H.M. Queen Juliana and H.R.H. Bernhard, Prince of the Netherlands (1948)

History of THE NETHERLANDS

The history of the Netherlands is thc history of the dis- charge area of two large European rivers, the Rhine ant1 thc Maas. Under nioderate cl i~natic co~itlitions tlelta arras pos- sess the advantage of being easily ~ n a d r arable; this was also the case with tlic Rhine and RIaas delta, which fro111 very earlier times contributed to tlie prosperity of the area, and in later days of i~nprovcd agricultural metliotls yielrle~l the wealth which helped to make possiljle the grcat n n ~ n b r r of its present poplilation. 111 fact, tlie Netlierla~itls is one of the niost densely populated c o l i ~ ~ t r i c s in the worl(1. T h e delta has a long coastliuc w11ic.h calletl for aud S ~ ~ I I I I I -

lated fishing and sea-faring. Britain and other aucient civil- ized countries, such as France and the Baltic c o ~ ~ n t r i e s , were within easy reach and in this way overseas tratle was in- itiated. It is possible that the first traders found markets in these foreign conntrics for ratcl~es of s t~rp lue fish, per- haps they madc purchases of attractive cargoes to take home in their e n ~ p t y craft. Right in the heart of Ellrope, in the Swiss -Ups, near the Italian frontier, the River Rhinc has its sourco. Since the very early days of history the Rhine has heen one of Europe's niost important traffic-roads. F r o ~ n far-away China, silk was 1)rought to Venice, wheuce it travelled north via the river Rhine ; this provided another contri1)ution to the p r o ~ r ~ i n e ~ ~ t comn~ercial position of thc Low Lands 11y tlir Sea, a pobition ~ h i c h the conntry has preserved throughont the c.cnturies. -4bo11t a cer~tllry heforc tlic tlawn of the Cl~rist ian era, wooden rafts carried thc Batavian tri1)esrnen d o w ~ i the Rhine. They reached the Rhinc-Maas delta and hecalnc thc first sr t t l rrs in the L o n Lands by the Sea. Frisians, f r a ~ i c o ~ ~ i a ~ ~ s

H.M. Queen Juliana and H.R.H. Bernhard, Prince of the Netherlands (1948)

History of THE NETHERLANDS

The history of the Netherlands is thc history of the dis- charge area of two large European rivers, the Rhine ant1 thc Maas. Under nioderate cl i~natic co~itlitions tlelta arras pos- sess the advantage of being easily ~ n a d r arable; this was also the case with tlic Rhine and RIaas delta, which fro111 very earlier times contributed to tlie prosperity of the area, and in later days of i~nprovcd agricultural metliotls yielrle~l the wealth which helped to make possiljle the grcat n n ~ n b r r of its present poplilation. 111 fact, tlie Netlierla~itls is one of the niost densely populated c o l i ~ ~ t r i c s in the worl(1. T h e delta has a long coastliuc w11ic.h calletl for aud S ~ ~ I I I I I -

lated fishing and sea-faring. Britain and other aucient civil- ized countries, such as France and the Baltic c o ~ ~ n t r i e s , were within easy reach and in this way overseas tratle was in- itiated. It is possible that the first traders found markets in these foreign conntrics for ratcl~es of s t~rp lue fish, per- haps they madc purchases of attractive cargoes to take home in their e n ~ p t y craft. Right in the heart of Ellrope, in the Swiss -Ups, near the Italian frontier, the River Rhinc has its sourco. Since the very early days of history the Rhine has heen one of Europe's niost important traffic-roads. F r o ~ n far-away China, silk was 1)rought to Venice, wheuce it travelled north via the river Rhine ; this provided another contri1)ution to the p r o ~ r ~ i n e ~ ~ t comn~ercial position of thc Low Lands 11y tlir Sea, a pobition ~ h i c h the conntry has preserved throughont the c.cnturies. -4bo11t a cer~tllry heforc tlic tlawn of the Cl~rist ian era, wooden rafts carried thc Batavian tri1)esrnen d o w ~ i the Rhine. They reached the Rhinc-Maas delta and hecalnc thc first sr t t l rrs in the L o n Lands by the Sea. Frisians, f r a ~ i c o ~ ~ i a ~ ~ s

Rotterdam, now the 2nd port in the world.

rainfalls in the Vosges or the -4rdennes brought the water of the Rhine and the Maas u p to higher and higher levels. tlrstructivc floods had to be stopped and dykes were l ~ u i l t on both sides of the river hcds. T h e n the Roman Empire hrolte down, a period began in wltich the orderly state of society under which the canals and dykes had I ~ e c n built and maintained was sorely rnissed. In the early Middle Ages the Low Lands by the Sea becan~c a sornewl~at independent headland of various European Enl- pires. First it was a Inore or less independent appendix o l the Franconian rea ln~ , then after the death of (:harlernapnc 181 i) and the devision of his E n ~ p i r e it beca~ne an outlying district of the (:cntral-European German En~pi rc . Hitlden Ibehind n ~ o o r l a n ~ l and rivers the local rulers co111d develop quite an indeprndcnt position wit11 the help of ,I prosperous fishing, seafaring and trading popnlation.

This applies especially to the K r s t e n ~ part of t l ~ e Low Lands, the nrea called "Holland", which in popular parlance even gave its name to the whole of the conntry. I n rnost parts of Europe the a g r i c ~ ~ l t u r a l population was for many centuries dominated by feudal landowners. 111 solne conn- tries this even lasted until the days of contenlporary history. In the Low Lantls, however, an urljan connnercial popnla- tion developed, a population w l ~ i c l ~ n~anaged its ow11 affairs wit11 a great deal of independence. T h e prosperity of the townships, sonle of which were al- ready founded in Rornan days (Maastricl~t, Nijmegen, Utrecht) , attracted the attention of a series of dynasties. T h e power of the (;ern~an E ~ n p c r o r s was declining, and the Dukes of Burgundy, ~ o w r r f u l rnasters in the North of France, saw that their chances had conle to extend their 7 power into t l ~ e Netl~erlands. By collqilest and n ~ a r r i a g e

Windmills are still used to the present day for the purpose of draining small polders.

Rotterdam, now the 2nd port in the world.

rainfalls in the Vosges or the -4rdennes brought the water of the Rhine and the Maas u p to higher and higher levels. tlrstructivc floods had to be stopped and dykes were l ~ u i l t on both sides of the river hcds. T h e n the Roman Empire hrolte down, a period began in wltich the orderly state of society under which the canals and dykes had I ~ e c n built and maintained was sorely rnissed. In the early Middle Ages the Low Lands by the Sea becan~c a sornewl~at independent headland of various European Enl- pires. First it was a Inore or less independent appendix o l the Franconian rea ln~ , then after the death of (:harlernapnc 181 i) and the devision of his E n ~ p i r e it beca~ne an outlying district of the (:cntral-European German En~pi rc . Hitlden Ibehind n ~ o o r l a n ~ l and rivers the local rulers co111d develop quite an indeprndcnt position wit11 the help of ,I prosperous fishing, seafaring and trading popnlation.

This applies especially to the K r s t e n ~ part of t l ~ e Low Lands, the nrea called "Holland", which in popular parlance even gave its name to the whole of the conntry. I n rnost parts of Europe the a g r i c ~ ~ l t u r a l population was for many centuries dominated by feudal landowners. 111 solne conn- tries this even lasted until the days of contenlporary history. In the Low Lantls, however, an urljan connnercial popnla- tion developed, a population w l ~ i c l ~ n~anaged its ow11 affairs wit11 a great deal of independence. T h e prosperity of the townships, sonle of which were al- ready founded in Rornan days (Maastricl~t, Nijmegen, Utrecht) , attracted the attention of a series of dynasties. T h e power of the (;ern~an E ~ n p c r o r s was declining, and the Dukes of Burgundy, ~ o w r r f u l rnasters in the North of France, saw that their chances had conle to extend their 7 power into t l ~ e Netl~erlands. By collqilest and n ~ a r r i a g e

Windmills are still used to the present day for the purpose of draining small polders.

they managed to gain c.ontrol over most of the Low Lands (luring the 15th century. In the so-ralled Bnrgundian era the fountlation was laid for the Netherlantls as a State ant1 as a nation. In the year 1463, the B u r g ~ ~ i ~ d i a n Duke Philip "The Good" first assrn~blrtl tllc States General, a hody re- presentin5 the no1)ilitj and the burghers of the various Netherlands provinres and eralitetl theln ro~~siderahlc priti- leges. In the te11tl1 renturv the ro~istrurtion of dvkcs wan

I I The Castle of Nijenrode, near Breukelen, in the middle ages

the residence of noble landowners.

opens the "Spanish Era" of the history of the Netherlands. Charles V conquered the last of the independent parts in the North and the East of the Low Lands and in 1554 he gave his Netherlands territory a rertain degree of indepen- dence within the German Enipire. Part of this mild and ac- commodating attitude of the German Emperor and Spanish King may have had its origin in the fact that he was born in

the Netherlands and was educated in the Low Lands by a Utrecht priest, who eventually berame Adrian VI, the only Dutch Pope in history. Charles V abdicated in the year 1555 in favour of his Spanish-born son Philip 11, after a reign of forty years. To hini the Netherlands was just a part of his Empire, which had to be governed in the same absolute way as the other rountries whirh he had in- herited. Meanwhile, the towns of the Low Lands had risen to great importanre and their inhahitants had developed a sense of independellre which made them revolt against the rigid central government of a Sovereign who did not let

Bridge at Maastricht, built by the Romans.

they managed to gain c.ontrol over most of the Low Lands (luring the 15th century. In the so-ralled Bnrgundian era the fountlation was laid for the Netherlantls as a State ant1 as a nation. In the year 1463, the B u r g ~ ~ i ~ d i a n Duke Philip "The Good" first assrn~blrtl tllc States General, a hody re- presentin5 the no1)ilitj and the burghers of the various Netherlands provinres and eralitetl theln ro~~siderahlc priti- leges. In the te11tl1 renturv the ro~istrurtion of dvkcs wan

I I The Castle of Nijenrode, near Breukelen, in the middle ages

the residence of noble landowners.

opens the "Spanish Era" of the history of the Netherlands. Charles V conquered the last of the independent parts in the North and the East of the Low Lands and in 1554 he gave his Netherlands territory a rertain degree of indepen- dence within the German Enipire. Part of this mild and ac- commodating attitude of the German Emperor and Spanish King may have had its origin in the fact that he was born in

the Netherlands and was educated in the Low Lands by a Utrecht priest, who eventually berame Adrian VI, the only Dutch Pope in history. Charles V abdicated in the year 1555 in favour of his Spanish-born son Philip 11, after a reign of forty years. To hini the Netherlands was just a part of his Empire, which had to be governed in the same absolute way as the other rountries whirh he had in- herited. Meanwhile, the towns of the Low Lands had risen to great importanre and their inhahitants had developed a sense of independellre which made them revolt against the rigid central government of a Sovereign who did not let

Bridge at Maastricht, built by the Romans.

Jan Piecerszoon Coen (1 587-1 629), [he founder of [he

Netherlands-Indies.

I !

Since Colunlbus' discovery of Anierica and Vasco de Gan~a's discovery of a sea-route to Asia, Spanish-Portuguese com- tiierce and tratle had become world-enihracing. The Dutch now found that they were facing this clilen~rltd: either to renounce their share of European trade in the costly goods from Asia and An~erica or to fintl a way of their own to these countries. They chose the latter and while the Eighty Years' T a r was still going on they made their way to Asia and to America, to which in fact their ships had found their way solrle considerable tinte earlier. In 1595 Cornelis de Houtrr~ar~ sailed the first Dutch fleet to the islands which soon after were to becorne the Netherlands East Indies. From 1598 to 1601 Captain Olivier van Noort mdde the first, highly adventurous round-the-world sea voyage under the Dutch flag. In 1609 the Englishrnan Henry Hudson left Amsterdam under Dutch orders for the voyage which led not only to the discovery of the Hudson river but eventually to the founding in 1626 of the town of New Arnsterdan~, now New York. In those days a Dutch colony was also founded in Brazil. Some considerable time before the independence of the

Nrthrrlat~ds was officially recognized, the Dutch l ~ c c a ~ ~ r e the worl~l's first seafaring nation. The water, oldest enemy and oltlest friend of the iuhahitalits of the Low Lands, played the leading role ill that period. From the farthest vorners of the earth and across all the world's seas goods wrre lrrought into the Netherlancls, whrnce they were shipped via the river Rhine into the lieart of Enrope. In this period of thc history of the Netherlantls a start was made with rcclamation works to gain soil oot of the water of many inland lakes. Dykes and drainage windn~ills helped to add new lantl to a country with l i~nitrt l living-space. T l ~ c pattern of the seventeenth celltury is dolniliatctl by two strong lines of d e v e l o p ~ ~ ~ e ~ ~ t . The Netherlands position as the world's tnost powcrful commercial and seafaring nation I~rought ui~lieard-of prosperity, as a resiilt of which the t,~iltural and spiritual life of the country flonrishetl as never 1)cfore. In Illany ways the Low Lands stood at the head of

"The Nightu~acch" by Rernbrandt (1606.1669) is famous through-out

the whole world.

Jan Piecerszoon Coen (1 587-1 629), [he founder of [he

Netherlands-Indies.

I !

Since Colunlbus' discovery of Anierica and Vasco de Gan~a's discovery of a sea-route to Asia, Spanish-Portuguese com- tiierce and tratle had become world-enihracing. The Dutch now found that they were facing this clilen~rltd: either to renounce their share of European trade in the costly goods from Asia and An~erica or to fintl a way of their own to these countries. They chose the latter and while the Eighty Years' T a r was still going on they made their way to Asia and to America, to which in fact their ships had found their way solrle considerable tinte earlier. In 1595 Cornelis de Houtrr~ar~ sailed the first Dutch fleet to the islands which soon after were to becorne the Netherlands East Indies. From 1598 to 1601 Captain Olivier van Noort mdde the first, highly adventurous round-the-world sea voyage under the Dutch flag. In 1609 the Englishrnan Henry Hudson left Amsterdam under Dutch orders for the voyage which led not only to the discovery of the Hudson river but eventually to the founding in 1626 of the town of New Arnsterdan~, now New York. In those days a Dutch colony was also founded in Brazil. Some considerable time before the independence of the

Nrthrrlat~ds was officially recognized, the Dutch l ~ c c a ~ ~ r e the worl~l's first seafaring nation. The water, oldest enemy and oltlest friend of the iuhahitalits of the Low Lands, played the leading role ill that period. From the farthest vorners of the earth and across all the world's seas goods wrre lrrought into the Netherlancls, whrnce they were shipped via the river Rhine into the lieart of Enrope. In this period of thc history of the Netherlantls a start was made with rcclamation works to gain soil oot of the water of many inland lakes. Dykes and drainage windn~ills helped to add new lantl to a country with l i~nitrt l living-space. T l ~ c pattern of the seventeenth celltury is dolniliatctl by two strong lines of d e v e l o p ~ ~ ~ e ~ ~ t . The Netherlands position as the world's tnost powcrful commercial and seafaring nation I~rought ui~lieard-of prosperity, as a resiilt of which the t,~iltural and spiritual life of the country flonrishetl as never 1)cfore. In Illany ways the Low Lands stood at the head of

"The Nightu~acch" by Rernbrandt (1606.1669) is famous through-out

the whole world.

Self-portrait of Frans Hals (* 1380-1666).

tilt* E11ropc311 l~ationb ill this (.cutury up011 wIli1.11 history has bestowed the nalrle of "The Golden Age". All this con- tributed to the outljreak of hostilities with the British na- tion which was just t l~en coming forward as a con~petitor for the hegeulony on the world's seas. A society of ~nerchants, the United East India Con~pany, was the founder of the c.olonial territory; in 1642 Abel Tas- man discovered Tasn~ania and New Zealand; some years earlier Hollanders had settled on the Australian coast and various voyages of discovery were still being undertaken. With all these activities in progress the Low Lands them- selves experienced a peak period of the art and sciences. The name of Rernbrandt van Rijn became a household word for all times and nations; other artists, of whom we may mention Frans Hals, Jan Steen and Ver~neer of Delft, added to the reputation of the "Dutch School" of painting. Hugo de Groot, "Grotius", a genius in more ways than one, and one of the founders of international law, wrote his re- nowned works: "De jure belli ac pacis" and "Marc liberum". Christiaan Huygens, one of the greatest among the scholars of

H u g o d e Groo t (1 583 one of the founders ternational law.

-1645), of in-

Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677).

Self-portrait of Frans Hals (* 1380-1666).

tilt* E11ropc311 l~ationb ill this (.cutury up011 wIli1.11 history has bestowed the nalrle of "The Golden Age". All this con- tributed to the outljreak of hostilities with the British na- tion which was just t l~en coming forward as a con~petitor for the hegeulony on the world's seas. A society of ~nerchants, the United East India Con~pany, was the founder of the c.olonial territory; in 1642 Abel Tas- man discovered Tasn~ania and New Zealand; some years earlier Hollanders had settled on the Australian coast and various voyages of discovery were still being undertaken. With all these activities in progress the Low Lands them- selves experienced a peak period of the art and sciences. The name of Rernbrandt van Rijn became a household word for all times and nations; other artists, of whom we may mention Frans Hals, Jan Steen and Ver~neer of Delft, added to the reputation of the "Dutch School" of painting. Hugo de Groot, "Grotius", a genius in more ways than one, and one of the founders of international law, wrote his re- nowned works: "De jure belli ac pacis" and "Marc liberum". Christiaan Huygens, one of the greatest among the scholars of

H u g o d e Groo t (1 583 one of the founders ternational law.

-1645), of in-

Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677).

all times, made his epoch-nlaking research concerning the undulatory theory; he also discovered the pendulum clock and in the field of philosophy Spinoza's ethics have not lost their significances even in our days. The spirit of tolerance which was one of the major charac- teristics of the Republic of the Seven United I'rovinces at- tracted many artists and scholars and made them choose the Netherlands for longer or shorter ~ e r i o d s of residcnce. Locke, the eminent liberal British philosopher of constitutional law, worked for many years in the Low L.antls, and the Frenchman Rent Descartes, the founder of nod ern philoso- phy, created his life work in the Netherlantls. A few years after the Treaty of Westphalia of 1648, which forced Spain to acknowledge the national independence of the Nether- lands, hostilities with England connnenced. They mainly took the f o r ~ n of wars at sea and lasted for more than a century. In four wars tlie Dutch bravely stood up against superior forces. In the disastrous year 1672 the Netllerlands, a coun- try of less than two million inhabitants, faced a coalitio~l 16

During his stay Descartes lived in rhe Western:

in Amsterdam. in this house

~arkt.

Sradholder (1650-1702 was King from 1689

,' ,' 11 lam

Englan 1702.

of tens of n~illioiis of people, coinprisi~ig England, thc powerful country of France under Louis XI17, "Le Roi Soleil", and the Gernlan principalities of Munster and Cologne. The Netherlands still held their own nnder the capable keadcrship of Stadholder Yilliam 111. Ilo~vever, in the beginning of the 18th. century the Low Lantls had to submit to England's superiority at sea and Fralite's greater power on the continent of Europe. riftcr the nllmense ex- ertions during the Golden -4ge a rcaction scrnlctl almost in- evitable. The riches gaincd in the days of prosperity were carefully administeretl during the 18th crntnry. The Nether- lands no longer played the leading part on the stage of world politics. Iieberthelcss, the iinistertlan~ Stock Exchange remained an econoillic ~ o r l d eelltrc. The Dutch universities also conti~lued to attravt nlany for- zign scholars. They rcniaiiied inlportant Enropean centres of learning. Conlnlercc was in derlinc and the state of Ilutcll trade was considerably damaged during the fourth and last war with England (1780-84), canscd by the support gicen by the Dutch to the Amcrican war of independence. The political lifc of the Netherlands was still characterized by the peculiar eq~~ili l , r iulu t)etween the States General on

all times, made his epoch-nlaking research concerning the undulatory theory; he also discovered the pendulum clock and in the field of philosophy Spinoza's ethics have not lost their significances even in our days. The spirit of tolerance which was one of the major charac- teristics of the Republic of the Seven United I'rovinces at- tracted many artists and scholars and made them choose the Netherlands for longer or shorter ~ e r i o d s of residcnce. Locke, the eminent liberal British philosopher of constitutional law, worked for many years in the Low L.antls, and the Frenchman Rent Descartes, the founder of nod ern philoso- phy, created his life work in the Netherlantls. A few years after the Treaty of Westphalia of 1648, which forced Spain to acknowledge the national independence of the Nether- lands, hostilities with England connnenced. They mainly took the f o r ~ n of wars at sea and lasted for more than a century. In four wars tlie Dutch bravely stood up against superior forces. In the disastrous year 1672 the Netllerlands, a coun- try of less than two million inhabitants, faced a coalitio~l 16

During his stay Descartes lived in rhe Western:

in Amsterdam. in this house

~arkt.

Sradholder (1650-1702 was King from 1689

,' ,' 11 lam

Englan 1702.

of tens of n~illioiis of people, coinprisi~ig England, thc powerful country of France under Louis XI17, "Le Roi Soleil", and the Gernlan principalities of Munster and Cologne. The Netherlands still held their own nnder the capable keadcrship of Stadholder Yilliam 111. Ilo~vever, in the beginning of the 18th. century the Low Lantls had to submit to England's superiority at sea and Fralite's greater power on the continent of Europe. riftcr the nllmense ex- ertions during the Golden -4ge a rcaction scrnlctl almost in- evitable. The riches gaincd in the days of prosperity were carefully administeretl during the 18th crntnry. The Nether- lands no longer played the leading part on the stage of world politics. Iieberthelcss, the iinistertlan~ Stock Exchange remained an econoillic ~ o r l d eelltrc. The Dutch universities also conti~lued to attravt nlany for- zign scholars. They rcniaiiied inlportant Enropean centres of learning. Conlnlercc was in derlinc and the state of Ilutcll trade was considerably damaged during the fourth and last war with England (1780-84), canscd by the support gicen by the Dutch to the Amcrican war of independence. The political lifc of the Netherlands was still characterized by the peculiar eq~~ili l , r iulu t)etween the States General on

Johan Rudolf Thorbecke (1798-1872). His fundamental la wof 1818 laid the foundation of the constitutional monarchy in the Netherlands.

the one hand and t l ~ c Stadholder on tlie other hand. Tlle States General consisted of representivcs of the various Pro- vinces, i.c. essentially of the powerful burghrrs of the Dntch towns. The States General possessed sovereign 11owcr: the Stadholders of the Orange Dynasty were thc n~ilitnry leaders of the co~cntry as !$.ell as the syn~bols of its national unity. During the 18th century the political ronstcllation of the conntry has more and lnore dominated by t l ~ c so-called "regents' class", i.e. hy the nierchai~t leaders of the Low Lands. Thus t l ~ r 18th centnry was drawing to its inglorious close w1ie11 in 1795 the army of the Frcncl~ Revolution ell- terctl the Vetherlands across the frozi.11 waters of her rivers. The "Ratavian Republic" was esta1)lished a i ~ d ill 1806 re- placed by the "Kingdom of the Nethcrlai~ds", wliic.11 Napoleoil inadr part of the French Eiiipire in 1810. Stad- holder Til l iain V and his faniilp had n~ean~r - i~ i l e sougl~t rcfiige in E~lpla~id .

of Oraugr. For a short period the Kingdom included the present couiltry of Belgium. Tlle union was not really sue- cessful. I n 1830 the Belgians proclaimed their independence, which the Netherlands recognized in 1839. In the ypar 1818 the Dutch received a liberal constitution, laying down the ministerial responsibilities which in much earlier years had already facilitated the development of a parliamentary democracy. The basis of this denlorracy be- came f i rn~e r and wider when universal suffrage for men and women was introduced in 191i and 1919 respectively. Throughout tlie centuries the population of the Netherlands has had a decisive influence on the country's politics. This influciice was originally restricted to the more prominent citizens, i.e. the nlerchants. However, gradually, and especial- ly through the extension of the franchise, the political in- fluence of the population became stronger, and as a result of the rstal,lishn~ent of adult suffrage it nows rests with all the citizens of the Kingdo~n.

19 Dttriug the nineteenth century and until the second world

The Dutch flower-bulbs have been famous for centuries through-out

I the entire world.

\ \hen Napoleon's ar~nies were dcft.atet1 at the battle of Leipzig (October 1813) the Low Lands raised rhcir heads once niorc. Tllcy now bccainr a Kingtloni nndcr the House 18

Johan Rudolf Thorbecke (1798-1872). His fundamental la wof 1818 laid the foundation of the constitutional monarchy in the Netherlands.

the one hand and t l ~ c Stadholder on tlie other hand. Tlle States General consisted of representivcs of the various Pro- vinces, i.c. essentially of the powerful burghrrs of the Dntch towns. The States General possessed sovereign 11owcr: the Stadholders of the Orange Dynasty were thc n~ilitnry leaders of the co~cntry as !$.ell as the syn~bols of its national unity. During the 18th century the political ronstcllation of the conntry has more and lnore dominated by t l ~ c so-called "regents' class", i.e. hy the nierchai~t leaders of the Low Lands. Thus t l ~ r 18th centnry was drawing to its inglorious close w1ie11 in 1795 the army of the Frcncl~ Revolution ell- terctl the Vetherlands across the frozi.11 waters of her rivers. The "Ratavian Republic" was esta1)lished a i ~ d ill 1806 re- placed by the "Kingdom of the Nethcrlai~ds", wliic.11 Napoleoil inadr part of the French Eiiipire in 1810. Stad- holder Til l iain V and his faniilp had n~ean~r - i~ i l e sougl~t rcfiige in E~lpla~id .

of Oraugr. For a short period the Kingdom included the present couiltry of Belgium. Tlle union was not really sue- cessful. I n 1830 the Belgians proclaimed their independence, which the Netherlands recognized in 1839. In the ypar 1818 the Dutch received a liberal constitution, laying down the ministerial responsibilities which in much earlier years had already facilitated the development of a parliamentary democracy. The basis of this denlorracy be- came f i rn~e r and wider when universal suffrage for men and women was introduced in 191i and 1919 respectively. Throughout tlie centuries the population of the Netherlands has had a decisive influence on the country's politics. This influciice was originally restricted to the more prominent citizens, i.e. the nlerchants. However, gradually, and especial- ly through the extension of the franchise, the political in- fluence of the population became stronger, and as a result of the rstal,lishn~ent of adult suffrage it nows rests with all the citizens of the Kingdo~n.

19 Dttriug the nineteenth century and until the second world

The Dutch flower-bulbs have been famous for centuries through-out

I the entire world.

\ \hen Napoleon's ar~nies were dcft.atet1 at the battle of Leipzig (October 1813) the Low Lands raised rhcir heads once niorc. Tllcy now bccainr a Kingtloni nndcr the House 18

The oil-cracking installation at Pernis (Rotterdam) is the largest on the Continent of Europe.

war the Netherlands adhered to an international policy of strict neutrality. In the meantime the economy of the coun- try, which had suffered severely during the French rule, went through a period of reconstruction. In the early years of the nineteenth century a start was made with the in- dustrialisation of the country which became of real import- ance after 1870. In addition to its ancient reputation of being a nation of farmers, sailors and merchants, the Dutch now also became an industrial power. Research work stimulated the development of pure and applied science, which in its turn helped the growing in- dustries of the country. Dutch scholars won no fewer thau nine Nobel prizes in the field of science. Whereas the improvement of technical knowlcdge aided the industrialisation of the Netherlands, her growing popula- tion made it essential. In 1850 the population of the Nether- lands was less than 3 million; in 1957, in spitr of a con-

siderable number of emigrants, the figure was more than 11 million. I t is clear that despite the most intensive agri- cultural utilisation of the fertile delta soil of the Low Lands, this narrow strip of land cannot provide living space for 11 million farmers, sailors and fishermen. Work for 80

dense a population can only be provided by industry, and o111y industralisation can help to maintain the constantly rising standard of living. On the other hand it must be admitted that industrialisation can develop so smoothly because sufficient labour is available. At the present time the number of workers employed in the various industries is twice the number of agricultural workers. The Netherlands is still an important centre of commerce through the export of her own produce as well as through the eminent position of Dutch business firms in international transit and commission trade. Frisian pedigree cattle, the world-famous flower bulbs, Dutch dairy produce and seed potatoes n~aiutaine their place

Frisian pedigree-cattle, famous for hundreds of years, produces the highest milk yield in the world.

The oil-cracking installation at Pernis (Rotterdam) is the largest on the Continent of Europe.

war the Netherlands adhered to an international policy of strict neutrality. In the meantime the economy of the coun- try, which had suffered severely during the French rule, went through a period of reconstruction. In the early years of the nineteenth century a start was made with the in- dustrialisation of the country which became of real import- ance after 1870. In addition to its ancient reputation of being a nation of farmers, sailors and merchants, the Dutch now also became an industrial power. Research work stimulated the development of pure and applied science, which in its turn helped the growing in- dustries of the country. Dutch scholars won no fewer thau nine Nobel prizes in the field of science. Whereas the improvement of technical knowlcdge aided the industrialisation of the Netherlands, her growing popula- tion made it essential. In 1850 the population of the Nether- lands was less than 3 million; in 1957, in spitr of a con-

siderable number of emigrants, the figure was more than 11 million. I t is clear that despite the most intensive agri- cultural utilisation of the fertile delta soil of the Low Lands, this narrow strip of land cannot provide living space for 11 million farmers, sailors and fishermen. Work for 80

dense a population can only be provided by industry, and o111y industralisation can help to maintain the constantly rising standard of living. On the other hand it must be admitted that industrialisation can develop so smoothly because sufficient labour is available. At the present time the number of workers employed in the various industries is twice the number of agricultural workers. The Netherlands is still an important centre of commerce through the export of her own produce as well as through the eminent position of Dutch business firms in international transit and commission trade. Frisian pedigree cattle, the world-famous flower bulbs, Dutch dairy produce and seed potatoes n~aiutaine their place

Frisian pedigree-cattle, famous for hundreds of years, produces the highest milk yield in the world.

In the 20th century the textile industry became an important supporting factor in the life of the Dutch people.

in the xcorld of to-(lay. They now find themsrlvcs in the coriipany of the products of Netherlands industries, among which tw-o of the oldest, the shipbuilding ant1 the textile industry, deserve honoiirable mention. T h e struggle against the water was reopened when, in 1918 the decision was taken to reclaim 1400 square iniles of the Zuider Zce and turn the111 into fertile soil. Modern intlustrial life is inseparably connected wit11 the labour niovement which (luring the last decades of the I

nineteenth century was organised on the pattern of the British Trade Unions, although the Netherlands Socialist nloven~eilt was strongly influenced by the theories of German Socialists. After the second half of the 19th century, the colonial ad- nlinistration M-as conducted according to "ethical principles"; it did not stress the exploitation of colonial riches, hut put in the foreground the well-being and the educalion of the native population, with their independence as its ultimate aim. 22

The Zuiderzee Land Reclamation Works furnish a peaceful

expansion of Dutch territory, necessary for feeding the

rapidly increasing population of the Netherlands.

In the 20th century the textile industry became an important supporting factor in the life of the Dutch people.

in the xcorld of to-(lay. They now find themsrlvcs in the coriipany of the products of Netherlands industries, among which tw-o of the oldest, the shipbuilding ant1 the textile industry, deserve honoiirable mention. T h e struggle against the water was reopened when, in 1918 the decision was taken to reclaim 1400 square iniles of the Zuider Zce and turn the111 into fertile soil. Modern intlustrial life is inseparably connected wit11 the labour niovement which (luring the last decades of the I

nineteenth century was organised on the pattern of the British Trade Unions, although the Netherlands Socialist nloven~eilt was strongly influenced by the theories of German Socialists. After the second half of the 19th century, the colonial ad- nlinistration M-as conducted according to "ethical principles"; it did not stress the exploitation of colonial riches, hut put in the foreground the well-being and the educalion of the native population, with their independence as its ultimate aim. 22

The Zuiderzee Land Reclamation Works furnish a peaceful

expansion of Dutch territory, necessary for feeding the

rapidly increasing population of the Netherlands.

The Dutch People have been very Successful Entrepreneurs Over

Hundreds of years.

The Netherlands has had a history of being very good

Traders & Merchants across the Globe, making them a very wealth

and respected nation.

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