History of the Science of History of the Science of World ReligionsWorld Religions

A. Religion—from Latin “religio”A. Religion—from Latin “religio”1. Originally seems to referred to as 1. Originally seems to referred to as

“fear” or reverence for the gods—later to the “fear” or reverence for the gods—later to the rites offered to themrites offered to them

2. Confusion as to where word 2. Confusion as to where word originatesoriginates

a. “relegere”--to gather things a. “relegere”--to gather things together” or “to pass over things repeatedly”together” or “to pass over things repeatedly”

b. “religare”--to bind things b. “religare”--to bind things together”—emphasize communal aspect—together”—emphasize communal aspect—draws people into religious rites, practice and draws people into religious rites, practice and beliefbelief

A. The study of religions seemingly A. The study of religions seemingly originated with the Greeksoriginated with the Greeks 1. Herodotus—father of history—took 1. Herodotus—father of history—took

seriously the chronology of the pastseriously the chronology of the past 2. Epicurus—a radical critic of religion 2. Epicurus—a radical critic of religion

and sought to catalog and explain the and sought to catalog and explain the sense of the sacredsense of the sacred

3. Stoics—believed there was a 3. Stoics—believed there was a common denominator of sacred behind common denominator of sacred behind all religionall religion

B. Romans studied religionB. Romans studied religion 1. Cicero—concerned with the word 1. Cicero—concerned with the word

“religion” and was first to use the term“religion” and was first to use the term 2. Seneca, Tacitus, and Julius Caesar all 2. Seneca, Tacitus, and Julius Caesar all

interested in the studyinterested in the study 3. After Christianity emerged study of 3. After Christianity emerged study of

different religions was neglected since different religions was neglected since the church was more concerned with its the church was more concerned with its own mission and survivalown mission and survival

C. Confrontation with IslamC. Confrontation with Islam 1. Islam rapid expansion1. Islam rapid expansion 2. Crusades2. Crusades

D. The Modern Mission MovementD. The Modern Mission Movement With William Carey in 1792With William Carey in 1792

E. The New Empiricism and E. The New Empiricism and RationalismRationalism 1. Deists and philosophers such as 1. Deists and philosophers such as

Hume, Rousseau, and Voltaire discussed Hume, Rousseau, and Voltaire discussed the problem of “natural religion”the problem of “natural religion”

2. Max Mueller wrote an essay on 2. Max Mueller wrote an essay on comparative mythology—he found the comparative mythology—he found the origin of myths in natural phenomenaorigin of myths in natural phenomena

Criteria for the Study of World Criteria for the Study of World ReligionsReligions

A. Objectivity—students of religion A. Objectivity—students of religion must observe facts as objectively as must observe facts as objectively as possiblepossible 1. One must consider sacred texts and 1. One must consider sacred texts and

historical manifestations of the faithhistorical manifestations of the faith 2. It is important not to pre-judge 2. It is important not to pre-judge

another religious perspectiveanother religious perspective

B. A Thorough GroundingB. A Thorough Grounding 1. Must have knowledge of history, 1. Must have knowledge of history,

psychology, philosophy, sociology, and psychology, philosophy, sociology, and theology in order to come to the theology in order to come to the essenceessence of different religions of different religions

2. Such facts are necessary for 2. Such facts are necessary for intelligent comparisons and discussionsintelligent comparisons and discussions

C. Proper CriteriaC. Proper Criteria One must have the responsibility to One must have the responsibility to

establish a criteria for judgment based establish a criteria for judgment based on fact, not value judgmentson fact, not value judgments

Distinguishing between fact and Distinguishing between fact and valuevalue 1. A factual judgment asserts that 1. A factual judgment asserts that isis or or

is sois so 2. A value judgment asserts that 2. A value judgment asserts that

something something ought to beought to be

The Study of ReligionThe Study of Religion

A. AnimismA. Animism Edward Tylor—founder of modern Edward Tylor—founder of modern

anthropologyanthropology

A type of consciousness in animate A type of consciousness in animate and inanimate objectsand inanimate objects

B.B. FearFear

C.C. Rabbi BrownRabbi Brown Anicent humanity was Anicent humanity was

insecure because of the insecure because of the forces of natureforces of nature

Suggested Gen. 1:1 should Suggested Gen. 1:1 should have readhave read

““in the beginning was fear”in the beginning was fear” Lucretius offered this as Lucretius offered this as

explanation of origin of explanation of origin of religionreligion

““We fear what we do not We fear what we do not know”know”

C.C. Totemism—DurkheimTotemism—Durkheim

Worship of ancestorsWorship of ancestors

Religion arose out of fear for Religion arose out of fear for loved onesloved ones

Tribe was the family enlargedTribe was the family enlarged

Religion is identified with Religion is identified with societysociety

D. High God Revelation—Wilhelm D. High God Revelation—Wilhelm SchmidtSchmidt Rooted against evolution view of Rooted against evolution view of

religionreligion Believed most ancient people had a Believed most ancient people had a

belief in a higher beingbelief in a higher being

Definitions of ReligionDefinitions of Religion

A. Religion as a phenomenon looked A. Religion as a phenomenon looked on as universal—Eliade’s concept of on as universal—Eliade’s concept of the the

““sense of the sacred”sense of the sacred”

B. Anti-Rationalistic DefinitionsB. Anti-Rationalistic Definitions 1. Lucretius—an anti-rational, coercive 1. Lucretius—an anti-rational, coercive

forceforce

2. Reinanch—a sum of scruples which 2. Reinanch—a sum of scruples which impede the free exercise of our facultiesimpede the free exercise of our faculties

3. Marx—a pathological manifestation of 3. Marx—a pathological manifestation of protective forces, deviation caused by protective forces, deviation caused by ignorance of natural causes and their effectsignorance of natural causes and their effects

C. Intellectual DefinitionC. Intellectual Definition Max Mueller wrote that religion is a Max Mueller wrote that religion is a

mental factor independent of sense and mental factor independent of sense and reason to apprehend the infinite in reason to apprehend the infinite in different namesdifferent names

D. Emotional DefinitionsD. Emotional Definitions 1. Schleiermacher saw the essence of 1. Schleiermacher saw the essence of

religion as an emotion and consists of religion as an emotion and consists of feelings of absolute dependencefeelings of absolute dependence

2. McTaggert said religion is best 2. McTaggert said religion is best described as an emotion resting in described as an emotion resting in conviction of harmony between conviction of harmony between ourselves and the universe at largeourselves and the universe at large

E. Religion as MoralityE. Religion as Morality Immanuel Kant saw religion as the Immanuel Kant saw religion as the

recognitions of our duties as divine recognitions of our duties as divine commands, the driving force of the commands, the driving force of the sacred is morality, e.g., tabu, holinesssacred is morality, e.g., tabu, holiness

F. Psychological DefinitionF. Psychological Definition William James said that religion comes William James said that religion comes

from the feelings and experiences and from the feelings and experiences and individual peopleindividual people

G. Religion as Ultimate Valuation—Paul Tillich’s ultimate G. Religion as Ultimate Valuation—Paul Tillich’s ultimate concernconcern 1. Ultimate concern has priority in the system of concerns 1. Ultimate concern has priority in the system of concerns

which constitutes a personality or a culture—it gives meaning which constitutes a personality or a culture—it gives meaning and purpose to human lifeand purpose to human life

2. Ultimate concern is pervasive—spread over the totality of 2. Ultimate concern is pervasive—spread over the totality of existenceexistence

3. Ultimate concern is concerned with the holy—Rudolph Otto 3. Ultimate concern is concerned with the holy—Rudolph Otto saw holiness as a special and unique experience. He coined saw holiness as a special and unique experience. He coined the phrase the phrase numinousnuminous, from Latin meaning divinity, god, or , from Latin meaning divinity, god, or spirit—refers to a special feeling of aweness or fearspirit—refers to a special feeling of aweness or fear

4. Ultimate concern has to do with the expression and 4. Ultimate concern has to do with the expression and communication of religious experience—religious experience communication of religious experience—religious experience takes place through symbolic words, objects, and actionstakes place through symbolic words, objects, and actions

5. Ultimate Concern is both lived and celebrated---celebrated 5. Ultimate Concern is both lived and celebrated---celebrated through liturgy and mythology—lived out in the religious through liturgy and mythology—lived out in the religious expressions influencing all factors of lifeexpressions influencing all factors of life

Three Types of Religious Three Types of Religious ExperienceExperience

A. Cosmic Religion—one in which A. Cosmic Religion—one in which there is found a plurality of religious there is found a plurality of religious objects or gods; it is polytheistic. objects or gods; it is polytheistic. The many gods are associated with The many gods are associated with nature and/or culture. Prehistoric nature and/or culture. Prehistoric and folk religions are examples of and folk religions are examples of this typethis type

B. Acosmic Religion—one in which is B. Acosmic Religion—one in which is found the religious object beyond the found the religious object beyond the common secular world of nature and common secular world of nature and society—usually emphasizes the society—usually emphasizes the One.One.

Hinduism and transcendental Hinduism and transcendental monism are examplesmonism are examples

C. Historical Religion—one in which C. Historical Religion—one in which is found the religious object beyond is found the religious object beyond and within the common world—sees and within the common world—sees history as linear—examples are history as linear—examples are Judaism, Christanity, and IslamJudaism, Christanity, and Islam

Religion of Pre-Historic Religion of Pre-Historic HumanityHumanity

A.A. Concept of religion is believed to have Concept of religion is believed to have began in the Old Stone Age (Palaeolithic) began in the Old Stone Age (Palaeolithic) with the Neanderthals (100,000-25,000 with the Neanderthals (100,000-25,000 years ago) years ago)

1. Deliberate and meticulous care of 1. Deliberate and meticulous care of burying burying dead, with ceremonydead, with ceremony

2. The dead were buried in a “fetal” 2. The dead were buried in a “fetal” position—a “return to the womb”position—a “return to the womb”

3. Example of burial in Monte Cicero 3. Example of burial in Monte Cicero (Italy)(Italy)

a. Bones of deer, horse, hyena, a. Bones of deer, horse, hyena, elephant, elephant, and lion were on the floor and and lion were on the floor and heaped up heaped up around the walls in pilesaround the walls in piles

b. On the floor beneath the cranaium b. On the floor beneath the cranaium were were two fractured metacarpals of an two fractured metacarpals of an ox and of a ox and of a deerdeer

c. The skull showed signs of having c. The skull showed signs of having received received a fatal blow on the right side of a fatal blow on the right side of the templethe temple

d. At its base the portion connecting the d. At its base the portion connecting the braid with the spinal cord had been braid with the spinal cord had been

cut away cut away after death, probably to extract after death, probably to extract the brainthe brain

e. The site appeared be a place in which e. The site appeared be a place in which the body was deposited ceremonially in a the body was deposited ceremonially in a cave used for ritual purposes as a sacred cave used for ritual purposes as a sacred ossuaryossuary

4. Another example of a ritual burial is in Bavaria4. Another example of a ritual burial is in Bavaria

a. A nest of 27 human skulls were found in a. A nest of 27 human skulls were found in a group a group embedded in red ochre, the skulls embedded in red ochre, the skulls looking westwardlooking westward

b. A few yards away was a second identical b. A few yards away was a second identical group group of six skulls—some of these the of six skulls—some of these the cervical vertebrae cervical vertebrae were still attached and were still attached and from their condition the from their condition the heads must have heads must have been severed from the body after been severed from the body after death with death with flint knivesflint knives

c. Those skulls in the center were tightly packed together and crushed—it seems that they had been added one by one from time to time

d. Twenty of the skulls were of children ornamented with snail shells; nine were of women

with necklaces of deer teeth, and four were of adult males

B.B. Cro-Magnons (25,000-10,000 years ago)—more Cro-Magnons (25,000-10,000 years ago)—more developeddeveloped

1. First “idols” found were of female deities—1. First “idols” found were of female deities—shows interest in fertility; the concept of the shows interest in fertility; the concept of the “mother goddess” beginning to appear as a “mother goddess” beginning to appear as a fecundity motiffecundity motif

2. From drawings, it appears the 2. From drawings, it appears the concept of symphatic magic was being concept of symphatic magic was being conceivedconceived3. Throughout other burial sites, certain 3. Throughout other burial sites, certain shells (cowrie) were shaped in the form shells (cowrie) were shaped in the form of a portal through which a child enters of a portal through which a child enters the worldthe world4. During this time there was a 4. During this time there was a widespread custom of placing ochreous widespread custom of placing ochreous powder on the body: red was the color powder on the body: red was the color of life and placing the red ochre on the of life and placing the red ochre on the body suggests a belief in a “life to come”body suggests a belief in a “life to come”

5. One anthropologist believes the painting of 5. One anthropologist believes the painting of the body with the red ochre was the first the body with the red ochre was the first “mummification” and an attempt to make the “mummification” and an attempt to make the body “servicable” againbody “servicable” again

6. Some burial spots could suggest that the living 6. Some burial spots could suggest that the living were making offerings to the dead out of a fear were making offerings to the dead out of a fear and awe of themand awe of them

C. Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age, 10,000-C. Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age, 10,000-7,000 years ago7,000 years ago

1. This age was a transitional age which 1. This age was a transitional age which saw the saw the vanishing of the ice sheet and a vanishing of the ice sheet and a gradual shift from gradual shift from nomadic to village lifenomadic to village life

2. In one grave site in Brittany were found 2. In one grave site in Brittany were found a great a great ossuary with ten burial sites, ossuary with ten burial sites, including the remains including the remains of 23 individuals.of 23 individuals.

a. The bodies were crouched in a. The bodies were crouched in shallow shallow trench caves trench caves near the near the hearths accompanied hearths accompanied by implements, by implements, perforated shell necklaces, perforated shell necklaces, and bracletsand braclets

b. The bodies were covered with red b. The bodies were covered with red ochre ochre and stone slabsand stone slabs

c. It appeared that the bodies were c. It appeared that the bodies were clothed clothed where they were interredwhere they were interred

3. In Denmark there was a continuation of 3. In Denmark there was a continuation of extended burial in earth graves defined by extended burial in earth graves defined by

a small a small ring of small stones around the body ring of small stones around the body and covered and covered with a large earth mound with a large earth mound known as dyssers or known as dyssers or dolmansdolmans

D. The Neolithic (New Stone Age, 7000-3000 D. The Neolithic (New Stone Age, 7000-3000 years agoyears ago

1. This age is characterized by several 1. This age is characterized by several great great changeschanges

a. Early forms of agriculture, with a. Early forms of agriculture, with active active tilling of the soiltilling of the soil

b. Domestication of animals and their b. Domestication of animals and their gathering into flocks and herdsgathering into flocks and herds

c. Advances in the arts of pottery, c. Advances in the arts of pottery, plaiting, plaiting, weaving, and sewingweaving, and sewing

d. Establishment of settled d. Establishment of settled communities with communities with an accompanying an accompanying growth of populationgrowth of population

e. The invention of the wheeled carde. The invention of the wheeled card

f. The first surgeryf. The first surgery

2. Religion also being radically transformed2. Religion also being radically transformed

a. The Mother Goddess or Great a. The Mother Goddess or Great Goddess of Goddess of earlier hunting culture became earlier hunting culture became associated associated with creation and regenerationwith creation and regeneration

b. Female divine power went beyond b. Female divine power went beyond the the animal models of birthing and nurture animal models of birthing and nurture to the to the watering, tending, and watering, tending, and protecting of the protecting of the whole world of whole world of vegetationvegetation

c. Studies of Old Europe (Balkans) c. Studies of Old Europe (Balkans) reveal a reveal a pantheon of mostly female pantheon of mostly female deities deities subsequently obscured, subsequently obscured, but not fully but not fully displaced by later displaced by later Indo-Aryan patriarchal and Indo-Aryan patriarchal and gender-gender-polarized views.polarized views.

Generalizations of Generalizations of Tribal ReligionsTribal Religions

A. Traditional—no written language existsA. Traditional—no written language exists

B. Naturalistic framework of reference—B. Naturalistic framework of reference—biological drivesbiological drives

C. Spontaneous—response to stimuli, C. Spontaneous—response to stimuli, irrationalirrational

Broad GeneralizationsBroad Generalizations

A. Primitive religion is monistic—no dualismA. Primitive religion is monistic—no dualism

B. A sense of absolute interdependence of all B. A sense of absolute interdependence of all thingsthings

C. Interdependence maintained by infallible rigid C. Interdependence maintained by infallible rigid authorityauthority

D. Religion serves to maintain social harmony D. Religion serves to maintain social harmony and stabilityand stability

E. No opposites among tribal people—everything E. No opposites among tribal people—everything and everybody complementaryand everybody complementary

Characteristics of Characteristics of Religion in Primal Religion in Primal

CulturesCultures

A. Awe before the SacredA. Awe before the Sacred

1. Rudolf Otto in The Ideal of the Holy, bases the 1. Rudolf Otto in The Ideal of the Holy, bases the experience of the holy upon an encounter with a experience of the holy upon an encounter with a mysterium tremendum et fascinosum,mysterium tremendum et fascinosum, and found and found

it it in all religions—the degree of the sense of the in all religions—the degree of the sense of the awe awe or holy various tremendously with each groupor holy various tremendously with each group

2. In most primitive societies the sacred 2. In most primitive societies the sacred possesses possesses a special significance and cannot be a special significance and cannot be handled lightlyhandled lightly

3. Objects and persons can have this “awe” 3. Objects and persons can have this “awe” within within themthem

B. Expressions of anxiety in ritualB. Expressions of anxiety in ritual

1. When there is a sense of the sacred, 1. When there is a sense of the sacred, anxiety anxiety occurs and will cause “action”occurs and will cause “action”

2. This “action” takes the form of special 2. This “action” takes the form of special deeds and deeds and wordswords

3. Such anxiety is the basis of all religious 3. Such anxiety is the basis of all religious ritualritual

C. Ritual and ExpectancyC. Ritual and Expectancy

1. Some rituals are expectant in nature1. Some rituals are expectant in nature

2. They presuppose a causal efficacy2. They presuppose a causal efficacy

3. They are performed to bring health, 3. They are performed to bring health, offspring, offspring, productivity of the soil, fertility of productivity of the soil, fertility of cattle, et alcattle, et al

4. Other rites occur at specific times for 4. Other rites occur at specific times for specific specific purposespurposes

a. Rites of passage—connected with a. Rites of passage—connected with birth, birth, name giving, initiation, betrothal, name giving, initiation, betrothal, marriage, marriage, death, etcdeath, etc

b. The elevation to tribal leadership b. The elevation to tribal leadership or or kingshipkingship

D. Myth and RitualD. Myth and Ritual

1. The making of myth is common in all 1. The making of myth is common in all human human culturescultures

2. Myths help to answer questions as to the 2. Myths help to answer questions as to the origin origin of actions or beliefsof actions or beliefs

3. Cosmogonic or “creation” myths help to 3. Cosmogonic or “creation” myths help to explain explain the origin of existencethe origin of existence

4. An etiological myth is one that explains 4. An etiological myth is one that explains how how things have come to be as they are nowthings have come to be as they are now

5. The quasi-historical myth is the 5. The quasi-historical myth is the elaboration of an elaboration of an original happening, usually original happening, usually involving a hero or involving a hero or pioneer figurepioneer figure

E. Types of magicE. Types of magic

1. Magic may be loosely defined as 1. Magic may be loosely defined as an an endeavor endeavor through utterance of set words, or the through utterance of set words, or the performance performance of set acts, or both, to control or of set acts, or both, to control or bend the powers of bend the powers of the world to one’s willthe world to one’s will

2. Sympathetic magic (James Frazer) takes 2. Sympathetic magic (James Frazer) takes an an imitative form based upon analogyimitative form based upon analogy

a. It assumes that look-alikes act a. It assumes that look-alikes act alike, or, alike, or, more significantly, that like more significantly, that like influences or even influences or even produces likeproduces like

b. Thus, if one imitates the looks and b. Thus, if one imitates the looks and actions actions of a person or an animal (or of a person or an animal (or even a even a thundercloud), one can thundercloud), one can induce a like and induce a like and desired action in the desired action in the imitated being or objectimitated being or object

3. Outcomes of magic are considered to be:3. Outcomes of magic are considered to be:

a. Productive—Cro-Magnon hunting magic a. Productive—Cro-Magnon hunting magic (painting) was a type of imitative magic(painting) was a type of imitative magic

b. Aversive—one can use magic to hurt b. Aversive—one can use magic to hurt one’s one’s enemies by imitating a harmful act enemies by imitating a harmful act upon an upon an image of a personimage of a person

c. Contagious—things conjoined and then c. Contagious—things conjoined and then separated still are connected—thus separated still are connected—thus

severed severed hair or fingernails retain a magical hair or fingernails retain a magical sympathy sympathy with the person to whom they with the person to whom they belongbelong

4. Methods of control of magic4. Methods of control of magic

a. Fetishism—refers to any resort to a. Fetishism—refers to any resort to a a presumed power in inanimate presumed power in inanimate objects—objects— includes objects which includes objects which have power innate in have power innate in themthem

b. Shamanism—refers to the b. Shamanism—refers to the conjuring of conjuring of spirits into or out of spirits into or out of human beings by one human beings by one who is similarly who is similarly spirit-possessedspirit-possessed

F. PrayerF. Prayer

1. Prayers in preliterate societies are 1. Prayers in preliterate societies are generally generally formal and structuredformal and structured

2. Where the gods are anthropormorphic, 2. Where the gods are anthropormorphic, formal formal prayers generally include elements prayers generally include elements found in more found in more literate societies; namely, literate societies; namely, adoration, confession of adoration, confession of wrongdoing, and wrongdoing, and promise of atonement, promise of atonement, thanksgiving in grateful thanksgiving in grateful recognition of past favors, recognition of past favors, and supplication or and supplication or petitions of a more or less petitions of a more or less specific kindspecific kind

G. DivinationG. Divination

1. A means to by-pass prayer1. A means to by-pass prayer

2. It aims at immediate knowledge of the 2. It aims at immediate knowledge of the intentions intentions or dispositions of the spiritual powersor dispositions of the spiritual powers

3. Usually there is a connection between 3. Usually there is a connection between divination divination and shamanismand shamanism

H. Belief in Mana (Used by Codrington)H. Belief in Mana (Used by Codrington)

1. Mana is a Melanesian term widely used 1. Mana is a Melanesian term widely used to to designate a widespread, although not designate a widespread, although not universal, universal, belief in occult force of indwelling belief in occult force of indwelling supernatural supernatural power distinct from spiritspower distinct from spirits

2. The term refers to an experienced 2. The term refers to an experienced presence of a presence of a powerful but silent forcepowerful but silent force

I. AnimismI. Animism

1. An acceptance that all sorts of 1. An acceptance that all sorts of motionless objects motionless objects as well as living and as well as living and moving creatures have souls or moving creatures have souls or spirits in themspirits in them

2. Identified with E. B. Tylor, who wrote 2. Identified with E. B. Tylor, who wrote that that all all nature is possessed, pervaded, nature is possessed, pervaded, crowded with crowded with spiritual beingsspiritual beings

J. Veneration and worship of powersJ. Veneration and worship of powers

1. Worship can take three modes1. Worship can take three modes

a. Sometimes an object itself is a. Sometimes an object itself is worshipped worshipped as living and active, heavily as living and active, heavily charged with charged with manamana

b. Sometimes the object is nor b. Sometimes the object is nor worshipped worshipped for itself, but for the spirit or for itself, but for the spirit or soul lodged in itsoul lodged in it

c. Sometimes the object is a symbol of c. Sometimes the object is a symbol of the the reality which is worshippedreality which is worshipped

2. Veneration and awe are “short” of worship2. Veneration and awe are “short” of worship

K. Recognition of a Supreme BeingK. Recognition of a Supreme Being

1. Great debate as to whether primal 1. Great debate as to whether primal peoples had a peoples had a belief in a supreme beingbelief in a supreme being

2. It is rather common to find a belief in a 2. It is rather common to find a belief in a deity up deity up in the sky or at a great distance from in the sky or at a great distance from the earththe earth

3. Daily activities did not include such a 3. Daily activities did not include such a high deityhigh deity

4. The great deity usually was the creator 4. The great deity usually was the creator of the of the more popular deitiesmore popular deities

L. Taboo-TabuL. Taboo-Tabu

1. Taboos are prohibitions applied to 1. Taboos are prohibitions applied to things, things, persons, and actions because they persons, and actions because they are considered are considered sacred, dangerous, or socially sacred, dangerous, or socially forbiddenforbidden

2. Many taboos are due to fear based on 2. Many taboos are due to fear based on mana; mana; others may reflect the dread of others may reflect the dread of pollutionpollution

M. Purification ritesM. Purification rites

1. Ceremonies of purification and cleansing 1. Ceremonies of purification and cleansing are due are due to the belief of taboos or the impurity to the belief of taboos or the impurity of a certain of a certain person or objectperson or object

2. In some cases, purification rites are used 2. In some cases, purification rites are used for the for the motive of purifying oneself for future motive of purifying oneself for future ritualritual

3. Purification rites may take the form of 3. Purification rites may take the form of fasting, fasting, abstention from sex, ablutions, et alabstention from sex, ablutions, et al

N. Sacrifices and giftsN. Sacrifices and gifts

1. Sacrifice usually entails the giving up or 1. Sacrifice usually entails the giving up or destruction (e.g., burning) of destruction (e.g., burning) of

something, animate or something, animate or inanimate, human, animal, inanimate, human, animal, or vegetable in order to or vegetable in order to cause it to pass from cause it to pass from human possession to that of human possession to that of the divinethe divine

2. Original sacrifices seem to have involved 2. Original sacrifices seem to have involved animal animal and/or human sacrifices, because the and/or human sacrifices, because the spirits as well spirits as well as humans need the vitality and as humans need the vitality and strength present in strength present in life and bloodlife and blood

3. Sacrifice may be performed to seek 3. Sacrifice may be performed to seek reconciliation reconciliation with a divinitywith a divinity

4. Sacrifice may be performed to placate 4. Sacrifice may be performed to placate the gods; the gods; thus considered to be propitiatorythus considered to be propitiatory

O. Attitudes toward the deadO. Attitudes toward the dead

1. In many ancient societies, there 1. In many ancient societies, there developed a developed a view that the dead may cause view that the dead may cause injury to the livinginjury to the living

2. Thus, some kind of actions or words may 2. Thus, some kind of actions or words may be be performed to prevent such interferenceperformed to prevent such interference

P. TotemismP. Totemism1. A very common characteristic of primal 1. A very common characteristic of primal

religions religions recognize the existence of a more or less recognize the existence of a more or less intimate intimate relationship between certain human relationship between certain human groups or groups or particular individuals and classes or particular individuals and classes or species of species of animals, plant, or inanimate object in animals, plant, or inanimate object in naturenature

2. This recognition results in special social 2. This recognition results in special social grouping grouping and special rituals unique to that social and special rituals unique to that social groupinggrouping

3. If an animal is the totem, the group is 3. If an animal is the totem, the group is forbidden forbidden to eat the animal except in special casesto eat the animal except in special cases

4. By eating the animal, the group takes on the 4. By eating the animal, the group takes on the power of that particular animalpower of that particular animal

African ReligionAfrican Religion

I. No way to really discuss as one I. No way to really discuss as one category since differences are so category since differences are so great—we can look at a few recurring great—we can look at a few recurring themesthemes

A. TranscendenceA. Transcendence

1. Names and expressions 1. Names and expressions of of divinities vary greatlydivinities vary greatly

2. But there does seem to 2. But there does seem to be a be a general belief that general belief that there exists a there exists a kind kind of a of a supreme being who has supreme being who has control over the lesser spiritscontrol over the lesser spirits

3. The first observations that 3. The first observations that African religion was simply forms African religion was simply forms of of primitive polytheism does not primitive polytheism does not seem to bear outseem to bear out

4. The supreme being is 4. The supreme being is described in various ways—as a described in various ways—as a beneficent being, a father or beneficent being, a father or mother, or as a holy godmother, or as a holy god

5. Popular religion seems to be 5. Popular religion seems to be polytheistic; these beings seem to polytheistic; these beings seem to be representatives or servants of be representatives or servants of the higher godthe higher god

6. Like most religions, there 6. Like most religions, there are are creation storiescreation stories

B. Stages on Life’s way—one’s life B. Stages on Life’s way—one’s life is dominated by rituals—rites of passageis dominated by rituals—rites of passage

1.Birth—children are important1.Birth—children are important—— naming ceremonies is naming ceremonies is important important ceremony, ceremony, accomplished in a accomplished in a variety of variety of waysways

2. Initiation—the coming of 2. Initiation—the coming of age, age, assumption of assumption of responsibilities responsibilities of adulthoodof adulthood

3. Marriage—very 3. Marriage—very important and important and intricateintricate

4. Death—serious and 4. Death—serious and somewhat somewhat fearful experience; fearful experience; there is there is general belief in a general belief in a life after death; life after death; reincarnation reincarnation believed by somebelieved by some

C. Religious roles

1. Includes prophets, shamans, sacred kings, traditional

medicine men

2. They have means of foreseeing the future

3. Oracles are important

4. The priest is important; uses established ritual forms

which relate human life to transcendent life

5. King is important feature

Native American Native American ReligionReligion

A. Like African religions, there is A. Like African religions, there is great varietygreat variety

1. Differences between 1. Differences between gatherers and gatherers and farmersfarmers

2. The latter celebrate the 2. The latter celebrate the cycle of cycle of the agricultural yearthe agricultural year

3. Many hunter-gatherers have 3. Many hunter-gatherers have stories stories of a transformer of trickster of a transformer of trickster who set who set things in motionthings in motion

4. For farmers the creator is not 4. For farmers the creator is not a a person, but a power in the skyperson, but a power in the sky

B. Recurring ThemesB. Recurring Themes

1. Transcendence1. Transcendence

a. There exists in all a. There exists in all persons and persons and objects a objects a mystifying spirit—called mystifying spirit—called mana mana by Melanesiansby Melanesians

b. Many do not have b. Many do not have concept of a concept of a single high godsingle high god

c. Paul Radin notes two c. Paul Radin notes two aspects aspects of this high godof this high god

(a) the supreme deity is (a) the supreme deity is just just and rational but remoteand rational but remote

(b) the transformer who (b) the transformer who is is not always fair, but not always fair, but actively actively intervene in human intervene in human life; life; there also exists there also exists great great number of number of other other spirits—spirits—good and badgood and bad

C. Stages on Life’s wayC. Stages on Life’s way1. Birth—naming ceremony is 1. Birth—naming ceremony is

extremely importantextremely important2. Initiation2. Initiation

a. A vision quest for boys a. A vision quest for boys and sometimes for girlsand sometimes for girlsb. Usually accomplished b. Usually accomplished

by by sending them into sending them into wilderness, usually wilderness, usually

sees a sees a supernatural visitor, supernatural visitor, that that becomes major becomes major divinity of divinity of the personthe person

3. Marriage—intricate—no 3. Marriage—intricate—no single single pattern—many see in pattern—many see in women a women a mysterious powermysterious power

4. Death—usually takes on form 4. Death—usually takes on form of of fear and avoidance—contact fear and avoidance—contact with with corpse leads to separation corpse leads to separation or isolationor isolation

D. Religious roles—emphasis on D. Religious roles—emphasis on shaman, medicine man and priest—shaman, medicine man and priest—priests lead in established rituals, no priests lead in established rituals, no vision necessaryvision necessary