognize the necessity of bringing
religion to this wide and neglected audience.
George Fox
George was the son of a weaver, and was born in July 1624 at Fenny
Drayton, Leicestershire. He became a cobbler with little book learning
beyond the Bible. When he was 19, a voice told him to "forsake all"; so he
became a dropout, wandering about England in an introverted quest forreligious truth. Gradually he clarified his beliefs, convinced that he derived
them from direct experiences of God's light within him, "without the help of
any man, book, or writing."
Holding that every man and woman could be similarly enlightened by Christ,
he began "declaring truth" in public and developed into a dynamic,
passionately sincere speaker. He preached in barns, houses, and fields and in
churches "after the priest had done"; but because his zeal sometimes led
him to interrupt services, he was imprisoned as a disturber of public order.
Inspired by the "Inner Voice," he became spiritual leader of someNottinghamshire former Baptists but then went to the north of England,
preaching, praying, and protesting at every opportunity. In 1652 he trekked
about Yorkshire, a sturdy figure in leather breeches wearing a broad brimmed
hat over the ringlets of hair which fell to his shoulders.
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Though Fox denounced creeds, forms, rites, external sacraments, and a
"man-made" ministry, he became something of a negative formalist, refusing
to tip his hat to anyone or to call months and days by their pagan names;
and he used "thee" and "thou" instead of "you." Such violation of
conventions provoked intense opposition. Fox was repeatedly beaten by
rowdies and persecuted by the religious, and the forces of law and order
imprisoned him eight times for not conforming to the establishment. But his
unconquerable courage and his emphasis on the spirit rather than the letter
of religion won him converts, even among his persecutors.
Oddly, this opponent of institutional religion showed a genius for organizing
fellowships of Friends complete with unpaid officers, regular meetings, and
funding arrangements. As a result, though his message was universal,
individualistic, and spiritual, Fox founded what, by 1700, became the largest
Nonconformist sect in England. In 1654 he organized a team of some 60 men
and women as a mission to southern England. After converting many there,
he extended his own preaching to Scotland (1657-1658), Wales (1657),
Ireland (1669), the West Indies and America (1671-1673), the Netherlands
(1677 and 1684), and Germany (1677). By 1660 he was issuing epistles to
the Pope, the Turkish Sultan, and the Emperor of China. He was a strange
mixture of fanaticism and common sense, selflessness and exhibitionism,
liberalism and literalism.
In 1669 Fox married the outstanding female leader in the Quaker movement,
Margaret, widow of his friend and patron Thomas Fell. But God's service tookpriority over their partnership, which was interrupted by his missions, his
imprisonments in 1673-1675, and his supervision of the movement. He died
in London on Jan. 13, 1691.
Fox composed hundreds of tracts for his times, defending principles of the
Friends and exposing other men as sinners and ministers of the "Great
Whore of Babylon;" but it is by his Journal, a record of his day-to-day
activities and thoughts, that he is best remembered.
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William Wilberforce
William was born in august 1759 and died in July 1833; he
was born in the great northern seaport of Hull and served in the English
Parliament from 1780 to 1825. Living for something much greater than him,he fought for the sake of human pride and affected the lives of millions
across the globe. Although he was involved with programs for education,
overseas missions, parliamentary reform, and religious liberty, he is
honoured most for his untiring commitment to the abolition of slavery and
the slave trade. When Wilberforce's opponents criticized his faith and
attacked his reforms, instead of condemning them, he won them over with
integrity, honesty, and sensitivity, using his incredible gifts of oration
(speech) and persuasion. Wilberforce's unrelenting forty-year crusade
against slavery required supreme perseverance and patience to overcome
the many setbacks and defeats. In 1807, Parliament finally passed his bill of
abolition. His triumph brought him incredible prestige and freed him to
pursue other plans for improving the quality and morality of life in Great
Britain. His efforts made the foundations for the great moral revival of the
Victorian period. William was the son of a wealthy merchant who died when
he was still a child. Placed under the guardianship of his uncle and aunt (a
strong supporter of John Wesley), William developed an early interest in
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Methodism. His mother, however, was disturbed by this development and
the young William was returned to her care.
After attending Pocklington School in 1776, William Wilberforce was sent to
St John's College, Cambridge. He was shocked by the behaviour of most of
his fellow students and later wrote: "I was introduced on the very first nightof my arrival to as licentious a set of men as can well be conceived. They
drank hard, and their conversation was even worse than their lives."
Wilberforce spent most of his time with the social elite, eventually losing his
interest in Biblical religion. He was able to live off his parents' wealth doing
as little work as possible.
In these surroundings, he befriended William Pitt the Younger who would
later become the Prime Minister of England. At the young age of twenty-one,
Wilberforce ran for the seat in the House of Commons of Hull in 1780. The
8,000 he spent and his incredible gift for speaking brought about histriumph over both his opponents. (Wilberforce never lost an election till he
died, shortly before his 74th birthday.)
On the long holidays between Parliament sessions, he would sometimes
travel with friends or family. One time, he invited Isaac Milner, a friend since
grammar school. Milner turned out to be a strong Christian without the
stereotypes that Wilberforce had felt about Evangelicals. The following
summer, Wilberforce travelled again with Milner and discussed the Bible for
hours and hours. Wilberforce said his intellectual assent became profound
conviction.
This conversion to Christianity and the subsequent change in his life were
manifested when he wrote that riches were, "considering them as in
themselves, acceptable, but, from the infirmity of [our] nature, as highly
dangerous possessions; and [we are to value] them chiefly not as
instruments of luxury or splendour, but as affording the means of honouring
his heavenly Benefactor, and lessening the miseries of mankind." By the
same token, he believed everything in politics was for the purpose of
alleviating misery and spreading happiness for all.
Wilberforce struggled about how to practice his beliefs in his public life.
William Pitt tried to talk him out of becoming an Evangelical, saying that this
change would "render your talents useless both to yourself and mankind."
On December 7, 1789, Wilberforce risked seeing the unpopular Evangelical
parliament member, John Newton. He had so many doubts about going to
see Newton, he walked twice around the block before he could get up the
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courage to knock on his door. Newton encouraged him not to cut himself off
from public life and wrote him two years later: "It is hoped and believed that
the Lord has raised you up for the good of His church and for the good of the
nation." No one could have imagined at that time what Wilberforce would
accomplish.
The battle of uncertainties lasted for a few months until a more peaceful
serenity came over him on Easter Day, 1786. Wilberforce went into the fields
to pray when, as he said in a letter to his sister Sally, "amidst the general
chorus with which all nature seems on such a morning to be swelling the
song of praise and thanksgiving."
Wilberforce was so ashamed of the "shapeless idleness" of his prior life that
he wrote, "I was filled with sorrow. I am sure that no human creature could
suffer more than I did for some months." Beginning soon after his conversion
until he was married 11 years later, Wilberforce spent his days studying"about nine or ten hours a day," typically "breakfasting alone, taking walks
alone, dining with the host family and other guests but not joining them in
the evening until he 'came down about three-quarters of an hour before
bedtime for what supper I wanted.'" "The Bible became his best-loved book
and he learned stretches by heart." It seems as though Wilberforce wanted
to make up the time he wasted due to his laziness in college. At 37 years old,
Wilberforce met Barbara and married her and on May 30, 1797, about two
weeks after they met. In the first eight years of their marriage, they had four
sons and two daughters. They were still married when Wilberforce died,thirty-six years later.
Wilberforce became interested in social reform, in particular improving
working conditions in factories. Millions of men, women, and children had no
choice but to work sixteen hours, six days a week in grim factories. People
had come to the cities to find work but had been exploited and crowded
together in filthy apartments. Here, they could easily catch cholera, typhoid,
and tuberculosis.
Eventually, Lady Middleton (Albinia Townshend, elder sister of Thomas
Townshend, 1st Viscount Sydney) approached Wilberforce and asked him to
use his power as an MP to stop the slave trade. Wilberforce wrote "I feel the
great importance of the subject and I think myself unequal to the task
allotted to me," but he agreed to do his best. On May 12, 1789, Wilberforce
made his first speech against the slave trade. As he studied the slave trade
and learned of the atrocities, he became more and more resolved to do
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something about it. He described his conviction, "I confess to you, so
enormous, so dreadful, so irremediable (permanent) did its wickedness
appear that my own mind was completely made up for Abolition. Let the
consequences be what they would, I from this time determined that I would
never rest until I had effected its abolition." He viewed the slave trade as his
personal responsibility and asked the Parliament to be responsible as well, "I
mean not to accuse anyone but to take the shame upon myself, in common
indeed with the whole Parliament of Great Britain, for having suffered this
horrid trade to be carried on under their authority. We are all guilty we ought
to all to plead guilty, and not to exculpate ourselves by throwing the blame
on others."
Most of Wilberforce's fellow Tories were against any limits to the slave market
but Wilberforce persisted. Even when his first bill, in 1791, was defeated by a
landslide of 163 votes to 88, Wilberforce did not give up. The opposition that
carried on for more than twenty years was because the plantations in the
West Indies produced huge financial benefits to the traders and to the British
as a whole. They could see no other way to produce besides using slave
labour. It was such an emotionally heated debate that Wilberforce's life was
threatened at times, especially when he criticized the slave ship captain,
Robert Norris. Besides the concern of physical harm there was the sorrowful
loss of friends and the enormous political pressure to back down because of
the international political consequences. For instance, the West Indian
colonial assemblies said they would declare independence from Britain and
federate with the United States if Britain outlawed slavery. These kinds offinancial and political arguments kept the Parliament stirred up for decades.
In 1805, the House of Commons finally passed a law that made it illegal for
any British subject to transport slaves, but the House of Lords blocked it. In
1807, William Grenville made a speech saying that the slave trade was
"contrary to the principles of justice, humanity, and sound policy." This time,
when the vote was taken, a huge majority in the House of Commons and the
House of Lords backed the proposal and the Abolition Bill was passed with
283 votes to 16, making the slave trade illegal on all British ships. It was an
emotional day in Parliament and Wilberforce, having given so much of hisheart and effort, broke down and cried. It became law on March 25, 1807.
After 1807, with the support of friends such as Beilby Porteus, the Bishop of
London, Wilberforce continued to fight for the complete emancipation of
slaves in the British Empire. In 1823, Wilberforce wrote a 56-page booklet,
Appeal to the Religion, Justice and Humanity of the Inhabitants of the British
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been expected, the moral system itself also began to wither and decay,
being robbed of that which should have supplied it with life and nutriment.
Too many men and women were hanged. Venality, drunkenness, and the
high crime rate arose from the general decadence, especially the corruption
and irreligion of the trend setters, not in those days pop stars and mediamoguls but the nobility and landed gentry. The high civilization of eighteenth
century England was built on the slave trade, mass poverty, child labour, and
political corruption in high places. As one historian wrote, there was little to
choose between the morals of the English and French aristocracy in the
century before the French Revolution.
Wilberforce endeavoured to make goodness fashionable by establishing the
Proclamation Society that was dedicated to promoting virtue in public life.
Philanthropy was encouraged and a number of parliamentary measures for
the poor, the deaf, the mentally ill, and for animals were introduced.Wilberforce also crusaded against pornography. In his driving passion to lift
the moral climate of that time, Wilberforce was known to be involved with
over 60 organizations.
The British East India Company was set up to give the English a share in the
East Indian spice trade (before the Spanish Armada, Portugal and Spain had
monopolized the market). In 1793, the East India Company had to renew its
charter and William Wilberforce suggested adding clauses to enable the
company to employ religious teachers with the aim of "introducing Christian
light into India." He had also tried to set up a mission in India. This plan was
unsuccessful, but Wilberforce tried again in 1813, when the charter had to be
renewed again. Wilberforce, using many petitions and various statistics,
managed to persuade the House of Commons to include the clauses. In part
of his efforts, his work enabled missionary work to become a part of the
conditions of the British East India Company's 1813 renewed charter.
(Although concerned with the country deeply, Wilberforce himself had never
been to India.)Eventually, this resulted in the foundation of the Bishopric of
Calcutta.
Wilberforce was also a founding member of the Royal Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals as well as the Church Missionary Society
(since renamed Church Mission Society).
He also worked with the reformer, Hannah More, in the Association for the
Better Observance of Sunday which had the goal to provide all children with
regular education in reading, personal hygiene and religion. Wilberforce
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worked to establish educational reform, prison reform, health care reform,
and to limit the number of hours children were required to work in factories.
The seventeenth century house in which he was born is today Wilberforce
House museum in Kingston upon Hull.
The Quakers
The Quakers also commonly known as the Religious Society of Friends
comprises religious organizations arising out of a Christian movement in mid-
17th century England which focused on ordinary individuals' own experience
of Christ. There is no single Religious Society of Friends with universal
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juridical authority as each national or regional organization (usually termed a
Yearly Meeting) has full autonomy (independence). Today, there is a large
range of theological belief between Yearly Meetings, reflecting developments
in the 19th and 20th centuries. Some Yearly Meetings (termed conservative)
have retained Friends' beliefs of relying on the guidance of the eternal Christ;
whereas other Yearly Meetings have moved towards evangelicalism, with a
stress on Scriptures, biblical inerrancy and salvation; and other Yearly
Meetings who have moved towards liberalism with their stress on individual
interpretation, in some cases with some members now holding universalist or
non-theistic beliefs.
Friends worship in a variety of forms. Some meet for silent worship with no
human leader and no fixed programme (mainly in Europe, Australia, New
Zealand and parts of North America). Some meet for services led by a pastor
with readings and hymns (mainly in Africa, Asia and parts of North America).
Some have a form of worship which incorporates elements of both styles.
Most branches of the Religious Society of Friends are known to the public by
testifying to their faith in their actions and the way they live their lives. Such
testimony may vary according to how different individuals are led and events
in the wider world at the time; however, well known examples of ways in
which Friends have acted historically in many yearly meetings in North
America and the UK have included refusing to participate in war; social
action aimed at promoting social justice and equality including participating
in the anti-slavery movement in North America during the mid-19th Centuryand the women's rights movement; wearing particular, simple clothing (plain
dress); using the same form of address to refer to everyone (e.g. using thee
and thou to talk to anyone and not using titles such as Mr, Mrs, etc.); and
refusing to swear oaths.
The Religious Society of Friends has been categorized as one of the peace
churches, alongside the Church of the Brethren, Mennonites and Amish,
because of all of these churches' emphasis on Christian pacifism. These
churches also share other similarities in terms of theology including a literal
interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount, an emphasis on simplicity inspeech and dress, and a lack of creedal statements.
The name "Religious Society of Friends", dating from the 18th century,
remains the most widely accepted name to this day, although often
"Quakers" is added in parentheses for the sake of clarity.
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During the seventeenth century they often referred to themselves as the
'Saints'. Other common names in the early days were 'Children of the Light'
and 'Friends of the Truth', reflecting the central importance of Christ as an
Inner light that showed individuals' true condition. The term 'Religious
Society of Friends', harks back to the 'Friends of the Truth'.
The origin of the name "Quaker" is unclear. In 1650, a prominent Friend,
George Fox, was brought before Justice Bennet of Derby on a charge of
blasphemy. According to Fox'sJournal, Bennet "called us Quakers because
we bid them tremble at the word of God", a scriptural reference (e.g., Book of
Isaiah 66:2, Ezra 9:4). Therefore, what began apparently as a way to make
fun of Fox's admonition by those outside the Society of Friends became a
nickname that today many Friends use for themselves.
However, there are some Friends who prefer other names: some evangelical
Friends' organizations use the term "Friends Church", and some monthly andyearly meetings (usually in the programmed tradition) do not use the term
'Religious' and refer to themselves as part of the "Society of Friends" (e.g.
London Yearly Meeting, until the mid-twentieth century).
The Religious Society of Friends began in England in the late 1640s, in a
context of social upheaval which included increasing dissatisfaction with the
established church, the execution of the king, and the rise of Nonconformist
movements.The founder of Quakerism is generally accepted to have been
George Fox. He became convinced that it was possible to have a direct
experience of Jesus Christ without the mediation of clergy. He began to
spread this message as an itinerant preacher and found several pre-existing
groups of like-minded people; he felt called to gather them together,
eventually becoming accepted as their leader.In the first few years of the
movement, Quakers thought of themselves as part of the restoration of the
true Christian church after centuries of apostasy.
Generally, Quakerism has had no creed but always had doctrines. George
Fox dismissed theologians as "notionists" but accepted the Catechism and
Confession of Faith by Robert Barclay. Some Quakers today are little
concerned with theology and are more focused on acting in accordance with
the leading of the Spirit. Quakers historically have expressed a preference for
understanding coming from God's Spirit over the knowledge derived from
objective logic or systematic theology. Early Friends believed that the direct
experience of God was available to all people, without mediation (e.g., not
through hired clergy, nor through outward sacraments). Fox described this by
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insisting that "Christ has come to teach His people Himself." Parallels have
been observed between the beliefs of the early Quakers and those of the
anabaptists, whom Voltaire refers to as the 'fathers' of the Quakers.
Since Friends believe that each person has the ability to experience and
respond to God, much of the Quaker perspective is based on trying to hearGod and to allow God's Spirit free action in the heart. Isaac Penington wrote
in 1670: "It is not enough to hear of Christ, or read of Christ, but this is the
thing to feel him my root, my life, my foundation..."
The theological beliefs of different Yearly Meetings vary considerably,
ranging from evangelical Christianity to Universalist and new thought beliefs.
In addition, wide variation exists in the degree of yearly meetings'
acceptance of dissenting beliefs among their individual members and
constituent local groups.
As a public statement of faith, many Yearly Meetings publish their own
version of a Book of Discipline - often called Faith and Practice - which
expresses their sense of truth and purpose; these documents generally are
revised periodically.
While the predominant theological beliefs of different Yearly Meetings do not
tally exactly with the style of service, there is often some co-relation, with
many Yearly Meetings that hold programmed worship having more
evangelical theological beliefs, and those with unprogrammed worship
tending to have more liberal theological beliefs.
Quakers also believe in continuing revelation, with the idea that God speaks
directly to any person, without the need for any human intermediary. For this
reason, many reject the idea of priests or holy people, but believe in the
priesthood of all believers, and reject the doctrine of sola scriptura. The idea
of the Inner Light, or Inward Light of Christ is important to many Quakers: the
idea that there is that of God within everyone, guiding them through their
lives.
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The ClapHam Sect
The Clapham Sect or Clapham Saints were a group of influential like-
minded Church of England social reformers based in Clapham, London at thebeginning of the nineteenth century (active c. 1790 1830). They are
described by the historian Stephen Tomkins as "a network of friends and
families in England, with William Wilberforce as its centre of gravity, who
were powerfully bound together by their shared moral and spiritual values,
by their religious mission and social activism, by their love for each other,
and by marriage".
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Its members were chiefly prominent and wealthy evangelical Anglican who
shared common political views concerning the liberation of the slaves, the
abolition of the slave trade and the reform of the penal system.
The group's name originates from Clapham, then a village south of London
(today part of south-west London), where both Wilberforce and Thornton, thesect's two most influential leaders, resided and where many of the group's
meetings were held. They were supported by Beilby Porteus, Bishop of
London, who sympathised with many of their aims.
They founded Freetown in Sierra Leone, the first major British colony in
Africa, whose purpose in Thomas Clarkson's words was "the abolition of the
slave trade, the civilization of Africa, and the introduction of the gospel
there".
After many decades of work both in British society and in Parliament, thegroup saw their efforts rewarded with the final passage of the Slave Trade
Act in 1807, banning the trade throughout the British Empire and, after many
further years of campaigning, the total emancipation of British slaves with
the passing of the Slavery Abolition Act in 1833. They also campaigned
vigorously for Britain to use its influence to eradicate slavery throughout the
world.
Lampooned in their day as "the saints", the group published a journal, the
Christian Observer, edited by Zachary Macaulay and were also credited with
the foundation of several missionary and tract societies, including the Britishand Foreign Bible Society and the Church Missionary Society.
Other societies that they founded or were involved with included: the Anti-
Slavery Society, the Abolition Society, the Proclamation Society, the Sunday
School Society, the Bettering Society, and the Small Debt Society.
The Clapham sect have been credited with playing a significant part in the
development ofVictorian morality, through their writings, their societies,
their influence in Parliament, and their example in philanthropy and moral
campaigns, especially against slavery. In the words of Tomkins, "The ethos ofClapham became the spirit of the age".
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Members of the Clapham Sect included:
Thomas Fowell Buxton (17861845), MP and brewer
William Dealtry (17751847), Rector of Clapham, mathematicianEdward James Eliot (175897), parliamentarian
Thomas Gisbourne (17581846), clergyman and author
Charles Grant (17461823), administrator, chairman of the directors of the
British East India Company, father of the first Lord Glenelg
Katherine Hankey
Zachary Macaulay (17681838), estate manager, colonial governor, father
ofThomas Babington Macaulay
Hannah More (17451835), writer and philanthropist
Granville Sharp (17351813), scholar and administrator
Charles Simeon (17591836), Anglican minister, promoter of missions
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James Stephen (17581832), Master of Chancery, great-grandfather of
Virginia Woolf.
Lord Teignmou th (17511834), Governor-General of India
Henry Thornton (17601815), economist, banker, philanthropist, MP forSouthwark, great-grandfather of writer E.M. Forster
Henry Venn(172597), founder of the group, father of John Venn and great-
grandfather ofJohn Venn (originator of the Venn diagram)
John Venn (17501813), Rector of Holy Trinity Church, Clapham
William Wilberforce (17591833), MP successively for Kingston upon Hull,
Yorkshire and Bramber, leading abolitionist
James Ramsey
Born at Lossiemouth in a traditional two-room cottage, Ramsay MacDonald
was the illegitimate son of Mary Ramsay and a ploughman named
MacDonald. He was educated at a local board school in Drainie and read
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He married Margaret Ethel, daughter of Dr. J. H. Gladstone in 1896. She
seemed to provide MacDonald with some of the social graces he lacked and
bore him six children. After her death in 1911, wrote her biography.
Among his writings are Socialism and Society, 1905; Labour and the Empire,
1907; The Social Unrest, 1913; Parliament and Revolution, 1919; and twobooks on India - The Awakening of India, 1913, and The Government of India,
1919.
Thomas Clarkson
Thomas Clarkson was among the foremost British campaigners against both
slavery and the slave trade. He was born in Wisbech, Cambridgeshire, on 28
March 1760 and educated at the grammar school there where his father, the
Rev. John Clarkson, was headmaster. In 1775, he went to St. Paul's School in
London where he excelled. He went up to Cambridge in 1780 where he was
an outstanding student. His awareness of slavery originated in an essay,
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originally written in Latin, as an entry in a Cambridge University prize
competition, which it won. (In fact, Clarkson had already won a BA
competition, and he wanted and became the first person to win the MA
competition as well.) The question - and there was only one - was "is it lawful
to make slaves of others against their will?" (Anne Liceat Invitos in
Servitutem Dare?) The question was set by the vice-chancellor, Peter
Peckard, a man of liberal views who later wrote two abolitionist pamphlets
himself. Although Clarkson knew nothing about this subject, it engaged his
curiosity and he soon discovered the works of Anthony Benezet, which
became at that stage his principal source. He also asked around, and found
both students and others with personal experience of slavery and the slave
trade. His research paid off and, after having written the essay (and collected
the prize) he translated it into English, rather hurriedly he apologetically
informs us, so that it could gain a wider audience. In 1786, the essay was
published as an essay on the slavery and commerce of the human species,particularly the African, translated from a Latin Dissertation, which was
honoured with the first prize in the University of Cambridge, for the year
1785.
Clarkson's Essay was immediately influential, and it soon brought him into
contact with others who had published or campaigned against the slave
trade, including James Ramsay and Granville Sharp. In May 1787, Clarkson
was one of the twelve men who formed the Committee for Abolition of the
African Slave Trade. Clarkson took on the role of fact-finder, and for the next
two years rode around the country gathering evidence against the trade. Insome places, notably the major slave-trading ports of Bristol and Liverpool,
this was a dangerous activity, not least because Clarkson tried openly to
gather support for the abolition campaign. On his periodic returns to London,
Clarkson passed his evidence to the Abolition Committee, who arranged for
the campaign to be taken to parliament where William Wilberforce was
leading the effort to outlaw the trade. In February 1788, a committee of the
privy council started to take evidence on 'the present state of the African
trade'. While Wilberforce steered the campaign through parliament, Clarkson
continued to produce new evidence, evidence which Wilberforce put to good
use in his famous speech of 12 May 1789. Meanwhile, Clarkson made much
of his evidence available to the wider public as well as to parliament:
between 1787 and 1794, he wrote several books or pamphlets opposing the
slave trade. His energies were not just confined to Britain. In the autumn of
1789, he went to Paris where he attempted (with little success) to persuade
the new government of France to abolish the slave trade. As he pointed out
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in the many letters he wrote to Mirabeau on the subject, and which were
later published, the revolutionary ideals of libert, fraternit, and galit
meant little if they were not extended to the slaves. Clarkson's energy was
unabated on his return to London early in 1790. He continued to work hard in
London and, later that year, resumed his travels throughout Britain, travels
which he kept up for several years. In the meantime, the parliamentary
campaign was not going well. [See the Wilberforce page for more details]
Public interest in abolition declined as well. Clarkson threw himself into the
task with increased vigour, but it could not last. In July 1794, he suffered a
physical breakdown brought on by overwork. Completely burned-out, and
having spent most of his money, he was forced to retire from the campaign.
A subscription was raised on his behalf by Wilberforce. Unfortunately, this act
of charity was later to be the source of some unpleasantness.
The abolition campaign lay dormant until the early years of the nineteenth
century. In 1803, Clarkson returned to the committee and, in the following
year, its efforts were renewed with a new campaign. Clarkson once again
toured the country gathering evidence while Wilberforce again introduced
the Abolition Bill before parliament. The Bill fell in 1804 and 1805, but gave
the abolitionists an opportunity to sound out support. A public campaign
once again promoted the cause, and the new Whig government was in
favour as well. In January 1807, the Abolition Bill was again introduced, this
time attracting very considerable support, and, on 23 February 1807,
parliament voted overwhelmingly in favour of abolition of the slave trade.
Clarkson was celebrated as a national figure and a model of philanthropy. In1808, on the crest of this wave, he wrote the comprehensive History of the
Rise, Progress and Accomplishment of the Abolition of the African Slave
Trade. This book provides the historian with much of the detail of the
abolition campaign, and is an important record of the movement. However,
some felt that Clarkson overplayed his own contribution (he had, after all,
been absent between 1794 and 1803). Modern historians have also noted
the rather self-congratulatory tone of the work, which did much to foster the
myth of virtuous philanthropy of the anti-slavery 'saints'. Nonetheless,
Clarkson's dedication to the cause is undoubted.
With the abolition of the slave trade, public interest in the issue waned
temporarily. Clarkson remained committed, not only to abolition of the trade
around the world, but to the complete emancipation of the slaves in British
colonies. He remained active on both fronts, including travelling to France in
1818 to press the Czar of Russia, Alexander I, to suppress the slave trade. In
1823, the Anti-Slavery Society was formed to press for emancipation.
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Cambridge. Thus, in 1773, at the very young age of fourteen, William Pitt the
Younger set off for Pembroke Hall in Cambridge, where he studied the
classics, math, English history, and political philosophy.
Having been sickly all of his life, William had another attack of gout. For this,
his doctor prescribed a bottle of port a day as the cure. Even though he wasonly fourteen, he continued to drink for the rest of his life. Several years
later, after graduating, in 1778, Pitts father made his last speech. Less than
a month after this speech, he died leaving his son an income of less than
3,000 a year. This sent Pitt into major debt, which he kept till his death.
While at Cambridge, Pitt met and befriended a young scholar named William
Wilberforce. Their friendship is important because later, Wilberforce helped
Pitt in his rise to power as the Prime Minister. In addition, Pitt also helped
Wilberforce in his fight for the abolition of slavery. While they were both still
in their early 20s, Pitt and Wilberforce were both elected to Parliament. Thishelped Pitt in his political career immensely because now he could make his
opinions known to the important members of society.
Beginning in 1782 a series of political circumstances quickly moved the
office of Prime Minister onto Pitt's young shoulders. Charles Watson-
Wentworth succeeded Lord North as Prime Minister but he died only three
months later. William Petty, another Whig, was appointed Prime Minister by
the King. Most of the other Whigs, including Charles James Fox (a sworn
political enemy of Pitt), disliked this decision and many protested. However,
Pitt decided to support Petty and was then given the position of Chancellor of
the Exchequer, second only to the Prime Minister.
Fox then joined with Lord North, and they decided to bring about the defeat
of Petty. When Petty resigned in 1783, King George III, who hated Fox, offered
Pitt the office of Prime Minister. But Pitt declined, knowing he would never
gain the support of the House of Commons. The Fox-North Coalition rose topower, and eventually lost control of the government and resigned. After this
resignation, the King once again asked Pitt to take on the role as Prime
Minister and 24 year old Pitt gladly accepted, becoming the youngest Prime
Minister on record.
Pitt appeared to have no religious status. Looking over his life, there was no
sign that he was a Christian. He appeared to believe in God, but it all ends
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there. As far as can be deciphered, Pitt showed no interest in religion until
William Wilberforces conversion. But even after that, all records have shown
he had no interest in God or Jesus at all.
After having been Prime Minister for a few years, Pitt had gained much
popularity. In 1788, Pitt advised William Wilberforce to take up the fightingfor the abolition of the slave trade. After much convincing, Wilberforce finally
agreed. But on the day Wilberforce was supposed to propose the resolution,
he became ill. Because of this, Pitt had to propose the resolution for him.
Surprisingly enough, after giving the resolution to the House of Commons,
his main support came from the Fox administration, his sworn enemy.
Because of this unexpected support, the resolution was passed into
Parliament.
Then war struck. Prior the start of the French revolution, Pitt had to keep
England finances alive. This was an ironic job for William due to the fact thehe personally owed thousands of pounds in various debts. On January 1,
1801, Pitt saw the success of his work to unite Roman Catholic Ireland and
Anglican England as a stand against possible French invasion. However, King
George III would not allow the additional freedoms Pitt pushed for the
Catholics and Pitt resigned in protest. Following the resignation of Prime
Minister Henry Addington in 1804, William Pitt returned to the position
despite his weakened body from a life time of sickness. In October 1805,
Admiral Horatio Nelson performed spectacularly at the Battle of Trafalgar,
perhaps causing Napoleon Bonaparte to put off his French invasion intoEngland.
The war against France was still not going well when, at only 47 years old,
Prime Minister Pitt lay in his bed very sick with presumably liver failure. As he
looked out his window he thought of England. His last words are reported to
be either, Oh, my country! How I leave my country! or I think I could eat
one of Bellamy's veal pies. At his death in 1806, he was buried at West
Minster Abbey and his debt of 40,000 was paid off by the country of
England. Years later, when William Wilberforce died, he was buried right next
to his lifelong friend, William Pitt.
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James Stephen
James Stephen was born on 30 June 1758 and died on 10 October 1832.He
was the principal English lawyer associated with the abolitionist movement.
Stephen was born in Poole, Dorset; the family home later being removed to
Stoke Newington. He married twice and was the father of Sir James Stephenand grandfather of Sir James Fitzjames Stephen and Sir Leslie Stephen and
great-grandfather of Virginia Woolf.
James Stephen began his career reporting on parliamentary proceedings.
Later he held an official post in the Caribbean at St. Kitts; at that time a
British colony. During a visit to Barbados he witnessed the trial of four black
slaves for murder. The trial, which found the men guilty as charged, was
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considered by many to be a grave miscarriage of justice. The men were
sentenced to death by burning, and Stephens' revulsion at both the trial and
the verdict led him to vow never to keep slaves himself, and to ally himself
with the abolitionist movement. He opposed the opening up of Trinidad
through the use of slave labour when ceded to the British in 1797,
recommending instead that Crown land should only be granted for estates
that supported the immigration of free Africans. He considered that, besides
the evangelical arguments in support of freedom from slavery, internal
security, particularly from potential French interests, could be obtained in the
British West Indian Islands by improving the conditions of slaves.
Stephen was a skilled lawyer whose specialty was the laws governing Great
Britain's foreign trade. He was a defender of the mercantilist system of
government-licensed controlled trade. In October, 1805 the same month
that the British fleet under Lord Nelson defeated the French fleet his book
appeared: War in Disguise; or, the Frauds of the Neutral Flags. It called for
the abolition of neutral nations' carrying trade, meaning America's carrying
trade, between France's Caribbean islands and Europe, including Great
Britain. Stephen's arguments two years later became the basis of Great
Britain's Orders in Council, which placed restrictions on American vessels.
The enforcement of this law by British warships eventually led to the War of
1812, even though the Orders were repealed in the same month that
America declared war, unbeknown to the American Congress.
James Stephen's second marriage was to Sarah, sister of William Wilberforce,in 1800, and through this connection he became frequently acquainted with
many of the figures in the anti-slavery movement. Several of his friendships
amongst the abolitionists were made in Clapham (home to the Clapham
Sect) where he had removed from Sloane Square in 1797; also in the village
of Stoke Newington a few miles north of London, where James Stephen's
father leased a family home from 1774 onwards called Summerhouse. The
property adjoined Fleetwood House andAbney House at Abney Park and
stood where Summerhouse Road is built today. Close by were the residences
of three prominent Quaker abolitionists: William Allen (17701843), Joseph
Woods the elder, and Samuel Hoare the younger (17511825). The latter twowere founder members of the predecessor body to the Committee for the
Abolition of the Slave Trade.
Anna Letitia Barbauld, author ofAn Epistle to William Wilberforce (1791) also
came to live in Stoke Newington in 1802. Inevitably, Wilberforce also became
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a frequent visitor to Stoke Newington, combining meetings with William Allen
and his Quaker circle with visits to his sister Sarah and brother-in-law James.
James Stephen came to be regarded as the chief architect of the Slave Trade
Act 1807, providing William Wilberforce with the legal mastermind he needed
for its drafting. To close off loopholes pointed out by some critics, he becamea Director of the Africa Institution for the Registration of Slaves through
which he advocated a centralized registry, administered by the British
government, which would furnish precise statistics on all slave births, deaths,
and sale, so that "any unregistered black would be presumed free". Though
he introduced many successful ideas to strengthen the legal success of the
abolitionist cause, this mechanism which he believed to be "the only
effective means to prevent British colonists from illicitly importing African
slaves" was never taken up. His last public engagement was a speaking
engagement at a meeting of the Anti-Slavery Society at Exeter Hall in 1832.
From 1808 to 1815 James Stephen became an MP, and in 1811 Master in
Chancery. In 1826 he issuedAn Address to the People and Electors of
England, in which, echoing his speeches, he had some success in urging the
election of Members of Parliament who would not be "tools of the West India
interest", paving the way for the second Abolition Bill which succeeded in
1833.
Stephen's second wife, Sarah ne Wilberforce, died in 1816. Her Niece,
Barbara Wilberforce, died in 1821, and in 1832 Stephen himself died. All
three are buried at St Mary's churchyard, Stoke Newington, London, along
with Stephen's first wife, his mother and father and two of his infant
daughters. Three sons from Stephen's first marriage (m. Anna Stent at St
Leonard, Shoreditch 1783) survived him, and achieved prominence in law,
abolition and the civil service: Sir James Stephen (17891859), Henry John
Stephen (17871864), and George Stephen (17941879). NOTE: - Sarah
Wilberforce (c. 1757 1816) was the eldest sister of William Wilberforce
(17591833), the Abolitionist of Slavery, and Barbara (17991821) was his
daughter.
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Zachary Macaulay
Zachary Macaulay (2 May 1768 13 May 1838) was a slavery abolitionist and
campaigner.Macaulay was born in Inveraray, Scotland, the son of the Rev.
John Macaulay (17201789, minister in the Church of Scotland, grandson of
Dmhnall Cam,[1] and his mother was Margaret Campbell. He had two
brothers, Rev. Aulay Macaulay, scholar and antiquary, and Colin Macaulay,
General, slavery abolitionist and campaigner.
Receiving only a rudimentary education, he eventually taught himself Greek
and Latin, and read the English classics. Having worked in a merchants
office in Glasgow, he fell into bad company and began to indulge in
excessive drinking.
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In late 1784, at the age of sixteen, in order to get his life into some kind of
order, Macaulay emigrated to Jamaica, where he worked as an assistant
manager at a sugar plantation. He was at first deeply affected by the horrific
violence of the slavery which surrounded him, but eventually became
hardened to the plight of the slaves (by his own admission callous and
indifferent). He was a good worker, had successfully moderated his drinking,
and proved himself to be a model bookkeeper. He also, eventually, began to
take an interest in the slaves and their welfare.
In 1789 Macaulay returned to Britain and secured a position in London. His
sister Jean had married Thomas Babington of Rothley Temple, Leicestershire,
a country gentleman and ardent evangelical, and soon after Macaulay went
to stay with them he began to come under their influence. He underwent
what he described as a conversion experience and soon came to know
Babingtons associates, among whom were William Wilberforce and Henry
Thornton.
Sierra LeonePartly because of his experiences in Jamaica, in 1790 Macaulay
was invited to visit Sierra Leone, the west African colony founded by the
Sierra Leone Company to provide a home for emancipated slaves from the
United States who came to Sierra Leone via Nova Scotia.
Returning to the colony in 1792 as one of the council members, he was
promoted to governor in 1794, and was the longest serving governor of
Freetown during the 1790s. An unpopular governor, Macaulay remained as
governor until 1799.
Macaulay married Selina Mills of Bristol (to whom he had been introduced by
Hannah More) on 26 August 1799, and they settled in Clapham, Surrey. They
had several children, including
Thomas Babington Macaulay the historian, poet and politician .Hannah More
Macaulay (18101873) who married Sir Charles Trevelyan and was the
mother of Sir George Otto Trevelyan
Macaulay became a member of the Society for the Abolition of the SlaveTrade, working closely with William Wilberforce, and soon becoming a leading
figure in the parliamentary campaign against the slave trade. He later
became secretary of the committee, which became known as the African
Institution.
His major contribution was to work on the collection and collating of the huge
volume of evidence and drafting of reports a role to which he was ideally
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suited as a skilled statistician with a meticulous approach and an exceptional
head for figures.
He also became a member of the Clapham Sect of evangelical Christian
reformers, together with Wilberforce, Henry Thornton and Edward Eliot, and
edited their magazine, the Christian Observer, from 1802 to 1816.
In the 1820s Macaulay turned his attention towards securing the total
abolition of slavery itself. He helped found the Society for the Mitigation and
Gradual Abolition of Slavery (later the Anti-Slavery Society) in 1823, and was
editor of its publication, the Anti-Slavery Reporter. Through his incessant
hard work and reasoned argument, he helped to lay the foundation for the
eventual abolition of slavery throughout the British Empire in 1833.
A fellow of the Royal Society, he was also an active supporter of the British
and Foreign Bible Society the Cheap Repository Tracts and the ChurchMissionary Society.
Last daysAfter a period of ill health, Macaulay died in London on 13 May
1838. A memorial to him was erected in Westminster Abbey, depicting the
figure of a kneeling slave with the motto Am I not a Man and a Brother?
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Charles James Fox
Charles James Fox (24 January 1749 13 September 1806), styled The
Honourable from 1762, was a prominent British Whig statesman whose
parliamentary career spanned thirty-eight years of the late 18th and early
19th centuries and who was particularly noted for being the arch-rival of
William Pitt the Younger. The son of an old, indulgent Whig father, Fox rose to
prominence in the House of Commons as a forceful and eloquent speaker
with a notorious and colourful private life, though his opinions were rather
conservative and conventional. However, with the coming of the American
Revolution and the influence of the Whig Edmund Burke, Fox's opinions
evolved into some of the most radical ever to be aired in the Parliament of
his era. He came from a family with radical and revolutionary tendencies and
his first cousin and friend Lord Edward Fitzgerald was a prominent member of
the Society of United Irishmen who was arrested just prior to the Irish
Rebellion of 1798 and died of wounds received as he was arrested.
Fox became a prominent and staunch opponent of George III, whom he
regarded as an aspiring tyrant; he supported the revolutionaries across the
Atlantic, taking up the habit of dressing in the colours of George
Washington's army. Briefly serving as Britain's first Foreign Secretary in the
ministry of the Marquess of Rockingham in 1782, he returned to the post in a
coalition government with his old enemy Lord North in 1783. However, the
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King forced Fox and North out of government before the end of the year,
replacing them with the twenty-four-year-old Pitt the Younger, and Fox spent
the following twenty-two years facing Pitt and the government benches from
across the Commons.
Though Fox had little interest in the actual exercise of power and spentalmost the entirety of his political career in opposition, he became noted as
an anti-slavery campaigner, a supporter of the French Revolution, and a
leading parliamentary advocate of religious tolerance and individual liberty.
His friendship with his mentor Burke and his parliamentary credibility were
both casualties of Fox's support for France during the Revolutionary Wars,
but he went on to attack Pitt's wartime legislation and to defend the liberty
of religious minorities and political radicals. After Pitt's death in January 1806,
Fox served briefly as Foreign Secretary in the 'Ministry of All the Talents' of
William Grenville, before he died on 13 September 1806, aged fifty-seven.
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Table of
ContentsJohn Wesley page 1
George Fox page 4
William Wilberforce page 6
The Quakers page
12
The Clapham Sect page
16
James Ramsey page
19
Thomas Clarkson page
21
William Pitt page 23
James Stephen page
27
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Zachary Macualay page
30
Charles James Fox page
33
History
Project
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