History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires v2 1000188082

8/12/2019 History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires v2 1000188082

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HISTOEY(J

BYZANTINE EMPIRE

FROM DCCXVI TO MLVII

GEORGE FINLAY, LL.D.M

Member of the Boyal Soeie^ of Llteratare, Member of the American AnttqaarlanSociety.CorreepondiaA Member of the Axehaolo^lcel Institute at Bome.

Xn^ht Oold CroOT of the OreOk Order of the Redeemer

OXttos Bans rrjsUrropias

cN USECOND EDITION

WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONSEDINBURGH AND LONDON

MDOOCLVII % 5?


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DF555.5

190339

PRrWTBD BV WILLUM BLACKWOOD AKD SONS, SDINBUROH.

GIFT


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PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.

In the followingpages, constant references to the originalhistorians have been added, in order to make the workserve, not only as a popular history,but also as an indexfor scholars who may be more familiar with classic litera-ure

than with the Byzantine writers.The Constantinopolitanera places the birth of Christ

in the year 5509, and commences on the 1st September.Thus the 31st August, of the first year of the Christianera, is the last day of the year 5508 of the Constantino-olitan

era.The Byzantine historians also use the Indiction as the

common method of recordingthe year. This mode of nota-ioncommences from the 1st of September, a.d. 312, but

no indication is given to determine the particulartimebeyond the year of the indiction, counting from 1 to 15,and then recommencing, unless the year of the world orsome other synchronism be added.

Athens, 1st September 1852.


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PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.

The followingllustrations have been added to this Edition,as tendingto make the reader better acquaintedwith theirsubjectsthan verbal descriptions.Byzantine art has thesame character as Byzantinehistory;and though its meritsare not very great,they appear, nevertheless,to have beengenerallyunderrated :

FRONTISPIECE,

Basil II., the slayer of the Bulgarians,receivinga blessingfromHeaven and homage from men. From a Psalter of the tenthcentury, given in the History of Art by its Monuments^ by Serouid'Agincourt,vol. iii.,latexlvii..o. 4.

COINS.

1. Gold by25antof Leo III. and his son Constantine V. (Copronymus).This is the nomisma. The semissis,or half nomisma ^the trimissis,rone-third and the tetarteron, or quarter are all found in gold,butnot of the same emperor. Their weights are on an average 68 grains^34 grains,22 grains,and 17 grains.


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PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.

2. Gold tetarteron of Theophilus.

3. Coppercoin of Michael II. and Theophilus.

4. Commonest Byzantinecopper coins,called of John I. (Zimiskes),but which appear to have been introduced by Basil I.,the Macedonian,from impressionsver the originalype.

5. Silver coin of John I.(Zimiskes).his is the usual size of Byzantinesilver coins duringthe Basilian dynasty. Weight 44 grains.


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VI PBBFACB TO SECOND EDITION.

6. Silver coin of Basil II. and Constantino VIII.

7. Byzantof Leo VI. the Wise.

8. Bjzantof Constantino VIII.

9. Byzantof Theodora.

The lastthree,thoughdifferingn size,re of the same weight.


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CONTENTS.

BOOK FIRST.

THB CONTEST WITH THE IOONOC?LASTa A.D. 717-867.

CHAPTER I.

THE ISAURIAN DTWA8TY. A.D. 717-797.

i 1. Characterigtics of Byzantine history,Its divisions, ....Extent and administrative divisions of the empire,

2. Reign of Leo III. (the Isaurian),.d. 717-741,Saracen war, ....Siege of Constantinople, .Circiimstancee favourable to Leo's reforms,Fables concerning Leo III.,Military, financial,and legalreforms.Ecclesiastical policy.Rebellion in Greece,Pax aloppositionto the Iconoclasts,Physical phenomena,

3. Constantino V. (Copronymus), a J). 741-775,Character of Constantino V.,Rebellion of Artavasdos,Saracen war, ....Bulgarian war^ . . . . Internal policy of the empire,Policy regarding image-worship.Physical phenomena.Plague at Constantinople,

4. Reigns of Leo IV. (theKhazar), Constantine VI.,Irene regent, ....Restoration of image-worship.Second Council of Nicsea,Extinction of Byzantine authorityat Rome^Constantine VI. assumes the government.Divorces Maria and marries Theodota, .

, and Irene, a.d. 775-602,

Page1

10131516182428824048455158585559616367757682888587929495


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VIU CONTENTS.

Oppositionf monks, .....PerBecation of Theodore Stadita, ....Irene dethrones her son, Constentine VI.,Policyof goyemment duringthe reignsf Ck nstantine and Irene,Saracen war, .......Bulgarianwar, .......

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100102104107

CHAPTER XL

REIONS OF NICEPH0RU8 I.,MICHABL I.,AND LEO T. (tHE ARMENIAN).A.D. 802-820.

$ 1. Familyand character of NicephorusI.,.D. 802-81 1, .109Rebellion of Bardanes, ....... IllTolerant ecdesiastical policy, . . .112Oppressivefiscaladministration, .115Relations with Charlemagne, .118Saracen war, ...... 120Defeat of Sclavonians at P tras,...... 123Bulgarianar, . . ... 125DeathofNicephorusL, 127

2. Michael I. (Rhangab6),.d. 812-818, 128Religiouseal of liiohael I., . .128Bulgarianar, ........ 180Defeat of MichaelL, 188

8. Leo V. (theArmenian),.d. 818-820, 184Poli ^ofLeoV., ....... 185Treadierous attack on Crumn, king of the Bulgarians, 186Victoryver the Bulgarians, ...... 137Afi irsof Italynd Sicily, . . .188Moderation in ecclesiasticalcontests, . .189Council of the church favourable to the Iconoclasts, . 148Impartialdministration of justice, . . .146ConspiracygainstLeo v.,and his assassination, . .149

CHAPTER in.

THE AMORIAN DYNASTY. A.D. 820-867.

1. Michael IL (theStammerer),.d. 820^9,Birth of Michael II.,Rebellion of Thomas,Loss of Crete and Sicily,Ecclesiasticalolicy,Miohaers marriageand death,

2. Theophilus,.d. 829-842,Anecdotes concerningthe emperor^sove of justice.Anecdotes concerningis marriage.Ecclesiasticalpersecution,

152152154159166168169170174176


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CONTENTS.

BOOK SECOND.

BASIUAN DYNASTY. A.D. 867-1057.

CHAPTER I.

CONSOUDATION OF BYZiLNTINB LBOISLATION AND DBSPOTISM.A.D. 867-968.

1. Reign of Basil L (tiieiaoedonian),.d. 867-886,Personal histoiyf Basil I., .Eccleeiastioal administration,Financial administration,Legislation, .....Militarydministration ...Panlioian war, .....Campaignsin Asia Minor,Saraoens rayage Sicilynd Italy,Court and character of Basil I., .

2. Leo YL (thePhilosopher),.d. 886-912,Character and court of Leo YI., .Ecclesiastical administration.Legislation, .....Saracen war, .....Takingof Thessalonica by the Saracens,Expeditiono reconquer Crete, .Aflfairsof Italy, .....Bulgarianwar, .....

3. Alezandei^Minorityof Conetantine YIL Romanus I.,.d. 912-944,Reign of Alexander,A.D. 912-918,Minority of Constantino YIL (Porphyrogenitus),.d. 918-920.Sedition of Constantine Dukas, .Byzantinearmy defeated by Simeon, King of the BulgariansjIntriguest Constantinople,RomanuB I. (Lecapenus)akes himself emperor, a j). 920-944,ConspiraciesgainstRomanus I.,RomanoB I. dethroned by his son Stephen,

4. Constantine YIL (Porphyrogenitus),omanus II.,.d. 945-963,Character of Constantino YIL, aj . 945-949,Literaryorks of Constantine YIL (Porphyrogenitus),Death of Constantine YIL,Conspiraciesuringhis reign, .Pride of Byzantinecourt.Internal condition of the empire,Sdavonians in the Peloponnesus,Maniates,...

Pftge271271276279280288289291293299306307810313314816330881332335386337888342848845346348349849851853854855856361862


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CONTENTS. XI

Sanoen war, .....Bulgarianar HungarianinyasionB Italian aflkirs*Character of Bomanua II.,a.d. 969-963,Conqnestof Crete, ....Condition of Greece, ....

868868872874878

CHAPTER n.

PJERIOD OF COlXq^VBgr AND MIUTABT OLOBT. ^A.D. 963-1028.

S 1. ^noephoma IL (Phokas),ohn I.(Zimiflkee),.d. 963-976,Administration of Joseph Bringas,Character of NioephorusU. (Phokas),j . 968-969,Public administration,Saracen war, ....A irB in Sicily,taly,nd Bulgaria,Assassination of Nicephoms IL,Character of John I. (Zimiskes),.d. 969-978,Russian war, ....Bepnblioof Cherson,Saracen war,Death of John I.,

2. Basil II. (Bulgaroktonos),j . 976-1026,Character of Basil IL,Rebellion of Bardas Skleros,Rebellion of Bardas Phokas,Wealth of piiyatendiyidualB, .Bulgarianar, ....Defeat of Basil IL,Samuel, king of Bulgaria,ounds the kingdom of Achrida,Defeats of Samuel,Basil IL puts out the eyes of his prisoners,Conquest of the kingdom of Achrida, .Basil IL visitsAthens, Conquests in Armenia^ Death of BasUIL,

884384387888391894896897402415428426426426428481488486487488440445450462454456

CHAPTER III.

PERIOD OF CONBEBVATISM AND STATIONARY PROBFBRITT. A.D. 1025-1067.

I. Constantino YIIL, aj . 1025-1028, 458Condition of the empire, ...... 468Character of Constantine YIIL, ..... 469Qoyemment administered by his eunuchs, .... 460Oppressiveinancial administration, . . . .461Many nobles deprived of sight, ..... 462Blarriagef Zoe with Romanes Aighyroe death of Constantine YIIL, 464


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Xll CONTENTS.

2. Reignsof the hufibands and creatures of Zoe, a.d. 1028-1054 . 466Conduct of BomanusIIL, 1028-1034, ..... 466Conspiracies, ........ 470Saracen war defeat of Romanus III., ..... 472Exploitsf Maniakee, ....... 474Autographof Christ taken at Edessa, ..... 476Acquisitionf Perkrin, ....... 475Nayal operations, ....... 476Death of Romanus in., ....... 477Character of Michael IV. (thePaphlagonian),j). 1034-1041, . 478John the Orphanotrophos, .480Financial oppression, ....... 481Anecdotes, ........ 483Conspiracies, ........ 485Saracens attempt to surprisedessa, ..... 486War in Sicily, ........ 488Loss of Servia, ........ 490Rebellion of the Sclaronlans and Bulgarians, .... 491Eneigeticonduct of Michael lY.,and his death, .494Michael Y. (theKalaphates),.d. 1042, .... 496Zoe and Theodora, a.d. 1042, . . .

^.

.498Meetingof Zoe and Constantinos Dalassenoe, .... 499Constantine IX. (Monomachos),A.o.1042-1054, ... 500Skleraina,he concubine of Constantine IX.,empress, . . .501Lavish expenditure, ....... 503Crueltyof Theodora, ....... 605Sedition in Cyprus, ....... 506Rebellion of Maniakes, ....... 506Rebellion of Tomikios, ....... 609Court plots, ........ 511Servian war, ........ 612Russian war, ........ 618Patdnakwar, ........ 515War in Italy, 518Conquestof Armenia, ....... 619Invasion of the empireby the SeljoukTurks, .... 520Schism of the Greek and Latin chtirches, .... 525Death of Zoe and Constantine IX, ..... 526

3. Theodora and Michael YI. (Stratiotikos),.d. 1064-1057, 527Character and administration of Theodora, a.d. 1064-1056, 628Incapacityf Michael YI., 580Administnration transferred to the eunuchs of the imperialhousehold, 681Conspiracyf greatnobles in Asia Minor, .... 538Michael YL dethroned 687General observations, ....... 538


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BOOK FIRST.


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HISTORYOF TEA

BYZANTINE EMPIRE.

BOOK FIRST.THE CONTEST WITH THE ICONOCLASTS. A.D. 717-867.

CHAPTER LTHE ISAURIAN DYNASTY. A.D. 717-797.

SECT. L CHAILACTEEISTICS OP BYZANTINE HISTOBY ITS DIVISIONSEXTENT AND ADMINISTRATrVE DIVISIONS OP THE EMPIRE.

The institutions of ImperialRome had long thwartedthe great law of man's existence which impelshim tobetter his condition,hen the accession of Leo the Isaurianto the throne of Constantinopleuddenlyopened a newera in the historyof the Eastern Empire. Both thematerial and intellectual progress of societyhad beendeliberatelypposed by the imperiallegislation.spiritf conservatism persuadedthe legislatorsf theRoman empirethat its power could not decline,if eachorder and professionf it citizenswas fixed irrevocablyin the sphereof their own peculiaruties by hereditarysuccession. An attempt was reallyade to divide thepopulationnto castes. But the politicalaws whichwere adoptedto maintain mankind in a state of stationary

VOL. I. A


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.2 ICONOCLAST PERIOD.

BOOK I. prosperityy these trammels,depopulatednd impover-^' ' * ^' ished the empire,nd threatened to dissolvethe very

elements of society.he Western Empire,under theiroperation,ella prey to small tribesof northern nations;the Eastern ^as so depopulatedhat it was placedn theeve of beingrepeopledy Sclavonian colonists,nd con-uered

by Saracen invaders.Leo III. mounted the throne,and under his govern-ent

the empirenot onlyceased to decline,ut evenbegan to regainmuch of its earlyvigour.Reformedmodificationsof the old Roman authorityevelopedewenergy in the empire.Great politicaleforms,nd stillgreaterchangesin the condition of the people,arkthe eighthcenturyas an epochof transitionin Romanhistory,houghthe improvedcondition of the mass ofthe populations in some degreeconcealed by the pro-inencegiveno the disputesoncerningmage-worshipin the records of thisperiod.But the increasedstrengthof the empire,nd the energy infused into the admini-tration,

are forciblyisplayedy the fact,hat the By-antinearmies beganfrom this time to oppose a firm

barrierto the progress of the invaders of the empire.When Leo III. was proclaimedmperor,tseemed as

if no human power could save Constantinoplerom fall-ngas Rome had fallen. The Saracens considered the

sovereigntyf every land, in which any remains ofRoman civilisationurvived,s within theirgrasp. Leo,an Isaurian,nd an Iconoclast,onsequentlyforeignerand a heretic,scended the throne of Constantine,ndarrestedthe victoriousareer of the Mohammedans. Hethen reorganisedhe whole administrationso completelyin accordance with the new exigenciesf Eastern society,that the reformed empireoutlived for many centuriesevery government contemporarywith itsestablishment.

The Eastern Roman Empire,husreformed,scalledby.modem historiansthe Byzantinempire;and the term


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4 ICONOCLAST PERIOD.

BOOK I. that of the Eastern Empire duringthe nine centuriesch^i. ^\^q]^ elapsedrom the foundation of Constantinoplen330, to itsconquestin 1204.

Yet Leo III. has strongclaims to be regardeds thefirstof a new seriesof emperors. He was the founderof a dynasty,he saviour of Constantinople,nd thereformer of the church and state. He was the firstChristian sovereignho arrested the torrent of Moham-edan

conquest; he improvedthe condition of hissubjectshe attemptedto purifytheir religionromthe superstitiouseminiscences of Hellenism,with whichit was stilldebased,and to stop the developmentf aquasi-idolatryn the orthodox church. Nothing canprove more decidedlyhe rightf his empireto assumea new name than the contrast presentedythe conditionof itsinhabitantsto that of the subjectsf the preced-ng

dynasty. Under the successors of Heraclius,theRoman Empire presentsthe spectaclef a decliningsociety,nd itsthinly-peopledrovincesere exposedtothe intrusion of foreigncolonistsand hostileinvaders.But, under Leo,societyflFersan aspectof improvementand prosperitythe old populationevives from itsleth-rgy,

and soon increases,oth in number and strength,to such a degreeas to drive back allintruders on itsterritories.In the records of human civilisation,eothe Isaurian must alwaysoccupy a highposition,s atype of what the centralpower in a state can efiectevenin a decliningmpire.

Before reviewinghe historyf Leo's reign,nd record-nghis brilliantexploits,t is necessary to sketch the

condition to which the Roman administrative systemhadreduced the empire.It would be an instructivelessontotrace the progress of the moral and mental declineof theGreeks,from the age of Plato and Aristotleto the timeof the sixth ecumenical council,n the reignof Justinian11. ; for the moral evils nourished in Greek society


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DECLINE OF SOCIETY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 5

degradedthe nation,before the oppressiveoyemment booki.of the Romans impoverishednd depopulatedreece. ^ '' * ^'When the imperialuthorityas fullyestablished,eeasilyrace the manner in which the intercommunicationof differentprovincesnd orders of societyecame gradu-lly

restrictedto the operationsf material interests,ndhow the limitationof ideas arose from thiswant of com-unication,

until at lengthcivilisationdecayed. Goodroads and commodious passage-boatsave a more directconnection with the developmentf populareducation,as we see it reflectedin the works of Phidias and thewritingsf Sophocles,han isgenerallyelieved. Underthe jealousystem of the imperialovernment, the isola-ion

of placend classbecame so complete,hat even thehighestmembers of the aristocracyeceived their ideasfrom the inferior domestics with whom theyhabituallyassociated in their own households not from the transi-ory

intercourse they held with able and experiencedmen of theirown class,r with philosophicnd religiousteachers. Nurses and slaves implantedtheir ignorantsuperstitionsn the households where the rulers of theempireand the provincesere reared ; and no publicassemblies existed,where discussion could efface suchprejudices.amilyeducation became a more influentialfeature in societyhan publicinstruction; and thoughfamilyeducation,rom the fourth to the seventh century,appears to have improvedthe moralityf the population,it certainlyncreased theirsuperstitionnd limited theirunderstandings.Emperors,senators,landlords,andmerchants,were alike educated under these influences;and though the church and the law openeda moreenlargedircleof ideas,fix)m creating deepersense ofresponsibility,till the prejudicesf earlyeducationcircumscribed the sense of dutymore and more in eachsuccessive generation.The militarylass,which wasthe most powerfuln society,onsisted almost entirely


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On. I. I 1.

ICONOCLAST PEEIOD.

BOOK L of mere barbarians. The mental degradation,esultingfrom superstition,igotry,nd ignorance,hich formsthe marked social feature of the periodbetween thereignsf Justinian I. and Leo III.,broughtthe EasternEmpireto the state of depopulationnd weakness thathad delivered the Western a prey to small tribes ofinraders.

The fiscalcauses of the depopulationf the Romanempirehave been noticed in a priorvolume,as well asthe extent to which immigrantsad intruded themselveson the soil of Greece.^ The corruptionf the ancientlanguageook placet the same time,and arose out ofthe causes which disseminated ignorance.At the acces-ion

of Leo, the disorder in the central administration,the anarchyn the provincialovernment,and the ravagesof the Sclavonians and Saracens,had rendered the condi-ion

of the peopleintolerable. The Roman governmentseemed incapablef upholdingegalrder in society,ndits extinction was regardeds a proximateevent.^ Allthe provincesetween the shores of the Adriatic and thebanks of the Danube had been abandoned to Sclavoniantribes. Powerful coloniesof Sclavonians had been plantedby Justinian IL in Macedonia and Bithynia,n the richvalleysf the Strymon and the Artanas.^ Greece wasfilledwith pastoralnd agriculturalordes of the samerace, who became in many districtsthe sole cultivatorsof the soil,and effaced the memory of the names ofmountains and streams, which will be immortal in theworld'sliterature.* The BulgarianslunderedllThrace

^ Orues under tkeBamani, 60,70,238.' This feelingan be traced as earlyas the reignof Maurice. TheophylactusSimocatta records that an angelappeared in a dream to the Emperor 'HberiaBII.,and uttered these words : The Lord announces to thee, O emperor,that in thy reignthe days of anarchy shall not commence. P. 1 1,edit Par.' Constant Porphyr.,De Them, ii.23,edit Band. Theophanes,304,305,864.Nicephorus,. C. 44, edit Par.* Constant Porphyr.,e Them, ii 25. Strabonis Epit.orn, iii886,edit Coray.Marathon became Vrana; Salamis,Kiluri ; Platea,Kochla ; Myoene, Kbar-ati ; Olympia,Bfiraka ; and Delphi,Kastri.


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CONDITION OP SOCIBTT. 7to the walls of ConstaDtinople.^hessalonica was re- book i.peatedlybesiegedy Sclayonians.^ The Saracens had ^'' ' * ^-inaDdated Asia Minor with their armies,and were pre-aring

to extirpatehristianityn the East. Such wasthe crisisat which Leo was proclaimedmperor by thearmy, m Amorium, a.d. 716.

Yet there were peculiareatures in the condition of thesurvivingopulation,nd an inherent vigourin the prin-iples

of the Roman administration,hat stilloperatedpowerfullyn resistingoreignomination. The peoplefeltthe necessityf defendinghe administrationof thelaw,and of upholdingommercial intercourse. The tiesof in-erest

consequentlyangeda largebody of the inhabit-ntsof every provinceround the central administration

at this hour of diflBculty.he very circumstances whichweakened the power of the court of Constantinople,on-erred

on the peoplen increase of authority,nd enabledthem to take effectual measures for their own defence.This new energy may be traced in the resistance whichRavenna and Cherson offered to the tyrannyof JustinianII. The orthodox church,also,served as an additionalbond of union among the people,nd throughoutthewide extent of the imperialominions,its influences con-ected

the local feelingsf the parishwith the generalinterestsof the church and the empire. These misfor-unes,

which broughtthe state to the verge of ruin,relieved commerce from much fiscal oppressionndmany monopolies.Facilities were thus givento trade,which afforded to the populationf the towns additionalsources of employment. The commerce of the EasternEmpirehad alreadygainedby the conquestsof the bar-arians

in the West, for the rulinglassesin the countries,conqueredby the Goths and Franks rarelyngagedintrade or accumulated capital. he advantageof pos-

^ Theophtnes,820.' TMi, JOt ThmoUomica tyuique Agro,proL xoiy.* This hct ezpUaxiBthe inorease in the nombera of the Jews, and theiroom-


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BOOK I. sessingsystematicdministrationofjustice,nforced bj^' ^ * ^' a fixed legalrocedure,ttached the commercial classes

and the to^n populationo the person of the emperor,whose authorityas considered the fountain of legalorder and judicialmpartiality.fixedlegislation,ndan uninterrupteddministrationof justice,reventedhepoliticalnarchythat prevailednder the successors ofHeraclius from ruiningsocietyn the Roman empire;while the arbitraryudicialower of provincialovernors,in the dominions of the caliphs,endered propertyin-ecure,

and undermined nationalwealth.There was likewise another feature in the Eastern

Empire which deserves notice. The number of townswas very great,and theywere generallyore populousthan the politicaltate of the countrywould lead us toexpect. Indeed,to estimate the densityf the urbanpopulation,n comparisonith the extent of territoryfrom which it apparentlyerived its supplies,e mustcompare it with the actual condition of Malta andGuernsey,r with the state of Lombardyand Tuscanyin the middle ages. This densityf population,oinedothe greatdifferencein the pricef the producef the soilin various places,fibrded the Roman government thepower of collectingrom itssubjectsn amount of taxa-ion

unparalleledn modem times,except in Egypt.^The whole surplusrofitsf societyere annuallyrawnmeroial importance,n the eeyenth century. The conqueredRomans werebound to their corporationsy their own law,to which theydung,and ahnostto the trades of their fathers;for the Romans were serfs of their corporationsbefore serfdom was extended by their conquerors to the soil. Compare God.Theodot. lib.x. t. 20,1.10, with Cod, Juaiin. lib.xi. t 8,and lib.xi x. 8. Oneof the three ambassadors sent by Charlemagneto Haroun Al Rashid was aJew. He was doubtless chargedwith the commercial businesa

^ The peculiaritiesn Egypt,which enabled the goTemment of MehemetAll to extract about two millions sterlingnnuiJlyfrom a populationf twomillions of paupers, were the followingThe surplusn the produceof thecountrymakes the priceof the immense quantityroducedin Upper EgyptTeiy low. Gk)yemment can, consequently,ither imposea tax on the produceof the upper countryequalto the difference of priceat Siout and Alexandria,lees the expense of transport,r it can constitute itselfthe sole master of thetransportn the Nile,and make a monopolyboth of the rightof purchaseandof freight.The expense of transportistrifling,s the stream carries a loaded


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Ch. 1. 1 1.

OPINIONS ON BYZANTINE HISTORY.

into the coffersof the state,leaviDghe inhabitantsonlya book t.bare sufficiencjor perpetuatinghe race of tax-payers.History,ndeed,shows that the agriculturallasses,romthe labourer to the landlord,ere unable to retainpos-ession

of the sayingsequiredo replacehat depreciationwhich time is constantlyroducingn all rested capital,and that theirnumbers graduallyiminished.

After the accession of Leo III.,a new condition ofsocietys soon apparent; and thoughmany old politicaleyilscontinued to exist,t becomes evident that a greaterdegreeof personaliberty,s well as greatersecurityorproperty,as henceforth guaranteedo the mass of theinhabitants of the empire. Indeed,no other gOTernmentof which historyas preservedhe records,nless it bethat of China,has secured equaladvantageso itssubjectsfor so longa period.The empiresf the caliphsnd ofCharlemagne,though historians have celebrated theirpraisesoudly,annot, in their best days,compete withthe administrationorganisedy Leo on this point andboth sank into ruin while the Byzantinempirecontinuedto flourishin full vigour.It must be confessed thateminent historianspresenta totallyifferent picturefByzantinehistoryo their readers. Voltaire speaksof itas a worthless repertoryf declamation and miracles,is*gracefulo the human miud.^ Even the sagaciousib-on,

after enumeratingith justpridethe extent of hisboat steadilyown the river,while the north wind drives an empty one upagainstthe current,almost with the regularityf a locomotive engine. TheNile offers,n this manner, allthe advantagesof a railway,nature havingcon-tructed

the road, and suppliedhe locomotive power ; while a monopoly oftheir use is vested in the hands of every tyrant who rules the country. Me-hemet Ali, not content with this,created an almost universal monopoly infavour of his government. The whole produceof the country was purchasedata tariffprice,the cultivator beingonlyallowed to retain the means of perpetu-tinghis class. The number of towns and the densityof populationn theByzantineempire arose from the immense amount of capitalhich ages of se*curityhad expendedin improving the soil,nd from its cultivation as garden-Und with the spade and mattock. Both these facts are easilyroved.

Le PyrrhomUme de Cffittoire,hap.xv. note 1. With this remark, the re-ordsof an empire,which witnessed the riseand fallof the Caliphsand the Car-loringians,re dismissed by one who exclaimed,** J*6terai aax natiom U bandeau

di terreur.'*


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BOOK I. labours^dds,'' From these considerations,should hare^'''^' abandoned without regretthe Greek slaves and their

servilehistorians,ad I not reflectedthat the fate of theByzantineonarchyis passivelyonnected with the mostsplendidnd importantevolutionswhich have changedthe state of the world/'^ The views of Byzantineis-ory,

unfolded in the followingages, are frequentlyndirectoppositiono these greatauthorities. The defectsand vicesof the politicalystemwillbe carefullyoticed,but the splendidchieyements of the emperors, and thegreat merits of the judicialnd ecclesiasticalstablish-ents,will be contrasted with theirfaults.

The historyf the Byzantinempiredivides itselfintothree periods,tronglyarked by distinctcharacteristics.

The firstperiodommences with the reignof Leo III.in 716, and terminates with that of Michael III. in 867.It compriseshe whole historyf the predominancef theIconoclastsin the establishedchurch,and of the reactionwhich reinstatedthe orthodox in power. It opens withthe eflfortsby which Leo and the peopleof the empiresaved the Roman law and the Christian religionrom theconqueringaracens. It embraces a longand violentstruggleetween the government and the people,heemperors seekingo increase the central power by anni-ilating

every local franchise,nd even the rightf pri-ateopinion,mong theirsubjects.The contest concern-ngimage-worship,rom tlieprevalencef ecclesiasticalideas,became the expressionf this struggle.ts objectwas as much to consolidatethe supremacy of the imperialauthority,s to purifyhe practicef the church. Theemperors wished to constitute themselves the fountainsofecclesiasticals completelys of civillegislation.

The longand bloodywars of this period,nd thevehement character of the sovereignsho filledthe

i Dtclme and FaU, cfaiap.lviii


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BOOK I. tioch and Edessa were reunited to the empire.The^- ' ' ^' Bulgarianmonarchywas conquered,nd the Danube

became againthe northern frontier. The Sclavoniansin Greece were almost exterminated. Byzantineom-erce

filledthe whole Mediterranean,and legitimatedthe claim of the emperor of Constantinopleo the titleofAutocrat of the Mediterranean sea.^ But the real gloryof thisperiodonsistsin the power of the law. Respectfor the administration of justiceervadedsocietyore

s generallyhan it had ever done at any precedingeriodof the historyf the world a fact which our greatesthistorianshave overlooked,houghit is all-importantnthe historyf human civilisation.

The third periodxtends from the accessionof Isaac I.(Comnenus)n 1057, to the conquestof the Byzantineempireby the Crusaders,in 1204. This is the trueperiodf the decline and fallof the Eastern Empire. Itcommenced by a rebellion of the greatnobles of Asia,who effectedan internal revolutionin the Byzantinem-ire

by wrenchinghe administrationout of the hands ofwell-trained oflBcials,nd destroyinghe responsibilitycreatedbysystematicrocedure.A despotismupportedby personalnfluence soon ruined the scientificfabricwhich had previouslypheldthe imperialower. Thepeopleere groundto the earth by a fiscalrapacity,verwhich the splendourf the house of Comnenus throws athin veil. The wealth of the empireas dissipated,tsprosperityestroyed,he administration of justiceor-upted,

and the central authorityost allcontrol over thepopulation,hen a band of 20,000 adventurers,askedas crusaders,ut an end to the Roman empireof theEast.

In the eighthnd ninth centuries the Byzantinempire^ Constant Porpbyr.De Them. ii.27 Aia rh riv AvroKparopa Kavrayrufov'

TToXcooff6akafTax)KpaTtivUxpirSuf 'HpcucKtofriXoiVoi ndarit6fiovtjsh^


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VARIOUS NATIONS IN THE EMPIRE. 13

continaed to embrace many natioDs differingrom the booki.Greeks in languagend manners* Even in religionhere ^^^^^'was a strong tendencyto separation,nd many of theheresiesnoticed in historyssumed a nationalcharacter,while the orthodox church circumscribed itselfmore andmore within the nationalityf the Greeks,and forfeiteditsecumenical characteristics.The empirestillincludedwithin its limits Romans, Greeks,Armenians,Isaurians,Lycaonians,Phrygians,Syrians,nd Gallo - Grecians.The greatThracian race, which had once been inferiorinnumber onlyto the Indian,and which,in the firstcenturyof our era, had excited the attention of Vespasiany theextent of the territoryt occupied,ad now almost dis-ppeared.^

The countryit had formerlynhabited waspeopledby Vallachian and Sclavonian tribes. A dimin-shed

Greek and Roman populationurrived in the towns,while the Bulgarians,Turkish tribe,uled as the domi-ant

race from Mount Hemus to the Danube. Therange of Mount Hemus generallyormed the Byzantinefrontier to the north, and its mountain passes wereguardedby imperialarrisons. clavonian colonieshadestablishedthemselves over all the Europeanprovinces,and had even penetratednto the Peloponnesus.hemilitaryovernment of Strymon,above the passes in theplainof Heraclea Sintica,as formed to prevent thecountry to the south of Mounts Orbelos and Skomiosfrom becomingn independentclavonian province.

The provincialivisionsof the Roman empirehadfalleninto oblivion. A new geographicalrrangementinto Themes appears to have been establishedby Hera-clius,hen he recovered the Asiatic provincesrom thePersians : it was reorganisedy Leo, and endured as

* Herodotus, v. 3. Eustathius Thess.,Comm. in Dionys,PerUgetemy. 823.The connection between the Vallachian and Thracian races is noticed in thesecond yolume,p. 277.' The country within Mount Hemus, called Zagora,as onlyceded to theBulgariansn the reignof Michael IIL Cont.,Scrip,pat Tkeoph.,02. Sy-meon Log.,440. Cedrenus,i.446 ; ii.541.


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14 ICOKOOLAST PBBIOD.

BOOK I. longas the Byzantinegovernment. The number ofciLML ji^gm^gyaried at diflferentperiods.The Emperor Con-tantino

Porphyrogenitus,ritingbout the middle ofthe tenth century,counts sixteen in the Asiatic portionof the empire,nd twelve in the European.

Seven great themes are particularlyrominentn AsiaMinor, Optimaton,Opsikion,he Thrakesian,the Ana-olic,

the Bukellarian,he Kibyrraiot,nd the Arraeniae.In each of these a largemilitaryorce was permanentlymaintained,under the command of a generalf the pro-ince

; and in Opsikion,he Thrakesian,and the Kibyr-aiot,a naval force was likewise stationed under its ownofficers.The commanders of the troops were calledStrategoi,hose of the navy Drungarioi.Several sub-rdinate

territorialivisions existed,alled Tourms, andseparatemilitaryommands were frequentlystablishedfor the defence of importantasses, traversed by greatlinesof communication,called Kleisouras. Several ofthe ancient nations in Asia Minor stillcontinued to pre-erve

their national peculiarities,nd this circumstancehas induced the Byzantineriters frequentlyo mentiontheir countryas recognisedeographicalivisionsof theempire.

The Europeanprovincesere divided into eightonti-entaland five insular or transmarine themes,until the

loss of the exarchate of Ravenna reduced the number to^ The term thema was firstappliedto the Roman legion.The militarydia-tricta,arrisonedby legions,ere then called tkemata,and ultimatelythe word

was used merely to indicate geographicaldministrative diTisions. Ducange,Ql4 8aarium med. et inf.GracUatU,

The Asiatic themes were 1. Anatolikon,includingpartsof Phrygia,Ly-caonia,Isauria,Pamphylia,and Pisidia. 2. Tht jirmeniae,includingPontuaand Cappadocia.8. The Thraketian,part of Phrygia,Lydia,and Ionia. 4.Opsikion,Mysia,and part of Bithyniaand Phrygia. 5. Opiimaton,he part ofBith3rniatowards the Boephorus. 6. Bukellarion,Galatia. 7. PapfUagonia.8. Chaldia,the country about Trebizond. 9. Mesopotamia he triflingos-essions

of the empire on the Mesopotamian frontier. 10. Eoloneia,the coun-rybetween Pontus and Armenia Minor,through which the Lycus flows,ear

Neoccesarea. 11. Sebasteia,he second Armenia. Scrip,post TheopK,112.12. Lyoandos, theme formed by Leo VI. (theWise) on the borders of Arme-ia.

18. The Kibyrraiot,aria,Lycia,and the coast of Cilicia. 14. Cyprus.15. Samos, 16. The jEyean. Cappadocia is mentioned as a theme. Scrip.


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LEO THB ISAUKIAN, 717-741. 15twelve. Venice and Naples,houghtheyacknowledged a. d.the suzeraintyf the Eastern Empire,acted generallys ^^^^independentities. Sardinia was lost about the time ofLeo^s accession,nd the circumstances attendingts con-uest

by the Saracens are unknown.The ecclesiasticalivisions of the empireunderwent

frequentodifications ; but afterthe provincesf Epirus,Greece,and Sicilyere withdrawn from the jurisdictionof the Pope,and placedunder that of the Patriarch ofConstantinopley Leo III.,that patriarchatembracedthe whole Byzantineempire. It was then divided into52 metropolitanioceses,hich were subdivided into649 sufiraganishopricks,nd 13 archbishopricks,nwhich the prelatesere independent{a{noK i aXoi),utwithout any sufiragans.here were, moreover, 34titulararchbishops.^

SECT. II. ^BBIGN OP LEO IIL (THE ISAURUNX A.D. 717-741.

SaRACEIV war SnSOB of CoSTSTAWTINOPLE ClBCUMSTANOES FAVOURABLETO Leo's reforms Fables concerning Leo Miutart, financial,AND legal reforms ECCLESIASTICAL POLICY REBELLION IN QrEECS Papal opposition Physical phenomena.

When Leo was raised to the throne,the empirewasthreatened with immediate ruin. Six emperors had beenpottTheopk.112 ; and Oharsiania,enesiut,6. They had formed partof theArmeniao theme.

The twelve European themes were 1. Thrace. 2. Macedonict. 3. Str^f-mon. 4. Theuaioniea. 5. Bellas. 6. Pelopovnesut.. CephalleHia.. Nico-pdis. 9. Dprrachium. 10. JSicilif.1. Longibardia{CaiahnBi.).2. Cherton.The islands of the Archipelago,which formed the 16th Asiatic theme, werethe usual station of the European naval squadron,under the command of aDrungariof.They are often called Dodekannesos,and their admiral was anofficerof consideration at the end of the eighth century. TheophaneSfZ^Z.The listof the themes givenby Constantine Porphyrogenituss traditional,otfrom officialdocuments. Cyprus and Sicilyhad been conquered by the Axabslongbefore he wrote.

^ Compare Codinus,Notitias Ortxcorum Episeopatvm,ith the index to thefirstvolume of Lequien,Oriena Christianua,

* The most complete work on the historyof the Iconoclast periodis thatof Schlosser,OeswichU der BildenlUrmenaen Kaiser,1812. It is a work oflearningnd originalesearch.


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BOOK , dethroned within the space of twenty-one years. Of^' '' * * these,our perishedythe hand of the publicxecutioner,^

one died in obscurity,fter beingdeprivedf sight,ndthe other was onlyallowed to end his dayspeacefullyna monastery,because Leo feltthe imperialceptrefirmlyfixed in his own grasp.'Everyarmy assembled to en-ounter

the Saracens had broken out intorebellion.TheBulgariansnd Sclavonians wasted Europe up to thewallsof Constantinoplethe Saracens ravagedthe wholeof Asia Minor to the shores of the Bosphorus.

Amorium was the principalityof the theme Anato-likon.^ The CaliphSuleiman had sent his brother,Moslemah, with a numerous army, to completehe con-uest

of the Roman empire,hich appearedto be anenterprisef no extraordinaryifficulty,nd Amoriumwas besiegedy the Saracens. Leo, who commandedthe Byzantineroops,requiredome time to concert theoperationsy which he hopedto raise the siege.o gainthe necessary delay,e openednegotiationsith the in-aders,

and,under the pretextof hasteninghe conclusionof the treaty,e visited the Saracen generalngagedinthe siegeith an escort of only500 horse. The Saracenswere invited to suspendtheir attacks until the decisionof Moslemah who was at the head of another divisionofthe Mohammedan army could be known. In an inter-iewwhich took placeith the bishopnd principalnha-itants

of Amorium, relatingo the profierederms, Leocontrived to exhort them to continue their defence,ndassured them of speedysuccour. The besiegers,ever-heless,

pressedorward theirapproaches.Leo, after hisinterviewwith the Amorians, proposedhat the Saracengeneralhould accompany him to the headquartersf

^ Leontius,Tiberias III. (Apsimar),ustinian II.,hilippicus.* Anastasius II. Theodosius III.* Amorium was at the ruins called HerganKaleh. Hamilton,Researches inAsia Minor,I 452. Leake's Tour in Asia Minor,86.


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BOOK I. Spain,the order of Suleiman were implicitlybeyed.ch^2. tjj^ recent conquestsof Spainin the West, and of Fer-ana,Cashgar,nd Sind in the East,had animated the

confidence of the Mohammedans to such a degreehat noenterpriseppeareddifficult.The army Moslemah ledagainstonstantinopleas the best-appointedhat hadever attacked the Christians : it consisted of eightythou-and

warriors. The caliphannounced his intention oftakingthe fieldin person with additional forces,houldthe capitalf the Christians offer a protractedesistanceto the arms of Islam. The whole expeditions said tohave employedone hundred and eightyhousand men ;and the number does not appear to be greatlyxagger-ted,

ifit be supposedo include the sailorsof the fleet,and the reinforcements which reached the camp beforeConstantinople.^

Moslemah, after capturingPergamys,marched toAbydos,where he was joinedby the Saracen fleet. Hethen transportedis army across the Hellespont,nd,marchingsJongthe shore of the Propontis,nyested Leoin his capitaloth by land and sea. The strongwalls ofConstantinople,he enginesf defence with which Ilomanand Greek art had covered the ramparts,and the skillofthe Byzantinengineers,endered every attemptto carrythe placeby assault hopeless,o that the Saracens werecompelledo trust to the effect of a strict blockade forgainingpossessionf the city.They surrounded theircamp with a deepditch,nd strengthenedtwith a strongdyke. Moslemah then sent out largedetachments tocollectforageand destroyhe provisions,hich mightotherwise find their way into the besiegedity. The

* Compare Constantine Porphyrogenitus,De Adm. Imp.cliap.1, p. 74,with.Woil,GeschicJtteder Ckalifenf.566^^571,ote, and Price,Makommedan Empire,i.518. These numbers enable us to estimate the credit due to the Westernchronicles concerningthe plunderingexpeditionof Abd-el- Rahman into France,which was defeated by Charles MarteL Paulus Diaconus, lib. vi. chap. 47,says that three hundred thousand Saracens perishedduring the siegeofConstantinople.


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BOOK I. The besiegersncampedbefore Constantinoplen thech^2. igjjjAugust 717. The CaliphSuleiman died before hewas able to send any reinforcementsto his brother. Thewinter provedunusuallyevere. The countryall roundConstantinopleemained covered with deep snow formany weeks.^ The greaterpartof the horses and camelsin the camp of Moslemah perishednumbers of the bestsoldiers,ccustomed to the mild winters of Syria,iedfrom havingneglectedo take the requisiterecautionsagainst northern climate. The difficultyf procuringfood ruined the disciplinef the troops. These misfor-uneswere increased by the untimelyeath of tlie ad-iral,

Suleiman. In the mean time,Leo and the inha-itantsof Constantinople,avingmade the necessarypreparationsor a longsiege,assedthe winter in secu-ity.

A fleet,ittedout at Alexandria,broughtsuppliesto Moslemah in spring.our hundred transports,scortedby men-of-war,sailedpastConstantinople,nd, enteringthe Bosphorus,ook up their station at Kalos Agros.^Another fleet,lmost equallyumerous, arrived soon afterfrom Africa,and anchored in the bayson the Bithyniancoast.^ These positionsendered the current a protec-ion

againsthe fireshipsf the garrisonf Constantin-ple.The crews of the new transportsere in great

part composedof Christians,nd the weak condition ofMoslemah's army filledthem with fear. Many conspiredto desert. Seizinghe boats of their respectiveesselsduringthe night,numbers escapedto Constantinople,where theyinformed the emperor of the exact dispositionof the whole Saracen force. Leo lost no time in takingadvantageof the enemy'sembarrassments. Fireships

* Theophanes,882,and NicephorusPat 85,with the ordinaryove of themarvellous,ay the snow covered the ground for a hundred days.' Buyuk*der6,nd not a placein Bithynia,s Lebeau, xii. 118,and Schloaser,151, infer from NicephorusPat. 35. See Ducange,Comt. C%rt r. 177 ; andGyllius,e Bosph.Throe, ii.chap,zviii.p. 801.' Theophanes,882, says this fleetconsisted of 860 transports. It anchoredat Satyros,ryas,and Kartalimen.


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SARACEN WAR. 21

were sent with a favourable wind among the transports, a d.while shipsof war, furnished with enginesor throwing'^^J^-Greek fire,ncreased the confusion. This bold attackwas successful,nd a part of the naval force of theSaracens was destroyed.Some shipsfella prej to theflames,some were driven on shore,and some were cap-uredhj the Byzantinesquadron.The blockade wasnow at an end, for Moslemah's troopswere dyingfromwant, while the besiegedere livingn plenty but theSaracen obstinatelyersistedn maintainingossessionfhis camp in Europe. It was not until his foragingar-ieswere repeatedlyut off,nd all the beasts of burdenwere consumed as food,that he consented to allow thestandard of the Prophetto retreat before the Christians.The remains of his army were embarked in the relicsofthe fleet,nd on the 15th of August 718, Moslemabraised the siege,fter ruiningne of the finestarmies theSaracens ever assembled,by obstinatelyersistingn ahopelessndertaking. he troopswere landed at Pro-connesus, and marched back to Damascus, throughAsiaMinor; but the fleet encountered a violent storm inpassingthroughthe Archipelago.The dispersedhipswere pursuedby the Greeks of the islands,nd so manywere lostor capturedhat onlyfiveof the Syriansquad-on

returned home.Few militaryetailsconcerningeo's defence of Con-tantinople

have been preserved,ut there can be nodoubt that it was one of the most brilliantexploitsf awarlike age. The Byzantinermy was superioro everyother in the art of defendingortresses. The Romanarsenals,n their best days,could probablyave suppliedno scientificor mechanical contrivance unknown to thecorps of engineersf Leo's army, for we must recollect

^ Theophanee, 884. Nicepborua Pat 85, however, says the si^e lastedthirteen months. The Mohammedan accounts report,that of the one hundredand eightythousand men who oomposed the expedition,onlythirtythousandreturned.


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BOOK I. that the educatiou,iscipline,nd practicef these engi-chm^2.j^pg jjj^jijggQ perpetuatedn uninterrupteduccessionfrom the times of Trajanand Constantine. We are notto estimate the decline of mechanical science by the de*gradationf art, nor by the decayof militaryower inthe field.^ The depopulationf Europerendered soldiersrare and dear,and a considerable part of the Byzantinearmies was composedof foreignercenaries. The armyof Leo, thoughfar inferior in number to that of Mos-lemah,was itsequalin disciplinend militarykill; whilethe walls of Constantinopleere garnishedith enginesfrom the ancient arsenals of the city,ar exceedingnpower and number any with which the Arabs had beenin the habit of contending.The vanityf Gallic writershas magnifiedhe success of Charles Martel over a plun-ering

expeditionf the SpanishArabs into a marveUousvictory,nd attributed the deliverance of Europefromthe Saracen yoketo the valour of the Franks. A veilhas been thrown over the talentsand courage of Leo, asoldierof fortune,ustseated on the imperialhrone,hodefeated the long-plannedchemes of conquestof thecaliphselid and Suleiman. It is unfortunate that wehave no Isaurian literature.

The catastrophef Moslemah*s army, and the state ofthe caliphateuringthe reignsof Omar II. and YesidII.,relieved the empirefrom all immediate danger,ndLeo was enabled to pursue his schemes for reorganisingthe army and defendingis dominions againstutureinvasions. The war was languidlyarried on for someyears, and the Saracens were graduallyxpelledrommost of their conquestsbeyondMount Taurus. In theyear 726, Leo was embarrassed by seditions and re-ellions,

caused by his decrees againstimage-worship.^ It was in the time of ConBtantius,.d. 857 that the largestbelisk at Rome

was transportedfrom Alexandria. It stands at St John Lateran, and is said toweigh 445 tons. (?) Sir Gardner Wilkinson makes the greetobelisk at Kamakweigh less than three hundred touB. Modem Egyptand T/iebe$,l 145.


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DEFEAT OF SID-AL-BATTAL, A.D. 739. 28Hescham seized the opportunity,nd sent two powerful a. d.armies to inyade the empire. Csesarea was taken by 7i7|74iMoslemab ; while another army, under Moawyah,pushingforward,laid siegeto Nicaea. Leo was well pleasedosee the Saracens consume their resources in attackingdistant fortress; but thoughtheywere repulsedeforeNicsea,theyretreated without serious loss,carryingflfimmense plunder. The plunderingxcursions of theArabs were frequentlyenewed by land and sea. In oneof these expeditions,he celebratedSid-al-Battalcarriedoff an individualwho was set up by the Saracens as apretendero the Byzantinehrone,under the pretextthathe was Tiberius,he son of Justinian II. Two sons ofthe caliphappearedore than once at the head of theinyadingrmies. In the year 739, the Saracen forcesponredinto Asia Minor in immense numbers, with alltheirearlynergy. Leo,who had taken the command ofthe Byzantinermy, accompaniedy his sou Constantine,marched to meet Sid-al-Battal,hose greatfame renderedhim the most dangerousnemy. A battle took placetAcromon, in the Anatolic theme, in which the Saracenswere totallyefeated. The valiant Sid, the most re-owned

championof Islamism^perishedn the field;but the fame of his exploitsas filledmany volumes ofMoslem romance, and furnished some of the talesthathave adorned the memory of the Cid of Spain,threehundred years afterthe victoryf Leo.^ The WesternChristianshave robbed the Byzantinempu:e of itsgloryin every way. After thisdefeatthe Saracen power ceasedto be formidable to the empire,ntil the energy of thecaliphateas revived by the vigorousdministration ofthe Abassides.

* Acrolnon was doubtless at Sid-el-aba2d,ine hours to the south of Eski-shehr (Dorylaeum),where the tomb of Sid-al-Battal-el-Ghazis stillshowu.Leake, Afia Minor, 21. Weil, GetchiehU der Chalifen, 638, calls the heroAbd Allah ; while d'Herbelot,BiblwtUqueOrientaU,voce Batthal,allshimAbu Mohammed. Theophimes, 345, callshim simplyBarak, See also Ham-er,

UiiUnrt dt V Empire Ottoman,par Hellert,.60,872.


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24 ICONOCLAST PBEIOD.

BOOK I. Leo's victoriesver the Mohammedans were an indis-ohj^2.pensabletepto the establishment of his personalutho-ity.

But the measures of administrativewisdom whichrendered his reign new era in Roman history,re itsmost importanteature in the annals of the human race.His militaryxploitsere the resultof ordinaryirtues,and of talents common in every age ; but the abilityoreform the internal government of an empire,n accord-nce

with the exigenciesf society,an onlybe appre-iatedby those who have made the causes and the pro-ress

of national revolutionsthe objectf longthought.The intellectualsuperiorityf Leo may be estimated bythe incompetencef sovereignsn the presentcentury tomeet new exigenciesf society.Leo judiciouslyvailedhimself of many circumstances that favoured his reforms.The inherent vigourhich is nourished by parochialndmunicipalesponsibilities,ound togetherhe remnants ofthe free populationn the eastern Roman empire,ndoperatedowerfullyn resistingoreignomination. Theuniversal respect felt for the administration of justice,and the generaleference paidto the ecclesiasticalsta-lishment,

inspiredhe inhabitantswith energiesantingin the West. Civilisationas so generallyiflPiised,hatthe necessityf upholdinghe civiland ecclesiasticalri-unals,

and defendingthe channels of commercial inter-ourse,reunited a powerfulodyof the peoplen everyprovinceo the central administration,y the strongesttiesof interestand feeling.

The oppressiveuthorityf the court of Constantinoplehad been much weakened by the anarchythat prevailedthroughouthe empirein the latter part of the seventhcentury. The government had been no longerable toinundate the provincesith those bands of officialshohad previouslyonsumed the wealth of the curia ; andthe local authoritiesin each cityhad been compelledoprovidefor its defence by assumingpowers hitherto re-


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CIECUMSTANCES PAVOUEABLB TO LEO. 25

seired to the imperialfficers. These new dutieshad in- a. d.spiredhe peoplewith new vigour,nd developednex- 7i7-74i.pectedtalents. The destructive responsibilityf fiscalguarantees,and the restrictions on individual action bywhich the administration of imperialome fettered theindustryf its subjects,rom the senator to the ticket-porter,were lightenedhen the Western Empire fellaprey to foreignonquerors, and when the Eastern becamefilledwith foreignolonists.^ The curialesand the cor-[K rationst lastrelievedthemselves from the attemptofthe Roman government to fixsocietyn a stationaryon-ition,and tliereliefwas followed byimmediate improve-ent.

Troubled times had also made the clergyoreanxious to conciliatepublicopinionthan officialavour.A better and more popularlassof bishopseplacedhe ,worldlyriestsatirisedby GregoryNazianzenos.^ Theinfluenceof this changewas very great,for the bishop,sthe defender of the curia,and the real head of the peoplein the municipality,njoyedextensive authorityver thecorporationsf artisans and the mass of the labouringpopulation.rom a judge he graduallycquiredhepower of a civilgovernor, and the curiabecame his senate.The ordinaryudicialribunalsbeingcut oflFfrom directcommunication with the supreme courts,peculiarocalusages gainedforce,nd a customary law arose in manyprovincesestrictinghe applicationf the code of Jus-inian.

The orthodox church alone preseiTedts unityof character,nd its priestsontinued to be guidedbyprinciplesf centralisation,hich preservedheir con-ection

with the seat of thepatriarchatet Constantinople,without injuringhe energeticpiritf theirlocalresist-nce

to the progress of the Mohammedan power. Through-utthe wide extent of the Eastern Empire,the priest-oodserved as a bond to connect the local feelingsf

* Compare Cvd, Tkeod, vi.11. De JSetiatoribus,nd xiv. xxil DeSaecariii,* Carmen, De EptteopU,. 150.


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BOOK L the parishwith the generalinterests of the orthodox^' *^ church. Its authorityas, moreover, endeared to a

largebody of the populationrom its languagebeingGreek, and from its holjlegendsembodyingnationalfeelingsnd prejudices.epulsives the lives of thesaints now appear to our taste,theywere the delightfmillions for many centuries.

From the earliestperiodto the presenthour, thewealth of most of the citiesin the East has been derivedfrom theirimportances pointsf commercial communi-ation.

The insane furyof the Emperor Justinian II.,in devastatinghe flourishingitiesof Ravenna andCherson,failed to ruin these places,ecause theywerethen the greatestcommercial intrepotsf the trade be-ween

India and Europe. The alarm felt for the ruinof commerce throughouthe Christian world,duringtheanarchythat existed in the last years of the seventh,andearlyears of the eighthcenturies,ontributed much torender men contented with the Arm government of Leo,even thoughthey may have considered him a heretic.On the other hand,the anarchyprevailingn the centraladministration had relieved commerce both from muchfiscaloppressionnd many officialmonopolies.The mo-ent

the financialburdens of the commercial classeswerelightened,heyexperiencedll the advantageof possess-ng

a systematicdministrationof justice,nforced by afixedlegalrocedure,nd consequentlyheyvery naturallybecame warm partisansf the imperialuthority,s, intheir opinion,he personalnfluence of the emperor con-tituted

the true fountain of legalorder and judicialimpartiality.fixed legislationaved societyrom dis-olution

duringmany yeara of anarchy.The obscure records of the eighthcenturyallow us to

discern throughtheir dim atmosphere considerableincrease of power in popularfeelings,nd they evenafibrd some glimpsesf the causes of this new energy.


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FABLES CONCBRNING LEO. 29

A.D.arents of Leo emigratedith their son to Mesembria inThrace. They were persons of sufficientwealth to make ^^ ^^^'the Emperor Justinian II. a presentof five hundredsheep s he was advancingo regainpossessionf histhrone with the assistance of the Bulgarians.his well-timed giftgainedyoung Leo the rank of spatharios,hepersonalavour of the tyrant,nd a highcommand on theLazian frontier. His prudenceand courage raised him,duringthe reignof Anastasius II.,o the command of theAnatolic theme.

But another historyf his life,nknown to the earlyhistorians,Theophanesand Nicephorus,hough boththese orthodox writers were his bitter enemies and de-ractors,

became current in after times, and deservesnotice as presentings with a specimenf the taleswhichthen fed the mental appetitef the Greeks.^ Somefables concerningis lifeand fortunes owe their existenceto the aversion with which his religiouspinionsereregardedby the Greeks. They supplyus, in allproba-ility,

with a correct portraituref the popularmind, buttheycertainlyo not furnish us with accurate materialsfor Leo's biography.Prodigies,rophecies,nd miracleswere universallyelieved. Restricted communicationsand neglectedducation were conductingocietyo aninfantine dotage. Everyunusual event was said to havebeen predictedy some propheticevelation ; and as thebelief in the presciencef futurityas universal,ublicdeceivers and self-deceiverswere alwaysfound actingthepart of prophets.It is said to have been foretold toLeontius that he should ascend the throne,by two monksempire who bad retained the greatestshare of their origiDalnationality.TheArmenians and Syrians,though numerous, were always regarded as strangersrather than hereditarysubjects. Theophanes, 327, 330, and Anastasius,Ut.128, call Leo a Syrian. He seems to have considered himself an Armenian,and he married hisdaughter to an Armenian.

^ Compare Theophanes,336, who has no objectionso calumniate Leo, withthe later writers,Cedrenus, 450 ; Zonaras,ii 103 ; Const Manasses,86 ; Glyoac^280 ; Leo Gramm., 178,edit. Bonn.


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BOOK I. and an abbot.^ The restoration of Justinian II. had^' *^ been announced to him,while he was in exile,y a hermit

of Cappadocia. Philippicusad itrevealed in a dream,that he was to become emperor ; and he was banished bjTiberius II. (Apsimar),hen this vision became publiclyknown.^ It is not,therefore,onderful that Leo shouldhave been honoured with communications from the otherworld; though,s mighthave been expectedrom hisheretical opinions,nd the orthodoxyf his historians,these communications are representedo have been madeby agentsfrom the lower rather than the higherregions.A circumstance which it is believed had happenedtothe CaliphYezid I.,provedmost satisfactorilyo theGreeks that Satan often transacted business publiclyymeans of his agents on earth. Two Jews for Jews aregenerallyelectedby the orthodox as the fittestagentsof the demon ^presentedhemselves to the caliphlaim-ng

the giftof prophecy.They announced that,if heshould put an end to the idolatrousworshipof imagesthroughoutis dominions,fate had predestinedim toreignfor fortyyears over a rich and flourishingmpire.Yezid was a man of pleasurend a bigot,o that theprophecyas peculiarlydaptedto flatterhis passions.The imagesand pictureshich adorned the Christianchurches were torn down and destroyedhroughouthecaliph^sominions. But Yezid was occupiedcarryinghis decree into execution when he died. His son, Moa-wyah II.,soughtthe Jewish prophetsin vain. Theprincef darkness concealed them from his search,ndtransportedhem into the heart of Asia Minor,wheretheyhad new services to perform.

A young man named Conon, who had quittedisnative mountains of Isauria to gainhis livings a pedlar

1 TheophaDes,807. NicephorusPat. 25. Theophanea, 813. Ih. 811,319.


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in the wealthierplains,rove his ass, laden with merchan- a. d.dise,to a grove of evergreen oaks near a bubblingoun- 7i7-74i.tain,to seek rest duringthe heat of the daj,and counthis recent gains.The ass was turned loose to pasturein the littlemeadow formed by the stream of the foun-ain,

and Conon sat down in the shade,by the chapelfSt Theodore, to eat his frugalmeal. He soon per-eived

two travellers restingike himself,and enjoyingtheir noontide repast. These travellersentered intoconversation with young Conon, who was a lad of remark-ble

strength,eauty,nd intelligence.hey allowed thefact to transpirehat they were Jews, prophetsandastrologers,ho had recentlyuittedhe court of thecalipht Damascus, which very naturallywakened inthe mind of the young pedlar wish to know his futurefortune,or he may have aspiredt becominga greatpost-contractorr a rich banker. The two Jews readilysatisfiedhis curiosity,nd, to his utter astonishment,n-ormedhim that he was destined to rule the Romanempire. As a proofof their veracity,he prophetsdeclared that theysoughtneither wealth nor honours forthemselves,ut theyconjuredonon to promisesolemnlythat,when he ascended the throne,he would put an endto the idolatryhich disgracedhristianityn the East.If he engaged to do this,they assured him that hisfulfillinghe will of Heaven would bringprosperityohimself and to the empire. Young Conon, believingthat the prophetsad revealed the will of God, pledgedhimself to purifythe Christian church ; and he keptthis promise,hen he ascended the throne as Leo theIsaurian. But as the prophetshad made no stipula-ion

for the free exercise of their own creed,and theirinterest in Christianityointedut the true faith,Leodid not consider himself guiltyf ingratitude,hen, asemperor, he persecutedhe Jewish religionith thegreatestseverity.


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BOOK I. Such is the fable bj which the later Bjzantineisto*caj^s.j^j^jjgxplainLeo*s hostilityo image-worship.his

adventure appearedto them a probableoriginof theecclesiasticaleforms which characteriseLeo's domesticpolicy.In the brightdays of Hellenic genius,uchmaterialswould have been woven into an immortal tale;the chapelf St Theodore, itsfountain,nd itsevergreenoaks,Conon drivingis ass with the two unearthlyewsrecliningn the shade,would have formed a picturem-ortal

in the minds of millions ; but in the hands ofignorantonks and purblindhroniclers,t sinks into adull and improbablearrative.Unfortunately,t isalmost as difficulto ascertain the

preciseegislativend executive acts by which Leo re-ormedthe military,inancial,nd legaladministration,

as it is to obtain an impartialccount of hisecclesiasticalmeasures.

The militarystablishmentof the empirehad graduallylostits national character,rom the impossibilityf re-ruitingthe army from among Roman citizens. In vain

the soldier'son was fettered to his father'sprofession,sthe artisanwas bound to his corporation,nd the pro-rietor

to his estate.^ Yet the superiorityf the Romanarmies seems to have suffered littlefrom the loss ofnational spirit,s longas strictdisciplineas maintainedin their ranks. For many centuries the majorityf theimperialorces consisted of conscriptsrawn from thelowest ranks of society,rom the rude mountaineers ofalmost independentrovinces,r from foreignersired asmercenaries ; yet the armies of all invaders,rom the

^ The tendency of Roman despotismto reduce societyto castes is remark-ble. Cod. Theod. vii.zxii. R. This feelingay be traced to the last days ofthe Byzantine power. Gemistos Plethon,in the projectsf reform at thebeginningf the fifteenthcentury,by which he hopedto save the Peloponnesusfrom the Turks,insists on the separationof the classes of soldiers and tax-ayers.

See his memorial on the State of the Peloponnesus,ddressed to thedespotTheodore,at the end of two books of Stobacus,publishedby Canter,printedby Christopherlantin,Antwerp,1575,folio,age 222.


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MILITABT BBFOBMS. 33Goths to the Saracens,ere repeatedlyefeated in pitched a. d.battles. The state maxims which separatedhe servants 7i^-74iof the emperor from the people,urvived in the Easternprovincesfterthe lossof the Western,and served as thebasis of the militaryolicyf the Byzantinempire,henreformed by Leo. The conditionsof soldierand citizenwere deemed incompatible.he law preventedhe citizenfrom assumingthe positionf a soldier,nd watched withjealousyny attemptof the soldierto acquirehe rightsand feelingsf a citizen. An impassablearrier wasplacedbetween the proprietorf the soil,ho was thetax-payer,nd the defender of the state,who was anagent of the imperialower.^ It is true that,after thelossof the Western provinces,he Roman armies wererecruited from the native subjectsf the empireto amuch greaterdegreethan formerly and that,afterthetime of Heraclius,it became impossibleo enforce thefiscalarrangementsto which the separationf the citizenfrom the soldierowed itsorigin,t leastwith thepreviousstrictness.^ Stillthe old imperialaxims were cherishedin the reignf Leo, and the numerous coloniesof Scla-vonians,and other foreigners,stablishedin the empire,owed their foundation to the supposednecessityf seek-ng

for recruitsas littles possiblerom among the nativepopulationf agriculturists.hese colonieswere governedby peculiaregulations,nd their most importantervicewas supplyingnumber of troopsfor the imperialrmy,Isauria and other mountainous districts,here it was

' A fixed number of conscriptsas drawn from each provinceafter the timeof Constantine ; and the proprietors,ho were prohibitedfrom servingin per-on,had to fiimish conscripts.They were aUowed to hire any freeman, beggar,or barbarian,with youth and strength.When the recruitment beciime stiUmore difficult,n account of the diminished popuktion,he Emperor Valenscommuted the conscriptionor a payment of Uurty-sizolidifor each conscript. CW. Tkeod. vii xiii.7.

' For the Roman legisUtionelatingo the army, see Cod, Juit, z. 82, 17 ;zL 48, 18; ziL 88,2,4. Dig,zliz. 16, 9, and 18. Colons and serfe were pro-ibitedfrom enteringthe army even at those periodsof publiccalamityhichdompelledthe government to admit slaves as recruits. The views of Gibbon(voLiL p. 824,Smith's edit.)equireo be modified.VOL. I. C


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36 ICONOCLAST PEBIOD.

BOOK I. immediate superinteudencef the treasury; and this^' *^ specialontrol over the finances was retained by his

successors, so that,duringthe whole duration of theByzantineempire,the emperors may be regardedstheirown ministers of finance. The grandLogothetes,who was the officialminister,as in realityothingmore than the emperor'srivateecretaryfor the de-artment.

Leo unquestionablymprovedthe centraladministration,hile the invasions of the Saracens andBulgariansade him extremelycautious in imposingheavyfiscalburdens on the distant citiesand provincesof his dominions. But his reforms were certainlyn-ended

to circumscribe the authorityf municipalndprovincialnstitutions.The free citiesand municipali-ies

which had once been intrusted with the duty ofapportioningheir quotaof the land-tax,nd collectingthe publicurdens of theirdistrict,ere now deprivedfthis authority.ll fiscalbusiness was transferred tothe imperialfficers. Each provincead itsown collec-ors

of the revenue, its own officialschargedo completethe registersf the publicburdens,and to verifyallstatisticaletails. The traditionsof imperialome stillrequiredhat this mass of information should be regu-arly

transmitted to the cabinet of the Byzantinem-erors,as at the birth of our Saviour.^

The financialacts of Leo's reign,houghtheyshowthat he increased the direct amount of taxation leviedfrom his subjects,rove nevertheless,y the generalm-rovement

which took placein the condition of thepeople,hat his reformed system of financialadministra-ion

reallyightenedhe weightof the publicurdens.^ Luke, chap,il t. 1. The Book of Accounts or tax tariffof Alexius I.,pub-ished

in the Analecta Gransa of the Benedictins,Pouget,Loppin,and Mont-faucon,Paris,1688, eni^tlQdj4fUiquumR UionariumAugu$ticnaris,proves byits title the uninterruptedransmission of Roman administratiTe traditions.Novel iii of John Comnenus in Leunclavius,Jus Oraco-Rotnanum, 147.Novel vi of Manuel 1 156. MontreuU, HisUnre du Droit ByzatUm^iii 107.


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FINANCIAL REFOBMS OF LEO. 37Still,here can be no doubt that the stringencyf the a. d.measures adoptedin Greece and Italy,orrenderinghe ^^J^-census more productive^as one of the causes of therebellionsin those countries,or which his Iconoclasticdecrees senred as a more honourable war-cry. In Gala*bria and Sicilye added one-third to the capitationhe confiscated to the profitf the treasury tributeofthree talentsand a halfof goldwhich had been remittedannuallyo Rome, and at the same time he ordered acorrect registero be keptof all the males born in hisdominions. This lastregulationxcites a burst of indig-ation

from the orthodox historian and confessor Theo-phanes,ho allows neitherhis reason nor his memory torestrainhis bigotryhen recordinghe acts of the firstIconoclast emperor. He likens Leo's edict to Pha-aoh's

conduct to the children of Israel,and adds thatthe Saracens,Leo's teachers in wickedness,had neverexercised the like oppression forgetting,n his zealagainsttaxation,hat the CaliphAbdelmelik had estab-ished

the haratch or capitationf Christians as earlyas the commencement of the reignof Justinian II.,A.D. 692.1

An earthquakehat ruined the walls of Constantin-ple,and many citiesin Thrace and Bithynia,nduced

Leo to adoptmeasures for supplyinghe treasurywitha specialund for restoringhem, and keepingtheirfortificationsonstantlyn a state to resistthe Bulga-ians

and Saracens. The municipalevenues whichhad once served for thispurpose had been encroachedupon by Justinian I.,and the policyf Leo led himto diminish in every way the sphereof action of alllocalauthorities.

The care of the fortificationsas undoubtedlydutyto which the centralgovernmentrequiredo giveitsdirect

1 Theophanes,843.


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38 ICONOCLAST PEBIOD.

BOOK I. attention;nd to meet the extraordinaryxpenditure^ ' ^^ caused by the calamitous earthquakef 740, an addition

of one-twelfthwas made to the census. This tax wascalled the dikeratonybecause the payment appears tohave been generallyade in the silver coins calledkeratia,wo of which were equalto a miliaresion,hecoin which representedne-twelfth of the nomisma, orgoldByzant. Thus a calamityhich diminished thepublicesources increased the publicurdens. In sucha contingencyt seems that a paternalovernmentand awise despotoughtto hare feltthe necessityf diminish-ng

the pomp of the court,of curtailinghe expenses ofecclesiasticalpageants,nd of reforminghe extravaganceof the popularamusements of the hippodrome,eforeimposingew burdens on the sufferingopulationf theempire.Courtiers,aints,nd charioteersoughtto have

been shorn of their splendour,efore the groans of theprovincesere increased. Yet Leo was neither a luxu-iousnor an avaricious prince;but, as has been saidalready,o despoticonarch can wiselyeasure theburden of taxation.

The influenceof the provincialpiritn the legislation^ Theophanea,845. Constan. Manaasee, 98. Gljcas,286, and the wordsl)6Kand Ktp^Tuwin Duoange's Oioitarivm Med. et InfimoercecikOU, It is

very difficultto determine which is the miliaresion,nd which the keration,among the coins of the lower empire we possess. I possess a medallion ofHeradius,and HeraoUus Constantino,.d. 613*641,which weighs 100 grains;another of Ck)nstantine IV. (Pogonatus),n bad preservation,hich weighsonly88. These would seem to be miliaresia,f which twelve were reckonedto a gold nomisma. Yet some think the silver coin of a smaller size is themiliaresion. Of these I possess two, well preserved,of John I.,Zimiskes, andof Basil IL,and Constantino YIIL, a.d. 970-1025,weighingeach 44 grains. Ifthe keration was the half of thb piece,fh m being once the commonest silve^coin, it has now become the rarest. Of twenty-livegoldnomismata in mypossession,he heaviest isone of Manuel I.,.d. 1143-1180. The next is a soli-dus of Aelia Yerina,a.d. 457-474,in fine preservation,ut which weighs only684 grains. Seventy-twoor seventy-fournomismata were coined out of thepound weightof gold,which contained 5256 Englishgrain Compare theobservations of Pinder and Friedlauder in their exoeuent dissertation,mMUnsen Juttinians,jy.2,with Const Porphyr.,De Ceremoniis AuIcb ByzantincB,i.459 ; iL497,edit Bonn. The present rarityof Byzantinesilveris no proofofits being rare formerly.It has been consumed in ornaments and base coin.The gold was preservedby itsvalue as a circulatingedium from Scandinaviato India.


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leg's bclooa. 89of the empireisstronglyarked in the historyf juris- a. d.prudenceduringLeo's reign.The anarchywhich had '^^J^^longinterruptedhe officialommunications between theprovincesnd the capitalent an increased authorityolocal usages, and threw obstacles in the way of theregulardministration of justice,ccordingo the strictletter of the voluminous laws of Justinian. The con-equence

was, that various local abridgmentsf the lawwere used as manuals,both by lawyersand judges,nthe provincialribunals,here the greatexpense of pro-uring

a copy of the Justinianean collectionprevented^its use. Leo published Greek manual of law,which vby itsofficialanction became the primaryauthorityn '^^//allthe courts of the empire. This imperialbridgmentis called the Ecloga it affords some evidence concern-ng

the state of societynd the classesof the peopleorwhich it was prepared.Little notice is taken of therightsf the agriculturiststhe variousmodes of acquir-ngpropertyand constitutingervitudes are omittedThe Eclogahas been censured for itsimperfectionsyBasil I.,the founder of a legislativeynasty,ho speaksof it as an insult to the earlierlegislators;et theorthodox lawgiver,hile he pretendedo rejectveryact of the hereticalIsaurian,servilelymitated all hispoliticallans. The brevitynd precisionf Leo'sEclogawere highlyappreciatedoth by the courts oflaw and the people,n spitef the heterodox opinionsfits promulgator.t so judiciouslyuppliedwant longfeltby a largeportionf society,hat neither the at-empt

of Basil I. to supplantt by a new officialanual,nor the publicationf the greatcode of the BasilikainGreek,deprivedtof value among thejurisconsultsf theByzantinempire.^

^ See the works of Zacharias,hose enlightenedriticism has shed lightnthis obscure periodf hiaXory.Hiitaria Jurii GrcBCO-Romani Delineatio,ucLC.B, Zaekanmt 14-41. O' irp6x'iipos6imos,eidelb.,]887 Svo, p. xviil c.EclogaLeonis et ComUiniiin,eipsig,852.


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40 ICONOCLAST PBRIOD.

BOOK I. The legislativeabours of Leo were not circumscribed^'^^^ to the publicationf the Ecloga. He seems to have

sanctioned various minor codes,by which the regulationsin use relatingo military,gricultural,nd maritime lawwere reduced into systematicrder. The collectionswhich are attached to the copiesf the Ecloga,nder theheads of military,gricultural,nd Rhodian laws,cannot,however,be considered as officialcts of hisreign still,theyare supposedo afiFords a correct idea of the origi-als

he published.ome abstractof the provisionson-ainedin the Roman legislationn militaryffairs,as

rendered necessary by the practicef maintainingorpsof foreignercenaries in the capital. militaryodewas likewise rendered necessary, in consequence of thechangesthat took placen the old system,as the Asiaticprovincesere graduallyleared of the invadingandsof Saracens.^ The agriculturalaws appear to be a tole-ably

exact copy of the enactments of Leo. The workbears the impressf the condition of societyn his time,and itis not surprisinghat the titlewhich perpetuatedthe merits and the memory of the heterodox Leo wassuppressedy orthodox bigotry.The maritime laws areextremelyinteresting,rom aflfordingpicturef thestate of commercial legislationn the eighthcentury,at the time when commerce and law saved the Romanempire. The exact date of the collectione possess isnot ascertained. That Leo protectedommerce, we mayinfer from its revivingnder his government; whetherhe promulgatedcode to sanction or enforce his reforms,or whether the task was completedby one of his succes-ors,

is doubtfulThe whole policyf Leo's reignhas been estimatedby his ecclesiasticaleforms. These have been severely

judgedby all historians,nd theyappear to have en-^ Montreuil,Utcin du Droit BtftatUin,898.


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ECCLESIASTICAL POLICY OP LEO. 41

coQDtered a violentoppositionrom a largeportionf his a. d.subjects.The genenddissatisfactionas preserveduf- ^^^ ^^''ficientauthentic information to allow of a candid exami-ation

of the merits and errors of hispolicy.Theophanesconsiders the aversion of Leo to the adoration of imagesas originatingn an impiousattachment to the unitarian-ism of the Arabs. His own pages, however,refute someof his calumnies,or he records that Leo persecutedheunitarianism of the Jews, and the tendencyo it in theMontanists.^ Indeed, all those who differedfrom themost orthodox acknowledgmentf the Trinity,eceivedvery littleChristiancharityt the hands of the Isaurian,who placedthe cross on the reverse of many of his gold,silver,nd copper coins,nd over the gatesof hispalace,as a symbolfor universal adoration. In his Iconoclastopinions,eo is merely type of the more enlightenedlaymenof his age. A strongreactionagainsthe super-titions

introduced into the Christian religiony the in-reasingignorancef the people,ervadedthe educatedclasses,ho were anxious to put a stopto what mightbeconsidered a revivalof the ideas and feelingsf paganism.The AsiaticChristians,ho were broughtinto frequentcollisionwith the followers of Mahomet, Zoroaster,ndMoses, were compelledo observe that the worshipofthe common peopleamong themselves was sensual,hencomparedwith the devotion of the infidels. The worshipof God was neglected,nd his service transferredto somehuman symbol. The favourite saint was usuallynewhose faults were found to bear some analogyto thevicesof hisworshipper,nd thus pardonwas supposedo

* Theophanes,836, 843. Montreuil,n his Ektoire du DroU Byzantin,S48,cites the law againsthe Jews and Montanists from Bonefidius,Jvri$ Orien-taHs Libri Tre$,and refers to Cedrenus. But most of the laws cited by Bone-fidius from Cedrenus wiU be found in Theophanes and the older Byzantinewriters,not publishedwhen Bonefidius made his compilationand referenceoughtto be made to these authorities. In this case, what is called a law seemsto have been a series of edicts. Theophanes say that the Jews submitted tobi^tiam and mocked the sacraments ; the more conscientious Montanistsburned themselTes in their placesf worriiip.


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BooKL be obtained for sin on easier terms than accords with^' ' ^ ^ Divine justice,nd rice was consequentlyendered more

prevalent.he clergyad yieldedo the popularigno-ance; the walls of churches were covered with pictures

which were reportedo have wroughtmiraculous cures ;their shrineswere enriched by paintingsot made withhands ; ^ the superstitionsf the peopleere increased,and the doctrinesof Christianityere neglected.PopeGregoryII.,in 4 letterto Leo, mentions the fact,thatmen expendedtheir estates to have the sacred historiesrepresentedn paintings.^

In a time of generalreform,and in a governmentwhere ecclesiasticscted as administrativeofficialsf thecentralauthority,t was impossibleor Leo to permitthechurch to remain quiteindependentn ecclesiasticalaffairs,nlesshe was preparedor the clergyssuminggradualupremacy in the state. The clergy,eingtheonlyclass in the administration of publicaffairscon-ectedwith the peopleby interest and feelings,asalwaysure of a powerfulopularsupport. It appeared,therefore,ecessary to the emperor to secure them assincereinstruments in carryingut allhis reforms,other-ise

there was some reason to fear that theymightcon-titutethemselves the leaders of the peoplein Greece

and Asia,as theyhad alreadyone at Rome, and con-rolthe imperisddministration throughouthe wholeEastern Empire,s completelys theydid in the Byzan-ine

possessionsn centralItaly.Leo commenced his ecclesiasticaleforms in the year

726,by an edict orderingll picturesn churches to beplacedo highas to preventthe peoplerom kissinghem,

^ ^AxuporroirjTO'othingcan better prove the extent to which saperstitionhad contaminated religionhan the assertion of the Patriarch Qermanos, thatmiracles were dailywroughtby the images of Christ and the saints,nd thatbeJsam distilled from the paintedhand of an image of the VirginMaiy.Neander,Historyof the CkriitianReligionnd Church (Torrey'sranslation),iU.206.

t Neander, iii.12.


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44 ICONOCLAST PEEIOD.

BOOK 1. Leo, to which localcircumstances,nnoticed byhistorians,^' ^^ gave peculiariolence,nd which the edictagainstmage-worshipfanned into a flame. The unanimityof all

classes,nd the violence of the popularealin favour oftheir local privilegesnd superstitions,uggestedhehope of dethroningeo, and placing Greek on thethrone of Constantinople.naval expedition,omposedof the imperialleetin the Cyclades,nd attended by anarmy from the continent,as fitted out to attack thecapital.Agallianos,ho commanded the imperialorcesstationed to watch the Sclavonians settledin Greece,wasplacedt the head of the army destined to assailtheconqueror of the Saracens. The name of the new em-eror

was Kosmas. In the month of Aprilthe Greekfleetappearedbefore Constantinople.t soon appearedthat the Greeks,confidingn the goodnessf theircause,had greatlyverrated their own valour and strength,rstrangelyverlooked the resources of the Iconoclasts.Leo met the fleetas it approachediscapital,nd com-letely

defeated it.Agallianos,ith the spiritf a hero,when he saw the utter ruin of the enterprise,lungedfullyrmed into the sea rather than surrender. Kosmaswas taken prisoner,ith another leader,nd immediatelybeheaded. Leo, however,treated the mass of the pri-oners

with mildness.^Even if we admit that the Greeks displayedonsider-blepresumptionn attackinghe Isaurian emperor, still

we must acceptthe fact as a proofof the populousondi-ionof the citiesand islands of Greece,and of the flou-ishing

condition of their trade,at a periodgenerallyrepresenteds one of wretchedness and poverty.Thoughthe Peloponnesusas filledwith Sclavonian emigrants,and the Greek peasantryere in many districtsexcluded

^ Tbeophanes,339, calls the iosurgentselladtkoi,and

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